Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (15)

2. From NITROBENZOL:--_a._ (Zinin.) An alcoholic solution of nitrobenzol, after saturation with ammonia, is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, until, after some hours, a precipitation of sulphur takes place; the brown liquid is then repeatedly saturated with fresh sulphuretted hydrogen, until no more sulphur separates, the reaction being aided by occasionally heating or distilling the mixture; an excess of acid is next added, and, after filtering the liquid, and the removal of the alcohol and unaltered nitrobenzol by ebullition or distillation, the residuum is lastly distilled with caustic potash, in excess. The ANILINE found in the receiver may be rendered quite pure by forming it into oxalate of aniline, repeatedly crystallising the salt from alcohol, and finally distilling it with excess of caustic potassa, as before.

The following is a cheaper and more convenient process; and probably the best, or one of the best, that has yet been invented for obtaining aniline:--

_b._ (M. Béchamps.) From nitrobenzol distilled along with basic protacetate of iron; or, what is better, by distilling a mixture of iron-filings, 2 parts, and acetic acid, 1 part, with about an equal volume of nitrobenzol, the reaction being assisted, whenever the effervescence flags, by the application of a gentle heat. The liquor found in the receiver consists of aniline and water, from which the first, forming the lower portion, is obtained, after sufficient repose in a separator; or more easily, by adding a very little ether, which by dissolving in the aniline, causes it to rise to the surface, when it is at once decanted. A very spacious glass or earthenware retort must be employed in the process, as the mass swells up violently; and it must be connected with the receiver, on the small scale, by means of a Liebig's condenser, and, on the large scale, by an ordinary worm-pipe and tub, kept in good action by a sufficient flow of cold water.

The apparatus for carrying out Béchamp's method was devised by Nicholson, and is exhibited in the subjoined plate.

"It consists essentially of a cast-iron cylinder (A) of 10 hectolitres (220 cubic gallons) capacity. A stout iron tube is fitted to this vessel, reaching nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. The upper part of this tube is connected with the machinery (G), while the surface of the tube is fitted with steel projections. The tube serves to admit steam, as well as acting as a stirring apparatus. Sometimes, instead of this tube, a solid iron axle is employed, and in this case there is a separate steampipe (D). Through the opening at K the materials for making aniline are put into the apparatus, while the volatile products are carried off through E. H serves for emptying and cleaning the apparatus. The S-shaped tube connected with the vessel B acts as a safety valve. When it is intended to work with this apparatus there is poured into it through K 10 parts of acetic acid at 8° B. (sp. gr. 1·060), previously diluted with six times its weight of water; next there are added 30 parts of iron filings, or cast-iron borings, and 125 parts of nitrobenzol, and immediately after the stirring apparatus is set in motion. The reaction ensues directly, and is attended by a considerable evolution of heat and vapours. Gradually more iron is added until the quantity amounts to 180 parts. The escaping vapours are condensed in F, and the liquid condensed in R is from time to time poured back into the cylinder A. The reduction is finished after a few hours."

3. From INDIGO:--Powdered indigo is added to a boiling and highly concentrated solution of caustic potash, as long as it dissolves and hydrogen gas is liberated; the resulting brownish-red liquid is evaporated to dryness, and the residuum is submitted to destructive distillation in a retort, which, owing to the intumesence of the mass, should be strong and spacious. The ANILINE is found in the receiver under the form of a brownish oil mixed with ammoniacal liquor, and by separation from the latter, and subsequent rectification, is obtained nearly colourless. It may be further purified, as in the preceding processes.--_Prod._ 18 to 20% of the indigo employed.

4. By fusing, with proper precautions, a mixture of isatine and hydrate of potassium (both in powder); a retort connected with a well-cooled receiver, being employed as the apparatus. Said by Profs A. W. Hofmann and Muspratt to be "the most eligible process for isolating" aniline.[65]

[Footnote 65: Muspratt's 'Chemistry,' i, 599.]

5. From anthranilic acid mixed with powdered glass or sand, and rapidly heated in a retort.

6. By treating an alcoholic solution of benzine with a little zinc and hydrochloric acid.

7. By heating phenyl-alcohol with ammonia in sealed tubes.

In Zinin's process the nitrobenzol is dissolved in alcohol, and the solution, after the addition of ammonia, is saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. After standing some time the solution deposits a large quantity of sulphur, and the liquid yields aniline.

Many other reducing agents have been proposed for the conversion of nitrobenzol into aniline, such as arsenite of sodium, powdered zinc, &c., but on the large scale they have all been found inferior to the process of Béchamp. Kremer's process consists in heating one part of nitrobenzol in a proper apparatus with five of water and two and a half of zinc dust. When the reaction is completed the aniline, amounting to about 65% of the weight of the benzol, is distilled off in a current of steam.

_Prop., &c._ A thin, oily, colourless liquid, with a faintly vinous odour, and a hot and aromatic taste; very volatile in the air; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; very slightly soluble in water; neutral to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alkaline reaction to dahlia-petal infusion and paper; dissolves camphor, sulphur, and phosphorus, and coagulates albumen; possesses a high refractive power; and precipitates the oxides of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions of their salts, and neutralises the acids, like ammonia. With the acids it forms numerous crystallisable compounds of great beauty, and which are easily formed, and are precisely analogous to the corresponding salts of ammonia. These, on exposure to the air, acquired a rose colour, in many cases gradually passing into brown. Its boiling-point is 359° to 360° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·028.

_Tests._--1. Chromic acid gives a deep greenish or bluish-black precipitate with aniline and its salts:--2. Hypochlorite of lime strikes an extremely beautiful violet colour, which is soon destroyed:--3. The addition of two or three drops of nitric acid to anhydrous aniline produces a fine blue colour, which, on the application of heat, passes into yellow, and a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed by explosion:--4. With bichloride of platinum it yields a double salt (platino-chloride of aniline) analogous to the like salt of ammonia. These reactions distinguish it from all other substances.

Commercial aniline is a mixture consisting in great part of aniline, paratoluidine (solid), and orthotoluidine in variable proportions. In addition it contains small amounts of metatoluidine, nitrobenzol, odorine, &c., but for all practical purposes it may be regarded as a mixture of aniline and toluidine. These anilines are obtained from a portion of the light coal-tar naphtha boiling between certain temperatures, by treating it first with nitric acid to convert it into the nitro-compounds, and then reducing these with iron and acetic acid, as already described under Béchamp's process. It is very plain that as the coal-tar naphtha contains variable proportions of benzol and toluidine, the resulting product must also vary in the quantities of aniline and toluidine it will contain. In order to distinguish between various samples of commercial aniline, Reimann submits them to fractional distillation and compares the results. He places 100 c. c. of the sample to be tested in a retort fitted with a thermometer and heated by means of an oil bath. The liquid as it distils is received in a narrow graduated cylinder, and the amount that passes over between every 5° C. (9° F.) is noted.

In order to obtain standards for comparison he first distilled a sample of light aniline, or kuphaniline, as he terms it, then one of heavy aniline or baraniline; afterwards mixtures of the two in varying proportions. In the accompanying table the results are given.

-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------
Centigrade {|K. 100 90 85 80 75 60 50 25 0
{|B. 0 10 15 20 25 40 50 75 100
-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------
Below 180° | 8-1/2 7 2-1/2 5-1/2 7 ... 7 5-1/2 ...
180°--185° | 54 50 29-1/2 22 5-1/2 7 4-1/2 2-1/2 2
185°--190° | 34 34 56-1/2 55-1/2 55-1/2 37 7-1/2 4-1/2 1-1/2
190°--195° | ... 5 7-1/2 8-1/2 15 33 42 17 8
195°--200° | ... ... ... ... 9 ... 19 36 18
200°--205° | ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 16 10 16 39
205°--210° | ... ... ... ... ... ... 3-1/2 8 19
210°--215° | ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 7
Residue | 3-1/2 4 4 8-1/2 3-1/2 7 6-1/2 5 5-1/2
-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------

To ascertain the quality of any sample it is only necessary to distil it in the manner already described, and compare the results with those in the above table.

(For further information consult Wagner's 'Chemical Technology,' Calvert's 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Stenhouse and Groves; Crooke's 'Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing,' Ure's Dictionary, edited by Hunt.)

_Uses_, _&c_. Chiefly in dyeing, for the production of colouring matter of various rich shades of purple and violet, some approaching pink, by the action of chromic acid; and of a splendid crimson, by the action of various oxidising agents. It forms the basis of the celebrated new dyes for silks lately patented by Mr W. H. Perkin, and others, and which are not only more delicate and gorgeous in tint, but also more permanent, than any produced by other substances.

Besides numerous salts, various substitution compounds of aniline have been formed, all of which possess vast scientific interest, and several are likely to prove of importance in the arts. See DYEING, INDIGO, TAR COLOURS, &c. (also _below_.)

=Aniline, Chro'mates of=. _Prep_. 1. (NEUTRAL CHROMATE.) From sulphate or oxalate of aniline and chromate of potash, by double decomposition.

2. (BICHRO'MATE:--Mr W. H. Perkin.) Sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potash, in equivalent quantities, are separately dissolved in water, and the solutions, after being mixed, are allowed to stand for several hours. The whole is then thrown upon a filter, and the black precipitate which forms is washed and dried. It is next digested in coal-tar naphtha (--? benzol), to extract a brown resinous substance; after which it is digested in alcohol, to dissolve out the colouring matter (BICHROMATE OF ANILINE), which is left behind on distilling off the spirit, as a coppery friable mass. Patented.

=Aniline, Cy'anide of=. Benzonitrile.

=Aniline, Ox'alate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. Obtained by saturating an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid with aniline; the salt separating as a crystalline mass. It is very soluble in hot water; much less so in cold water; only slightly soluble in alcohol; and insoluble in ether. It may be crystallised from hot water or boiling alcohol. Used chiefly to form other salts.

=Aniline, Sul'phate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}SO_{4}. Prepared by saturating aniline with dilute sulphuric acid, and gently evaporating the liquid until the salt separates. By re-solution in boiling alcohol, it crystallises out, as the liquor cools, under the form of very beautiful colourless plates, of a silvery lustre. It is freely soluble in water, and in hot alcohol; scarcely soluble in cold alcohol; and insoluble in ether. It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the new aniline dyes.

=ANIMAL'CULE= (-k[=u]le). [Eng., Fr.; pl. animal'cules.] _Syn._ ANIMAL'CULUM (pl., animal'cula[66]), L.; THIERCHEN, Ger. In _zoology_ and _physiology_, a microscopic animal, or one so extremely small, that it is either invisible, or not distinctly discernible, without the aid of a lens or microscope; more especially one that is not perceptible to the naked eye. "A mite was anciently thought the limit of littleness; but there are animals 27,000,000 of times smaller than a mite." A thousand millions of some of the animalcula found in common water are said to be collectively of less bulk than a single grain of sand; yet their numbers are so prodigious as sometimes to give the fluid they inhabit a pale red or yellow tinge. The milt of a single codfish is said to contain more of these minute animals than there are people in the whole earth. Animalcula were first scientifically observed by Leuwenhoek about the year 1677. Assisted by the microscope he unveiled, as it were, he created a new world for future naturalists and microscopists to explore.

[Footnote 66: Animalculæ for the plural, sometimes heard and met with, is a barbarism; yet one not wholly confined to the vulgar, for we find it in Vincent's edition of Haydn's admirable 'Dict. of Dates,' not merely twice, or oftener, in the text, but as a 'title-word,' and also in some other works where we might least expect it.]

"Take any drop of water," says Professor Rymer Jones, "from our rivers, from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and place it under the microscope; you will find therein countless living beings moving therein in all directions with considerable swiftness, apparently gifted with sagacity, for they readily elude each other in the active dance they keep up.... Increase the power of your glasses, and you will soon perceive inhabiting the same drop, other animals compared to which the former were elephantine in their dimensions, equally vivacious and equally gifted. Exhaust the art of the optician, strain your eyes to the utmost, until the aching sense refuses to perceive the little quivering movement that indicates the presence of life, and you will find that you have not exhausted nature in the descending scale."

Amongst the most remarkable discoveries of modern science must be reckoned that of fossil animalcules in such abundance as to form the principal part of extensive strata. This discovery is due to Ehrenberg, who found the Polierschiefer (the polishing slate or tripoli) of Bilin to be almost entirely made up of the siliceous shields of a minute fossil animalcule, the length of one of which is about 1/288th of a line, so that about 23,000,000 of animalcules must have gone to form a cubic line, and 41,000,000,000 to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg succeeded in discovering the formation of similar strata in deposits of mud at the bottom of lakes and marshes, the mud swarming with living animalcules, probably in their turn to be fossilised. The bergmehl, or mountain meal of Sweden and other parts of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of food, is entirely composed of the remains of animalcules; not merely, however, of their siliceous shields, for it contains a considerable per-centage of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer waters impregnated with iron, and their death gives rise to an ochreous substance in which iron is a principal ingredient.

=AN'IME= ([)a]n'-[)i]m-e). [Eng., L., Sp.] _Syn._ GUM-AN'IME, A.-RES'IN; ANIMÉ, Fr.; ANIMEHARZ, KOURBARILLHARZ, Ger.; COURBARIL, JUTAIBA, Nat. A pale brownish-yellow, transparent, brittle resin, which exudes from the _hymenæa courbaril_ (Linn.) or locust-tree, the _h. martiana_, and other species of hymenæa growing in tropical America. It contains about ·2% of volatile oil, which gives it an agreeable odour; melts without decomposition; is (nearly) insoluble in alcohol and in caoutchoucine, but forms a gelatinous mass in a mixture of the two. (Ure.) It burns readily, emitting a very fragrant smell. Sp. gr. 1·054 to 1·057.

_Uses, &c._ As a fumigation in spasmodic asthma; in solution as an embrocation; and in powder as a substitute for gum guaiacum. In this country it is chiefly employed to make varnishes and pastilles (which _see_).

=AN'ION= (-y'[)u]n--Br., We.; [)a]-n[=i]'-[)u]n--Smart). Literally, 'upward going,' in _electro-chemistry_, a substance which is evolved from the surface where the electrical current is supposed to enter the electrolyte; an electro-negative body, or one which passes to the positive pole, or anode, in electrolysis, as opposed to a CATION. See ANODE, IONS, &c.

=AN'ISATED.= _Syn._ ANISA'TUS, L.; ANISÉ, Fr. In _pharmacy_, the art of the liqueuriste, confectioner, &c., applied to articles or preparations impregnated or flavoured with aniseed.

=AN'ISE= (-[)i]s). _Syn._ ANI'SUM, PIMPINEL'LA A. (Linn.), A. OFFICINA'LE, L.; ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, GEMEINER ANIS, Ger. An annual plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ (DC.). _Hab._, Egypt, Scio, and the Levant; but largely cultivated in Malta, Spain, Germany, and various other parts of Asia and Europe. "A considerable quantity is cultivated at Mitcham, in Surrey, chiefly for the use of the rectifiers of British spirits." (Stephenson.) Fruit, aniseed. (See _below_.)

=AN'ISEED.= _Syn._ AN'ISE, AN'ISE-SEED; SEM'INA ANI'SI, FRUC'TUS A., L.; ANIS, A. VRAI, GRAINES D'ANIS, SEMENCE D'ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, ANISAMEN, Ger.; ANIS, Sp.; ANICE, It. The aromatic fruit or seed of the _pimpinella anisum_ just noticed.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Its aromatic properties depend on the presence of volatile oil. The seed and oil, and a spirit and a water prepared from them, are officinal in the pharmacop[oe]ias. Both the seed and its preparations are reputed stimulant, stomachic, carminative, pectoral, diuretic, and emmenagogue. They are commonly used to relieve flatulence and colicky pains, and to prevent the griping effects of certain cathartics; and they have long been popular remedies for coughs, colds, and other breath ailments. They are esteemed especially useful in warming the stomach and expelling wind, particularly during infancy and childhood; the distilled or flavoured water being usually employed. Nurses also take the latter to promote the secretion of milk, to which it at length imparts its peculiar odour and flavour. In _veterinary practice_ the powdered seed is used as a carminative, pectoral, and corroborant. The essential oil is said to be poisonous to pigeons. (Vogel; Hillefield.) Aniseed is principally used to flavour liqueurs, sweetmeats, and confectionery.--_Dose_ (of the powder), 10 gr. to 1 or 2 dr.; for a horse, 1/2 to 1 oz.; cattle, 3/4 to 2 oz.

_Pur., &c._ Powdered aniseed is nearly always adulterated, the adulterant being generally linseed meal. Sometimes, as for the horse, the latter is entirely substituted for it, a few drops of oil of aniseed being added to give it smell. The adulteration is not readily detected by the uninitiated, owing to the strong odour of aniseed; but readily by the microscope. The fruit of _myrrhis odorata_ (sweet cicily), and of _illicium anisatum_ (star-anise), also possess the odour and flavour of common aniseed; indeed, most of the essential oil now sold as 'oil of aniseed' is star-anise oil. See LIQUEURS, OILS, SPIRITS, WATERS, &c.

=Anise, Star'.= The fruit or seed of _illi''cium anisa'tum_ (Linn.), an evergreen tree growing in Japan and China. The odour and properties of both the seed and oil greatly resemble those of common anise. They are both employed by the liqueuriste. See ANISEED (_above_), &c.

=ANISETTE'= ([)a]n-[)i]z-[)e]t'). [Fr.] Aniseed cordial. See LIQUEURS.

=ANISOCHILUS CARNOSUM.= Nat. order LABIATÆ. An Indian plant. It is stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; is used in quinsy, and by the native doctors of Travancore in catarrhal affections. Dr Bidie, an Indian practitioner, characterises it as a mild stimulating expectorant, and as such particularly useful in the coughs of childhood. Its properties depend upon a volatile oil.

=ANISOMELES MALABARICA.= An Indian plant. Nat. order Labiatæ. Few plants are held in higher esteem, or more frequently employed in native practice in Southern India, than this. An infusion made of the leaves is very generally used in affections of the stomach and bowels, catarrhal complaints, and intermittent fevers.

Dr Wright says that in addition to its internal use in the case of fevers, patients are made to inhale the vapour of a hot infusion, so as to induce copious diaphoresis. An infusion of the leaves is reported to be powerfully diaphoretic, and to have been found very useful in the low continuous fevers of the natives. An oil obtained by distillation from the leaves is likewise stated to be an effectual external application in rheumatism.

=ANI'SUM.= Aniseed.

=ANNEAL'ING.= _Syn._ NEALING[dagger]§; LE RECUIT, Fr.; DAS ANLASSEN, Ger. The art of tempering by heat: appropriately, the process by which glass, porcelain, &c., are rendered less frangible, and metals which have become brittle by fusion, or long-continued hammering, again rendered tough and malleable.

Glass vessels, and other articles of glass, are annealed by being placed in an oven or apartment near the furnaces at which they are formed, called the 'leer,' where they are allowed to cool very slowly, the process being prolonged in proportion to their bulk.

Steel, iron, and other metals are annealed by heating them and allowing them to cool slowly on the hearth of the furnace, or in any other suitable place, unexposed to the cold. Steel is also annealed by being made red-hot, and in that state is placed in a heap of dry saw-dust till cold, when it will be found quite soft.

Cast-iron is rendered tough and malleable, without 'puddling,' by embedding it in ground charcoal or hæmatite, and thus protected, keeping it exposed at a high temperature for several hours, after which the whole is allowed to cool very slowly.

Prince Rupert's drop may be mentioned as an example of unannealed glass, and common cast-iron of unannealed metals, to which heads the reader is referred.

=ANNOT'TA.= _Syn._ ANOT'TO, ANNAT'TO, ANNAT'TA; ARNAT'TO, ARNOT'TO, &C.; ORLEA'NA, TER'RA O.*, &c., L.; ROUCOL, ROCOU, ROUCOU, Fr.; ORLEANS, Ger. A colouring matter forming the outer pellicle of the seeds of the _bix'a orella'na_ (Linn.), an exogenous evergreen tree, common in Cayenne and some other parts of tropical America, and now extensively cultivated in both the E. and W. Indies. It is usually obtained by macerating the crushed seeds or seed-pods in water for several weeks, ultimately allowing the pulp to subside, which is then boiled in coppers to a stiff paste, and dried in the shade. Sometimes a little oil is added in making it up into cakes or lumps. A better method is that proposed by Leblond, in which the crushed seeds are simply exhausted by washing them in water (--? alkalised), from which the colouring matter is then precipitated by means of vinegar or lemon-juice; the precipitate being subsequently collected, and either boiled up in the ordinary manner, or drained in bags and dried, as is practised with indigo. Annotta so prepared is said to be four times as valuable as made by the old process.

_Prop._ Good annotta is of a brilliant red colour; brighter in the middle than on the outside; feels soft and smooth to the touch; has a good consistence, and a strongly characteristic but not a putrid smell. It is scarcely soluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, and fats, to each of which it imparts a beautiful orange colour, and in alkaline solutions which darken it; acids precipitate it of an orange red hue; strong sulphuric acid turns it blue. Its most important property is the affinity of its colouring matter for the fibres of silk, wool, and cotton.

_Pur._ Annotta is very frequently adulterated; indeed, nearly always so. To what extent the sophistication of annotta is carried may be judged from the statement of Mr Blyth, who says that on examination of thirty-four samples of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English makers and as purchased from dealers, he found only two that were genuine. As annotta is often used to give colour to different articles of diet, it is important that it should be as pure as possible; otherwise injurious effects detrimental to health may be caused by partaking of any food to which it is added. Now, amongst the list of adulterants given below are three, at least, unmistakeable poisons, viz. red lead, orange chrome, and sulphate of copper. It is but right to state of the first of these substances (red lead) that Mr Blyth says it is extremely doubtful whether it is now employed to the extent it formerly was. He also ascribes its presence in annotta to the impure Venetian red which is used, the employment of this colour being a necessity because of the large quantities of flour and lime which are mixed with the annotta, which thereby becomes so reduced in colour that it is essential to have recourse to salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original standard. The adulterants are generally meal, flour, or farina, and often chalk or gypsum, with some pearlash and oil, or even soap, to give it an unctuous character; turmeric, Venetian red, red ochre, orange chrome, or even red lead, to give it 'colour,' and common salt, and sometimes even sulphate of copper, to prevent decomposition--the last two being poisonous. Sometimes a little carbonate of ammonia is also added to it to improve the colour. When quite pure it contains about 28% of resinous colouring matter, and 20% of colouring extractive matter (Dr John), and should leave only a small quantity of insoluble residuum after digestion in alcohol, whilst the ash resulting from its incineration should not exceed 1-1/2 to 2%. The quantity, colour, &c., of the ash will give an easy clue to the inorganic adulterants, if any are present, which may be then followed up by a chemical examination. The presence of red lead may be detected by heating it on a piece of charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe, by which a small bead of metallic lead will be obtained. If it contains chalk, ochre, gypsum, &c., the undissolved residuum of the washed ash gives the amount of the adulteration (nearly).

_Microscopical Examination of Annotta._--When annotta is subjected to a microscopical examination the outer red portion will be found to present an almost homogeneous appearance, whilst the surface of the seed proper will be seen to consist of narrow or elongated cells or fibres disposed in a vertical direction, while the inner white portion will be seen to be made up of cells filled with starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean.

When the annotta is manufactured, and an unadulterated sample is examined, but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen; and in those samples which in the course of their preparation have not been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may be observed.

Since annotta, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure, we are easily able, with the microscope at our command, to detect the presence of most foreign vegetable substances. These consist of turmeric powder, wheat, rye and barley starch, and sago flours. The salt and alkali present in the fraudulent annotta generally greatly alter the appearance of the turmeric. Most of the colouring matter of the cells is discharged, so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in a much enlarged condition, owing to the action of the alkali upon them.

The following process for conducting the assay of annotta is given by Mr Blyth:--

"In order to estimate the commercial value and detect adulteration in a sample, the quickest and best way is the following: Weigh accurately a gramme in a small platinum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of hours, then weigh; the loss is the water. Finely powder, and digest it for some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter and treat with successive portions of alcohol until all the colouring-matter is dissolved; filter, evaporate the filtrate down and weigh; the result is the resin. The insoluble portion will in a good commercial specimen consist of woody matter, extractive, gluten, &c. For the ash weigh another gramme in a platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder and burn until it ceases to lose weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on charcoal with carbonate of soda before the blow-pipe before burning it in a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annotta. The ash should then be submitted to the various reagents in order to detect lime, alumina, &c. A correct determination of ash and resin is all that is required to definitely pronounce upon the purity or impurity of the samples."

The following is the analysis of a fair commercial sample:--

The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar, but not disagreeable.

Water 24·2
Resinous colouring matter 28·8
Ash 22·5
Starch and extractive matter 24·5
----
100·0

The following is an analysis of an adulterated specimen. The sample was in a hard cake of a brown colour, with the maker's name stamped upon it, and marked "patent;" texture hard and leathery, odour disagreeable:

Water 13·4
Resin 11·0
Ash, consisting of iron, chalk,
salt, alumina, silica 48·3
Extractive matter 27·3
----
100·0

Thus, in the one the resin was 28%, the ash 22; in the other the resin was only 11%, the ash no less than 48%.

_Uses, &c._ To colour varnishes and lacquers; as a pigment for painting velvet and transparencies; as a colouring matter for cheese (1 _oz._ to 1 _cwt._ of curd), for which purpose it is not injurious, if pure; and as a dye-stuff for cotton, silk, and wool, particularly the second, to which it imparts a beautiful orange-yellow hue, the shade of which may be varied from 'aurora' to deep orange by using different proportions of pearlash with the water it is dissolved in, and by applying different mordants before putting it into the dye-bath, or different rinsing liquids afterwards. The hues thus imparted are, however, all more or less fugitive.

=Annotta Cake.= _Syn._ FLAG ANNOTTA; ORLEA'NA IN FO'LIIS, L. From Cayenne; bright yellow, firm and soft to the touch; in square cakes, weighing 2 or 3 _lbs._ each.

=Annotta Egg.= _Syn._ LUMP ANNOTTA; ORLEA'NA IN O'VULIS, L. Generally inferior.

=Annotta, Eng'lish.= _Syn._ TRADE A., REDUCED' A.; ORLEA'NA REDUC'TA, L. A fraudulent mess commonly prepared from egg or flag annotta, gum tragacanth, flour, or farina, chalk, soap, train-oil, Venetian red, or bole, common salt, water, mixed by heat in a copper pan, and formed into rolls. Sold for genuine annotta, from which it is readily distinguished by its inferior quality and its partial solubility in alcohol.

=Annotta, Liq'uid.= See SOLUTION OF ANNOTTA (_below_).

=Annotta, Pu''rified.= See ORELLINE.

=Annotta Roll.= _Syn._ Orlea'na in rot'ulis, O. IN BAC'ULIS, L. From the Brazils; hard, dry, brown outside, yellow within. When pure, this is the variety most esteemed, and the one preferred for colouring cheese.

=Annotta, Solu'tion of.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF ANNOTTA, EXTRACT OF A., ANNOTTA-DYE, &c.; SOLU'TIO ORLEA'NÆ, EXTRAC'TUM O., &c., L. A strong aqueous solution of equal parts of annotta and pearlash, the whole being heated or boiled together until the ingredients are dissolved. Sold in bottles. See ANNOTTA (_above_), NANKEEN DYE, &c.

=ANNUALS.= Plants which bear flowers and fruit in the same year when raised from seed.

=AN'O-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, upwards, &c.; as in anocathar'tic (emetic).

=AN'ODE.= Literally, 'upward way,' in _electro-chemistry_, the 'way in,' or that by which the electric current is supposed to enter substances through which it passes, as opposed to the CATHODE, or that by which it goes out; the positive pole of a voltaic battery.

=AN'ODYNE= (-d[=i]ne). _Syn._ ANO'DYNUS (-d[)i]n[)u]s-), L.; ANODIN, Fr.; SCHMERZSTILLEND, Ger. That allays pain; soothing; atalgic.

=Anodynes.= _Syn._ ANO'DYNA (sing., ano'd[)y]num), L.; Anodins, REMÈDES A., Fr. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances and agents which allay pain. Some (as the PAREGORICS) act by actually assuaging pain; others (HYPNOTICS) by inducing sleep; whilst a third class (NARCOTICS) give ease by stupefying the senses, or by lessening the susceptibility to pain. Among the principal anodynes are opium, morphia, henbane, camphor ether, chloroform, chloral hydrate, and other medicines of the like kind; to which must be added spirituous liquors, wines, and the stronger varieties of malt liquor. "The frequent use of anodynes begets the necessity of their continuance." (W. Cooley.)

=Anodyne, In'fantile= (-[=i]le). _Syn._ ANO'DYNUM INFAN'TILE (-t[)i]l-e), L. _Prep._ Take of syrup of poppies, 1 _oz._; aniseed-water, 3 _oz._; French brandy, 3/4 _oz._ (or rectified spirit, 1/2 _oz._); calcined magnesia, 1/4 _oz._; mix. An excellent anodyne and antacid for infants.--_Dose._ A small teaspoonful as required.

=ANODYN= (Müller, Berlin.) Chiefly for rheumatic pains, toothache, &c. Oil of rosemary, 30 drops; oil of thyme, 10 drops; camphor, 5 grms.; spirit of ammonia, 12 grms.; spirit, 60 grms. (Hager.)

=ANODYN'IA= (-d[)i]n'-y'[)a]). Freedom from pain; anæsthesia.

=AN'OREXY=. _Syn._ ANOREX'IA, L.; ANOREXIE, Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, want of, or morbidly diminished appetite, without loathing of food. It is usually symptomatic of other affections. See APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

=ANOSMIN FOOT POWDER= (Dr Oscar Bernar, Vienna). "An unfailing remedy for sweaty feet and bad odour of the feet." Powdered alum, 21 parts; maize meal, 1 part. (Hager.)

=ANOSMIN FOOT WATER= (Koch), for a similar purpose. An aqueous solution of tartaric acid.

=ANO ZABAGLIONE= (-b[)a]l-y'[=o]'-n[=a]). _Prep._ Put 2 eggs, 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and 2 small glassfuls of sherry or marsala, into a chocolate cup, placed in boiling water, or over the fire, and keep the mixture rapidly stirred until it begins to rise and thicken a little; then add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of orange-flower water or rose water, and serve it up in wine-glasses. A pleasant Italian domestic remedy for a cold.

=ANT= ([)a]nt). _Syn._ EMM'ET, PIS'MIRE*[double-dagger] (p[)i]z'-); FORMI'CA, L.; FOURMI, Fr.; AMEISE, Ger.; ÆMET, Sax. This well-known little insect belongs to the family formic''idæ, and the order hymenop'tera. Like the bee, it is a social animal, lives in communities which may be compared to well-regulated republics, and is of three sexes--male, female, neuter. Those belonging to the last alone labour and take care of the ova and young. The red ant contains FORMIC ACID (acid of ants), and a peculiar RESINOUS OIL. Both of these may be obtained by maceration in rectified spirit. A tincture so prepared, and flavoured with aromatics, constitutes Hoffman's EAU DE MAGNANIMITÉ, once greatly esteemed as an aphrodisiac. See FORMICA, FORMIC ACID, FORMYLE, &c.

=ANTAC'ID= (-t[)a]s'-[)i]d). _Syn._ ANTAC'IDUS, L.; ANTACIDE, &c., Fr.; SÄURETILGEND, &c., Ger. An agent which neutralises acids or removes acidity. (See _below._)

=ANTAC'IDS= (-t[)a]s'-[)i]dz). _Syn._ ANTAC'IDA, L.; ANTACIDES, &c., Fr. Antacid substances. In _medicine_, &c., substances which remove or prevent acidity of the stomach, and thus tend to relieve heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrh[oe]a.

The principal antacids are potassa, soda, ammonia, lime, and magnesia, with their carbonates and bicarbonates. AMMONIA is one of the most powerful, and when the acidity is conjoined with nausea and faintness, or is accompanied with symptoms of nervous derangement or hysteria, is undoubtedly the best; when great irritability of the coats of the stomach exist, POTASH is to be preferred; when the acidity is accompanied with diarrh[oe]a, carbonate of lime (prepared chalk), lime-water, or Carara-water; and when with costiveness, MAGNESIA. They may be advantageously combined with some simple aromatic, as ginger, cinnamon, or peppermint. Their preparation, doses, administration, &c., will be found under each in its alphabetical place; and formulæ containing them, under DRAUGHTS, LOZENGES, MIXTURES, &c.

=ANTAL'GICS= (-t[)a]l'-). _Syn._ ANTAL'GICA, L. Medicines which relieve pain; anodynes.

=ANTAL'KALINES= ([)a]nt-[)a]l'-k[)a]-l[)i]nz). _Syn._ ANTALKALI'NA, L. Agents or medicines which correct alkalinity. All the acids except the carbonic are antalkaline.

=AN'TE-.= In _composition_, before, contrary, opposite; generally in the first sense. See ANTI-.

=ANTEPIDEMICUM UNIVERSALE= (H. Müller, Copenhagen). "A valuable universal remedy for all sorts of contagious diseases in man or domestic animals." A fluid like water, with a weak, almost imperceptible, odour of acetic ether. Is composed of spring water, in which perhaps two or three drops of pure carbolic acid are dissolved, and a few drops of acetic ether added to disguise it. (Hager.)

=ANTHELMIN'TICS, Anthelmin'thics= (-th[)e]l-). See VERMIFUGES and WORMS.

=AN'THIARINE= (-[)i]n). See ANTHIRINE.

=ANTHOK'YAN=. _Syn._ SUCC'US VI'OLÆ PREPARA'TUS, L. The expressed juice of the sweet or purple violet (vi'ola odora'ta--Linn.), defecated, gently heated in glass or earthenware to 192° Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and filtered; a little rectified spirit is next added, and the following day the whole is again filtered. It must be kept well corked, and in a cool situation.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to make syrup of violets, to colour and flavour liqueurs, and as a chemical test. The London druggists obtain it principally from Lincolnshire.

=AN'THONY'S FIRE=, Saint (-to-n[)i]z). See ERYSIPELAS.

=ANTHOSENZ= (Dr Hess, Berlin). General tonic and anodyne balsam. Oil of cloves, 4 parts; oil of geranium, 2 parts; pine-apple essence, 1 part; spirit, 50 parts; coloured with alkanet root. (Hager.)

=AN'THOTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=ANTHRACENE.= C_{14}H_{10}. Anthracene is one of the last products passing over in the dry distillation of coal-tar. Dr Calvert says it is "found most abundantly in the ten or fifteen per cent. which comes over between the temperature at which soft pitch is produced and that at which hard pitch is formed."

Coal-tar contains very variable quantities of anthracene, those tars procured from coals which are richest in naphtha yielding it most abundantly. The coals of South Staffordshire give the largest yield, whilst the Newcastle coals give very little. In consequence of the solubility of anthracene in the oily hydrocarbons which accompany it, owing to "slight elevation of temperature, its extraction can only be carried on advantageously in cold weather."

Gessert prepares anthracene from coal-tar as follows: He places the last pasty portions (the 'green grease') of the coal-tar distillation (which must not be carried beyond the point at which white pitch is formed) first in a centrifugal machine, and then in a hydraulic press at 40°, or subjects the mass heated to 30°-40° directly to pressure in a filter press. The pressed mass consists of about 60% of anthracene; for further purification it is boiled with light tar-oil or petroleum naphtha, and finally heated till it melts. The residue contains 95% of anthracene.

The following method for the purification of crude anthracene contaminated with oily matters is by Schuller:--The crude anthracene is carefully heated to commencing ebullition in a capacious retort connected with a tubulated receiver of glass or earthenware, the lower aperture of which is closed with a fine wire sieve. A strong current of air is then blown into the retort with a pair of bellows, whereby the anthracene is driven over in a very short time nearly pure and dry, and condenses in the receiver as a faintly yellowish showy mass. By this method a quantity of anthracene, the purification of which by re-crystallisation or sublimation would take several days, may be purified in as many hours; moreover it is obtained in a pulverulent form, in which it is very readily acted on by oxidising agents. Anthraquinone prepared from crude anthracene may also be obtained by this method in the form of a light yellow powder, resembling flowers of sulphur.

Fritzsche obtained anthracene in crystals exhibiting a beautiful violet colour by exposing a solution of anthracene in coal-tar naphtha to sunshine, until the solution became colourless.

Pure anthracene assumes the form of fluorescent transparent crystals, consisting of four- or six-sided plates, which when seen by transmitted light are of a very pale blue colour, but of a pale violet by reflected light.

The process for obtaining pure anthracene is a very troublesome one. Mr Crookes says:--"A trustworthy method for determining the amount of pure anthracene either in commercial anthracene or in crude green grease is the following:--The melting-point of the sample in question is first determined. 5 to 10 grammes are sufficient for the operation. It is put between thick folds of blotting paper, and placed under a press, between plates which have been previously warmed. The anthracene remaining upon the paper after pressure is weighed. The residue after it has been boiled with a certain quantity of alcohol, filtered, washed with cold alcohol and dried, is weighed as pure anthracene. It is now advisable to determine the melting-point of the purified product, which will generally be 210° C." Anthracene is only slightly soluble in alcohol, but rather more so in ether and bisulphide of carbon. It is more soluble in hot, but less so in cold benzene. Petroleum boiling between 160° and 195° F. dissolves less than benzene.

"Anthracene dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a green colour, and forms conjugated monsulpho or bisulpho-anthracene acid, according to the temperature employed. Chlorine and bromine give rise to substitution products. Nitric acid acts on it with great violence, with formation of anthraquinone, nitro-anthraquinone, and other compounds according to the temperature and proportion of the substances taken. With picric acid anthracene forms a compound crystallising in very bright ruby-red needles, which by the aid of the microscope are seen to be prisms. To prepare it a saturated solution of picric acid in water at 80° F. is mixed with a saturated solution of anthracene in boiling alcohol; on cooling the compound is deposited in the crystalline state. It is rapidly decomposed by an excess of alcohol into picric acid and anthracene, the solution assuming a yellow tint. This reaction can be employed to distinguish anthracene from naphthalene and other hydrocarbons, naphthalin under similar circumstances forming a compound which crystallises in fine golden yellow needles, whilst chrysene gives rise to clusters of very small yellow needles." (Calvert's 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Stenhouse and Groves). Another characteristic of anthracene, noticed by Fritzsche, is its deportment under the microscope with a solution of binitro-anthraquinone in benzene. In this reaction fine rhomboidal scales of a beautiful pink colour are formed, the purity and brilliancy of the colour depending on the purity of the anthracene.

In the 'Bul. Soc. Chim.,' vii, 274, several reactions by which anthracene is formed are described by Berthelot, as by the action of heat on other hydrocarbons, or by passing the vapours of ethylene, styrolene, and benzene through a porcelain tube heated to bright redness.

A great number of products are procured from anthracene, by far the most important of these being artificial alizarin.

See ALIZARIN, ARTIFICIAL.

=AN'THRACITE= (s[=i]te). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTHRAC'OLITE, GLANCE'-COAL, STONE'-COAL[double-dagger], MINERAL CHAR'COAL*; ANTHRACI'TES, L.; GLANZKOHLE, Ger. A species of coal found in the transition-rock formation, consisting chiefly of dense carbon. It has a conchoidal fracture, a semi-metallic lustre, and a sp. gr. usually varying from 1·4 to 1·6. It burns without either flame or smoke, emits an intense heat, and leaves scarcely any ash; but it is difficult to kindle, and requires a lively draught for its combustion. It is the common fuel in the United States of America, although, until recently, scarcely employed in Europe, and that chiefly in a few iron works and steam furnaces. Its adoption in this country would not merely at once remove the smoke nuisance, but would produce a vast annual saving to the community. By contracting the throat of the chimney a little, and avoiding the use of the poker, it may be burnt in a common grate. The Americans use a little charcoal as kindle, and seldom supply fresh coal to the fire oftener than once or twice a day.

The inferior varieties of anthracite are technically and provincially called culm; as is also the small and waste of the better kinds.

For the analysis, geology, calorific value, &c., of anthracite, see COAL, CULM, EVAPORATION, FUEL, HEAT, &c.

De la Beche describes Anthracite as "a variety of coal containing a larger proportion of carbon, and less bituminous matter, than common coal."

In the 'Memoirs of the Geological Survey' we read:--"We see the same series of coal beds becoming so altered in their horizontal range that a set of beds _bituminous_ in one locality is observed gradually to change into anthracitic in another. Taking the coal measures of South Wales and Monmouthshire, we have a series of accumulations in which the coal-beds become not only more anthracitic toward the west, but also exhibit this change in a plane which may be considered as dipping south-south-east, at a moderate angle, the amount of which is not yet clearly ascertained, so that in the natural sections afforded, we have bituminous coals in the high grounds and anthracite coals beneath. This fact is readily observed either in the Neath or Swansea valleys, where we have bituminous coals on the south and anthracite on the north; and more bituminous coal-beds on the heights than beneath, some distance up these valleys, those of the Nedd and Tawe. Though the terms bituminous coal and anthracite, have been applied to marked differences, the changes are that there is no sudden modification to be seen. To some of the intermediate kinds the term "free burning" has been given, and thus three chief differences have been recognised."

The term _Culm_ is applied both to an inferior kind of anthracite only worked for lime-making and mixing with clay and to the small pieces of anthracite obtained in working the beds of true anthracite. It is also known under the names of _Blind-coal_, _Glance-coal_, and _Kilkenny-coal_.

There are three distinct trades in anthracite. The first one is that where the coal is sold just as it is brought from the pit. This is termed _Through Culm_, and is used for lime-burning. This coal is inferior in quality to that from which the large coal has been removed, and is sometimes called _Bastard Stone-coal_. The trade in the Neath district is exclusively of this kind. In Swansea and Llanelly it is partly of this kind and partly of the kind where the large coal is picked out and sold as _stone-coal_ for the various purposes to which that coal is put, the small pieces being left for shipment to places where it is required for lime-burning, under the name of _stone-coal culm_. No "through culm" is shipped from Pembrokeshire. Four thousand tons almost in the condition of dust are annually shipped from Swansea, under the name of _Lambskin_, being sent to Cardiganshire, where it is used solely for mixing with clay. This mixture, which is known under the name of _Fireballs_, is used for household purposes. This mixture, made of the ordinary _stone-coal culm_, is also in very general use throughout parts of Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire.

Anthracite coal is found in this country at Bideford in Devonshire, at Walsall in Staffordshire, in the western divisions of the South Wales coalfield, in Ireland, and near Edinburgh. It is very abundant in America. In the 'Transactions of the American Geologists' it is stated by Professor Roger that in the great Apalachian coal-field, 720 miles in extent, with a chief breadth of 180 miles, the coal is bituminous towards the western limit, where it is level and unbroken, becoming anthracite towards the south-west, where it becomes disturbed. Anthracite coal is also found in the coal-measures of France, more particularly in the departments of Isère, the high Alps, Gard, Mayenne, and of Sarth. About 42,271,000 kilogrammes (of 22,046 avoirdupois pounds each) form the annual yield. Anthracite is also obtained in Belgium. "Anthracite is not an original variety of coal, but a modification of the same beds which remain bituminous in other parts of the region. Anthracite beds, therefore, are not separate deposits in another sea, nor coal-measures in another area, nor interpolations among bituminous coal; but the bituminous beds themselves altered into a natural coke, from which the volatile bituminous oils and gases have been driven off."--_Lesley on Coal_.

------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------
Locality. | Name of Coal. |Carbon.|Volatile|Ashes.
| | |matter. |
------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------
| _Bituminous_. | | |
| | | |
Birtley Works, | | | |
Newcastle-on-Tyne | | 60·50 | 35·50 | 4·00
Alfreton, Derbyshire | | 52·46 | 42·50 | 2·04
| | | |
| _Anthracite_. | | |
| | | |
Neath Abbey |Pwlferon Vein, | 91·08 | 8·00 | 0·92
| 5th bed | | |
Swansea |Peacock Coal | 89·00 | 7·50 | 3·50
Ystalyfera |Brass Vein | 92·46 | 6·04 | 1·50
Cwm Neath |Nine-feet Vein | 93·12 | 5·22 | 1·50
France |Anthracite, common | 79·15 | 7·35 |13·25
" |Côte-d'Or | 82·60 | 8·60 | 8·80
" |Mais Saize | 83·80 | 7·50 | 9·50
Pennsylvania |Beaver Meadow | 92·30 | 6·42 | 1·28
" |Shenoweth Vein | 94·10 | 1·40 | 4·50
" |Black Spring Gap | 80·57 | 7·15 | 3·28
" |Nealey's Tunnel | 89·20 | 5·40 | 5·40
Massachusetts |Mansfield Mine | 97·00 | 10·50 | 3·00
Rhode Island |Portsmouth Mine | 85·84 | 10·50 | 3·66
Westphalia |Shafberg, | 82·02 | 8·69 | 9·29
| Alexander Seam | | |
------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------

Anthracite, the exclusive employment of which is for iron-making, steam engines, and for domestic uses in the United States, was some 60 years since regarded as incombustible refuse, and as such looked upon as rubbish and thrown away.

The foregoing analyses of bituminous and anthracite coals will sufficiently show the difference between the two.

_Principal Localities of Anthracite and
Anthracitous Coal._
Weight
Specific of a
EUROPE. Gravity. cubic yard
in lbs.
South Wales--Swansea 1·263 2131
Cyfarthfa 1·337 2256
Ynscedwin 1·354 2284
Average 1·445 2278
Ireland--Mean 1·445 2376
France--Allier 1·380 2207
Tantal 1·390 2283
Brassac 1·430 2413
Belgium--Mons 1·307 2105
Westphalia 1·305 2278
Prussian Saxony 1·466 2474
Saxony 1·300 2193

Average of Europe 2281

AMERICA.

Pennsylvania--
Lyken's Valley 1·327 2240
Lebanon Co., Grey Vein 1·379 2327
Schuylkin Co., Lorberry
Creek 1·472 2484
Pottsville, Sharp Mount 1·412 2382
Peach 1·446 2440
Salem Vein 1·574 2649
Tamaqua, North Vein 1·600 2700
Maunch Chunk 1·550 2615
Nesquehoning 1·558 2646
Wilkesbarre, best 1·472 2884
West Mahoney 1·371 2313
Beaver Meadow 1·600 2700
Girardville 1·600 2700
Hazelton 1·550 2615
Broad Mountain 1·700 2869
Lackawanna 1·609 2715
Massachusetts--Mansfield 1·710 2882
Rhode Island--Portsmouth 1·810 3054

Average in United States 2601

The calorific value of anthracite coal is well shown by the following results from Dr Fyfe's experiments, to compare Scotch and English bituminous coals with anthracite, in regard to their evaporative power, in a high-pressure boiler of a 4-horse engine having a grate with 8·15 square feet of surface; also in a waggon-shaped copper boiler, open to the air, surface 18 feet, grate 1·55:--

KEY:
A - Pounds burnt per hour on the Grate.
B - Duration of the Trial in hours.
C - Temperature of the Water.
D - Pounds of Water evaporated from the initial Temperature by 1 lb. of
coal.
E - Pounds of Water at 212° from a lb. of Coal.
F - Coal per hour on one sq. ft. of Grate.
G - Time in seconds of consuming 1 lb. of Coal.
H - Pounds evaporated per hour from each sq. ft. of surface.

-------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------------
Kind of Fuel | | | | | | | | |
employed. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | Remarks.
-------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------------
Middlerig Scotch | 81·33 | 9 | 45° | 6·66 | 7·74 | 10·00 | 44·27 | ... |Pressure 17 lbs.
coal | | | | | | | | | per square in.
Scotch coal, | 108 | 5 | 170° | 6·62 | 6·89 | 13·25 | 33·33 | ... |Ditto.
different variety | | | | | | | | |
from preceding | | | | | | | | |
ANTHRACITE | 47·94 | 8-1/2 | 45° | 8·73 | 10·10 | 5·88 | 75·09 | ... |Ditto.
Scotch coal, from | 8·24 | 8-1/2 | 50° | 5·38 | 6·90 | 5·31 | 436·89 | 3·15 |Lower pressure,
near Edinburgh | | | | | | | | | open copper
| | | | | | | | | boiler.
English bituminous | 6·07 | 8·4 | 50° | 7·84 | 9·07 | 3·91 | 503·08 | 3·06 |Ditto.
coal | | | | | | | | |
-------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+---------------

Space will not admit of our entering fully into the question of the evaporative power of anthracite, but its advantages under certain conditions are fully established.

=AN'THRACOKA'LI=. [Eng., L.] _Syn_. ANTHRAKOKA'LI, ANTHRAK'ALI; AN'THRACOKA'LI, Hamb. C. 1845. _Prep_. 1. (Polya.) Carbonate of potassa, 6 oz.; quick-lime, 3-1/2 oz.; water, 4 pints; proceed as directed for solution of potassa, then evaporate the clear liquid, in an iron capsule, to about 6 fl. oz., add of finely powdered mineral coal 5 oz., boil, with constant stirring, to dryness, and continue the stirring at a reduced heat, until the whole is converted into a homogeneous black powder, which must be at once placed in small, dry, and well-stoppered phials.

2. (Hamb. C. 1845; Ph. Baden, 1841.) Hydrate of potassa, 7 dr.; melt, add of cannel coal, 5 dr., and then proceed as before.

_Prop. &c._ A deliquescent black powder, with a caustic taste, and empyreumatic smell; 10 gr. with 1 fl. oz. of water, after filtration, forms a clear, dark brown solution, giving a precipitate with acids, without effervescence.--_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr., twice or thrice daily; and externally, made into a pomade or ointment (1/2 to 1 dr., to lard, 1 oz.); in skin diseases (particularly herpetic eruptions), scrofula, chronic rheumatism, &c. It has been highly extolled by Dr Gilbert, and by its inventor, Dr Polya; but apparently undeservedly.

=Anthracokali Sulphuretted.= _Syn._ ANTHRACOKALI SULPHURETUM, L. _Prep._ (Polya.) As formula 1 (_above_), but adding sulphur, 4 dr., immediately after stirring in the powdered coal.--_Dose_, _use_, &c., as the last. See FULIGOKALI.

=ANTHRACOM'ETER.= _Syn._ ANTRACOM'ETRUM, L.; ANTHRACOMÈTRE, Fr.; KOHLENSÄUREMESSER, Ger. An apparatus used to determine the heating power or commercial value of coal, or other fuel; also an instrument for finding the proportion of carbonic acid in any gaseous mixture.

=ANTHRAPURPURIN.= C_{14}H_{8}O_{5}.--A colouring matter obtained as a secondary product in the preparation of alizarin from anthracen. It may be prepared by dissolving the crude colouring matter in a dilute solution of carbonate of soda, and shaking up the resulting solution with freshly precipitated alumina, which combines with the alizarin, leaving the anthrapurpurin in solution. This is filtered off from the alizarin lake, heated to boiling, and acidified with hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter which is precipitated is thrown on to a filter, washed and dried.