Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (28)

_c._ (Process adopted at Apothecaries' Hall, London.) The best gum-benzoin is put into an iron pot, set in brickwork over a suitable small fire-place (or flue),[149] and communicating by a conical metal neck, with a wooden box (technically termed a 'house') lined with white blotting-paper, as a receiver for the flowers. A piece of fine muslin, or of bibulous paper, is interposed between the top of the subliming-pot and the receiver, to prevent the sublimate falling back into the former. The sublimation is conducted rather rapidly, and the acid condenses in beautiful white, soft, flexible crystals, which are at once ready for the market. When the process is conducted more slowly, the product is proportionately scaly.

[Footnote 149: A pan with a steam-jacket answers well, and is very manageable.]

_Obs._ Good samples of benzoin yield from 10 to 12%, or even 12-1/2%, of 'flowers' or 'acid of the first sublimation.' This, after being pressed in blotting-paper and again sublimed, gives 8-1/2 to 10% of nearly pure benzoic acid. The loss arising from a second sublimation is thus so great that the utmost care should be taken to avoid its necessity.

2. In the MOIST WAY:--

_a._ (Ph. D. 1826; Scheele's Process.) Equal parts of benzoin and hydrate of lime, in fine powder, are intimately mixed together and boiled for about an hour, with 40 parts of water; the liquor, after filtration, is evaporated to 1/5th, and the lime saturated with hydrochloric acid; the benzoic acid crystallised out as the liquor cools, and is then either washed with very cold water, and dried by a gentle heat, or it is dried and sublimed in the manner already explained. The product of the sublimation is extremely white and pure.

_Obs._ An economical and productive process; but, to ensure success, a perfect mixture of the dry ingredients must be first made; as otherwise the benzoin runs into a solid mass in the boiling water, and the operation fails. _Prod._ "1 lb. of (gum) benjamin yields 1 oz. 6 dr. 2 scr. of flowers." (Gray.)[150]

[Footnote 150: A quantity which, in our own experiments, we were never able to obtain.]

_b._ (Process of Stoltze.) The benzoin is dissolved in 3 times its weight of alcohol, the solution introduced into a retort, and a solution of carbonate of soda in weak spirit-and-water, is gradually added, until all the free acid present is neutralised; water, equal to about twice the weight of the benzoin employed, is next poured in, and the alcohol removed by distillation. The floating resin is now skimmed off the residual liquid and washed with a little water, and the washings added to the contents of the retort, which will deposit crystals of benzoate of soda on cooling, and more by subsequent evaporation. From this salt the benzoic acid is obtained by saturating the alkali with an acid (as the hydrochloric), and by subsequent sublimation of the crude precipitated crystals.

3. Other Methods:--

_a._ Ordinary hippuric acid is very gently boiled, for about 15 minutes, in nitric acid[151] (sp. gr. 1·42); water is then added, and the solution allowed to cool and crystallise. The crystals are collected on a filter, washed with a little very cold water, dried by pressure in bibulous paper, and lastly, purified by sublimation, as before.

[Footnote 151: Hydrochloric acid as well as sulphuric acid also convert hippuric acid into benzoic acid; as does likewise a sufficient degree of heat. See HIPPURIC ACID.]

_b._ From the urine of horses, cows, and other graminivorous animals, in a similar way to that by which hippuric acid is obtained, only allowing the urine to acquire a slight degree of putridity before evaporation, which last should be effected by a heat slightly under that of ebullition. The crude acid thus obtained is purified as previously directed.

_Obs._ Large quantities of benzoic acid are said to be obtained in this way on the Continent; but, owing to the process being clumsily conducted, it is generally of inferior quality, and hence unsaleable. It may, however, by skilful purification, be rendered quite equal to that obtained from gum benzoin.[152]

[Footnote 152: "A manufactory of sal-ammoniac, near Magdeburgh, which uses urine, is able to supply flowers of benjamin by the cwt." (Gray.)]

_Prop._ When obtained by sublimation benzoic acid forms soft, light, feathery, white, flexible crystals, which are transparent or semi-transparent, with more or less of a mother-of-pearl lustre; when by slowly cooling its aqueous solution, or by precipitation from a solution of a benzoate, it forms either thin plates or scales, or a dazzling white crystalline powder. It is inodorous when cold,[153] but acquires a faint balsamic odour when gently warmed; fuses at about 212° Fahr., and begins to sublime freely at a temperature a little above it, but does not boil until heated to about 460°; burns with a bright yellow flame; is very soluble in alcohol, dissolves in about 200 parts of cold water, and about 25 parts of boiling water; resists the action of ordinary nitric acid even when boiling; and forms salts (BEN'ZOATES) with the bases. Sp. gr. 0·667. Its vapour, which is very suffocating and irritating, has a density of 4·27. Added to fat and fatty substances it either prevents, or greatly retards, the accession of rancidity.

[Footnote 153: That of the shops usually smells slightly of benzoin, owing to the presence of a trace of volatile oil.]

_Test, &c._ It may be recognised--1. By its physical properties (appearance, fusibility, volatility, odour, &c.) already enumerated:--2. By its ready solubility in solutions of the alkalies; and by being precipitated from these solutions, on the addition of one of the stronger acids, under the form of a dazzling white powder, which is only sparingly soluble in cold water:--3. By its neutral salts with the alkalies, or its neutral solution in an alkali, giving a bulky, flesh-coloured precipitate with perchloride of iron, which is insoluble in water:--4. By its solution not being precipitated by acetate of lead until after neutralisation with a fixed alkali, when the acetate produces a white, flocculent precipitate:--5. By a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium, neither disturbing a solution of the free acid, nor that of one of its salts with the alkalies.

It is chemically distinguished from cinnamic acid by not yielding essential oil of almonds when it is distilled with oxidising agents, as chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid; and from succinic acid, by its different deportment with sesquichloride of iron (_Test 3, antè_), and with a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium (_T. 5, antè_).

_Estim._--1. By weighing it as benzoic acid, obtained either by precipitation, or by very careful sublimation in a glass apparatus:--2. By neutralising its alcoholic or aqueous solution, by the usual method of acidimetry:--3. By precipitating its neutral solution with acetate of lead, or with sesquichloride of iron, and weighing the carefully washed and dried precipitate either as benzoate of lead, or as ferric benzoate.

_Pur., &c._ White crystalline silky plates and needles, have an aromatic odour. Solubility in cold water, 1 in 300; in boiling water, 1 in 12; in spirit, 1 in 4. Also soluble in caustic alkalies and lime. Borax considerably increases its solubility in water; 1 of benzoic acid and 1 of borax are soluble in 100 of water. It sublimes without residue when heated. It is sometimes met with adulterated with hippuric acid, which may be easily detected by its altered form, by its diminishing solubility in cold water, and by its exhaling an odour of tonquin-beans, and afterwards of hydrocyanic acid, when sublimed. The presence of succinic acid may be readily detected by its greatly increased solubility in cold water; that of sugar, not only by its increased solubility, and partial volatility, but also by the odour of caramel being evolved on the application of sufficient heat, and the residuum being black and carbonaceous; that of camphor, by its peculiar odour when gently heated. Spermaceti, specially prepared for the purpose, is also an occasional adulterant, easily detected by its insolubility and other well-known properties. All these substances either destroy or lack the proper crystalline form of benzoic acid, which is one of the best proofs of its purity. They also greatly increase its sp. gr.

_Uses, &c._ Its chief use in _medicine_ is as a stimulant and expectorant. It is an ingredient in the compound tincture of camphor (paregoric elixir) of the pharmacop[oe]ia.--_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., dissolved in water by the aid of a little ammonia or potassa; in old coughs, &c.

=BENZOIC AL'COHOL.= A peculiar oily fluid, discovered by M. Cannizzaro, and obtained by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa on pure oil of bitter almonds.

=BENZOIN'=, B. P. (-zoyn'; z[=o]'-[)i]n). _Syn._ GUM-BENZOIN*[double-dagger], BEN'JAMIN[dagger]*, GUM-B.[dagger]*; BENZÖI'NUM, L., B. P.; BENJOIN, Fr.; BENZÖE, Ger. The balsamic resin exuded from incisions made in the stem of the _styrax benzoin_, a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. Several varieties of benzoin are in the market; two only, however, are chiefly used in medicine, one in agglutinated masses, the other (from Siam), in tears, being the purer and having the stronger odour.

_Prop., &c._ Odour agreeable, and somewhat like that of vanilla, but more balsamic; fracture conchoidal; lustre greasy; sp. gr. 1·063 to 1·092. It fuses at a gentle heat and exhales white fumes, which, on condensation, are found to be benzoic acid contaminated with a little volatile oil. Alcohol dissolves the larger portion of it, ether much less, and the volatile and fixed oils only a little. It contains from 9% to 18, or (occasionally) nearly 20%, of benzoic acid, according to the quality. It burns with an agreeable odour. The resin and its alcoholic solution strike a bright red colour with oil of vitriol, and a green colour with chloride of iron.

Benzoin has occasionally been sold by fraudulent dealers after its benzoic acid has been removed by the wet method. When the gum has been thus treated it will not show the agglutinated tears, upon fracture, which commonly distinguishes it when intact.

_Uses, &c._ It is chiefly employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in incense, fumigating pastilles, &c.; also in court-plaster, in certain cosmetics, and to scent the varnish used for snuff-boxes, walking-sticks, &c. As a medicine, its general effects resemble those of the other true balsams, and of benzoic acid.--_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 20, or even 30 gr., in powder, and usually in combination with some other remedy; chiefly in chronic pulmonary and bronchial affections, when occurring in torpid habits, and unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms or gastric irritation. Also as a fumigation in the same diseases, hooping-cough, &c. Like benzoic acid, it is used to prevent rancidity in ointments, pomades, and other fatty preparations.

=BENZOINUM.= See BENZOIN.

=BEN'ZOL= (-z[=o]le). C_{6}H_{6}. [_benz_(oin)-_oleum._] _Syn._ BEN'ZENE*, BEN'Z[)I]NE, BEN'Z[=O]LE*, HYDR[)I]DE OF PHE'N[)Y]L*, PHE'NE[dagger], &c.; BENZO'LEUM, L.; BENZINE, Fr.; BENZÖL, Ger. A peculiar ethereal hydrocarbon discovered, by Faraday, among the products of the destructive distillation of whale oil and other organic substances (A.D. 1825); and subsequently shown, by Mitscherlich, to form the principal ingredient in the distillate procured by the action of heat on a mixture of benzoic acid and hydrate of lime. In 1849, Mr C. B. Mansfield[154] discovered its presence in coal-tar naphtha, from which the benzol of commerce is now chiefly, if not wholly, obtained.

[Footnote 154: This unfortunate chemist lost his life (Feb. 25, 1855), in consequence of being severely burned whilst experimenting on benzol.]

_Prep._ 1. PURE:--_a._ A mixture of benzoic acid, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 3 parts; is submitted, in a coated glass or earthenware retort, to a heat slowly raised to redness; the oily portion of the resulting distillate is then separated from the water, and carefully rectified, with the proper precautions, at a temperature not exceeding 190° Fahr. The product is usually stated to be pure benzol; but to ensure this it may be submitted to one refrigeration and rectification, in the manner and at the temperature noticed below.

_b._ From good commercial benzol, agitated with 1-4th or 1-5th of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, and, after repose and decantation, rectified at a temperature under 195° Fahr.; the resulting distillate is exposed to a temperature below[155] 32° Fahr., and the mass of crystals that form are thrown on a funnel, kept at the same temperature, to drain, after which they are pressed between folds of bibulous paper,[156] and then allowed to liquefy by simple exposure, in a close vessel, to the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The product, after rectification at a temperature not exceeding 190,° is nearly pure benzol. It may be rendered absolutely pure by repeating the refrigeration a second and a third time, followed by a final rectification at 180-185° Fahr.

[Footnote 155: Preferably considerably below. If the distillate be not rich in benzol, a temperature so low as 8 or 10°, or even 4-5°, Fahr. may be necessary or, at all events, advantageous.]

[Footnote 156: Filtration under pressure is thought by some chemists to be preferable. For this purpose a 'Beart's Coffee-pot' (or a similarly constructed apparatus), was often employed by Mansfield, and is recommended by Prof. Muspratt.]

2. COMMERCIAL:--By submitting light coal-tar naphtha to distillation, either at once, or after it has been agitated with a little oil of vitriol, and decanted, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 200° Fahr.

A drawing and description of the apparatus invented by Mansfield for the preparation of benzol from coal-tar naphtha is given below.

A is the still placed on a furnace R; C is filled with cold water. As soon as the oil in the still boils, the vapours are condensed in B, and flow back into A; this continues until the water in C has been heated to a certain temperature, when the vapours are condensed in the cooler D, the liquid flowing at _n_ into the carboy S. As soon as the water in C begins to boil, all the substances contained in the coal-tar naphtha and volatile at 212° Fahr. are condensed and collected in S. A very pure benzol is obtained by this apparatus. By opening the tap _m_, the hydrocarbons which boil over 212° Fahr. can be rectified. The stopcock _i_ is used for opening the still.

In the benzol works the apparatus shown below is employed.

A is the still, B the condenser, C a water-tank. At the commencement of the operation the water in C is heated by means of the steam-pipe D which communicates with the steam boiler. The tube G is attached to the still; _i_ is a contrivance for filling, _b_ for emptying it. The condensed water is carried off by means of H. By freezing benzol and pressing the solid substance obtained, it may be rendered quite pure.

_Prop._ Pure benzol is a clear, colourless, very mobile liquid, having a strong, characteristic, and rather agreeable ethereal odour. It is neutral to test-paper; exceedingly volatile at all temperatures; insoluble in water; miscible with alcohol and with ether; highly inflammable; burns with a brilliant flame, emitting clouds of smoke, which rapidly condense and fall as a shower of fine sooty, carbonaceous matter; boils at 176° Fahr.;[157] solidifies, at 32°, to a snowy white camphor-like mass, or when very slowly refrigerated, to beautiful transparent cruciform leaflets, which aggregate together into forms resembling fern-fronds; remelts at 40-1° Fahr.; and when solidifies burns, like camphor, without previous fusion. Sp. gr. ·850;[158] sp. gr. of vapour, 2·770.[159] It is unaffected by the ordinary hydrated acids, and has no action on the alkaline metals. Highly concentrated nitric acid readily dissolves it, and from this solution nitrobenzol is precipitated on the addition of water. Its vapour is dangerously inflammable, and, when mixed with the air, is highly explosive. Its solvent power extends over a numerous list of substances. Commercial benzol has a less agreeable odour, and not unfrequently a slight colour, with other modifications of the properties just enumerated, depending on the relative amount of impurities contained in it.

[Footnote 157: Fownes, Mansfield, Muspratt, and others; 186°--Mitscherlich 187°--Mr C. G. Williams (in Ure's 'Dict. of A. M., & M.,' 5th ed.). (See next note.)]

[Footnote 158: Williams, Ure, Muspratt; ·885--Fownes, Mitscherlich. The different sp. gr. and boiling-points assigned to benzol, by authors, can only be accounted for by samples of different degrees of purity having probably been examined. The numbers given in the text are those not usually adopted; but we are not prepared to say, that they are definitely settled. On the contrary, we think it not unlikely that further investigations may show that the apparently greater levity of the benzole obtained from naphtha may arise from the presence of some other hydrocarbon which has hitherto escaped detection.]

[Footnote 159: Theoretically, 2·738.]

_Pur._--1. It should be colourless, without action on either litmus or turmeric paper, and have the boiling-point, sp. gr.,[160] &c. already indicated:--2. A few drops thrown on a slip of glass or a piece of white paper should rapidly and entirely evaporate by simple exposure to the air without leaving a stain behind, or evolving any disagreeable or foreign odour:--3. Agitation with a little sulphuric acid should not discolour it:--4. It should not perceptibly lose weight or volume by agitation with a little cold water.

[Footnote 160: If it has a less sp. gr. than ·850, it is probably adulterated with the naphtha obtained from the Torbane-hill mineral or Boghead-coal, of which the sp. gr. is only ·750.]

_Detec._--1. From the physical and other properties already enumerated:--2. By converting it into aniline and then testing it accordingly. For this purpose a little of it is dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and the nitrobenzol thus formed is precipitated by the addition of water. The fluid is then agitated with ether, to dissolve out the nitrobenzol, and the resulting ethereal solution is mixed with an equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric acid and a little granulated zinc at once added. Hydrogen is evolved, and by its action the nitro-compound is converted into aniline. The liquid is next alkalised with potassa in excess, and the alkaline fluid agitated with ether. The ethereal solution, on evaporation, leaves a residue (aniline), which, after the addition of a little water, may be tested with a few drops of solution of chloride of lime, when a characteristic purple colour will be developed, provided the original liquor was benzole, or contained it. In this way very minute traces of benzol may be detected.

_Uses, &c._ In its impure or commercial form, chiefly as a solvent for gutta percha and india rubber; but it leaves the first in a spongy, friable state, and the latter glutinous or sticky, unless heat is applied to it for some time; also as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes, as a diluent in lieu of oil of turpentine, for oil-paints, as a material for the production of artificial light, &c., &c. In the pure or nearly pure form it is largely employed in the laboratory and in chemical analysis as a solvent of many resins,[161] mastic, wax, camphor, fat, the fixed and essential oils, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, several of the alkaloids,[162] &c., &c. Under the name of BENZINE and BENZINE-COLLAS it has been recently extensively vended for the removal of spots of grease, paint, &c., from woven fabrics, which it does most readily and completely, without detriment to the material. As a source of artificial light it has been the subject of innumerable applications and patents. It may be burned in a 'wickless' lamp, provided a proper cap-burner be employed. Alcohol or pyroxilic spirit containing 1-3rd, or even 1-4th of it, burns with a rich white flame. Air driven through it becomes sufficiently inflammable to serve as illuminating gas; whilst ordinary coal-gas by merely passing over it yields a flame of greatly increased brilliancy; but in all these applications the greatest possible care is necessary to prevent accidents.[163] See NAPHTHA (Coal-tar).

[Footnote 161: Anime and copal are scarcely affected by it in the fluid state, but readily dissolve in its vapour at the point of condensation.]

[Footnote 162: Particularly quinine, which it dissolves readily, but not cinchonine. Hence it is invaluable for the separation of them. It may be economically and conveniently substituted for ether in the preparation of many alkaloids, with the advantage of being applicable in many cases in which ether cannot be employed.]

[Footnote 163: Workmen constantly exposed to the vapour of benzol are very subject to nervous irritability, and, where the apartment is ill-ventilated, even fits of nervous prostration and trembling, of a truly alarming character. In two or three cases which we have seen, the symptoms, to the inexperienced eye, closely resembled those occasionally resulting from the long-continued use of very minute doses of strychnia, or of the alcoholic extract of nux vomica.]

=Benzol, Nitrate of.= See NITRO-BENZOL.

=BENZOLINE.= A product of the fractional distillation of American rock oil. If used for burning purposes, care should always be taken to use a sponge lamp, so as to ensure the benzoline vapour (which is extremely inflammable) being well diluted with air when burnt.

=BENZOYL.= C_{7}H_{5}O. The radical of an extensive series of compounds, of which the hydride, C_{7}H_{5}OH (essential oil of bitter almonds), and benzoic acid, HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} are the most important members.

=Benzoyl, Hy'dride of.= C_{7}H_{5}OH. _Syn._ ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS, ESSENTIAL OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.

_Prep._ 1. The crude oil of bitter almonds is agitated with a moderately dilute solution of protochloride of iron which has been previously mixed with fresh hydrate of lime in excess, and the whole, after having been placed in a retort connected with a suitable receiver, is subjected to distillation. The oil passes over mixed with water, from which it is easily separated after repose. By subjecting it to a second agitation and distillation with a fresh mixture of the protochloride and hydrate, and, after careful separation from the water which distils over with it, allowing it to remain for some hours in contact with fragments of fused chloride of calcium, to free it from all traces of adhering water, the product will be nearly chemically pure, provided the whole process has been conducted with as little access of air as possible.

2. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude oil of bitter almonds with mercuric oxide in slight excess, and, after a few days' contact, rectify the oil from a little fresh oxide. The product is quite pure when the process is properly managed. The bicyanide of mercury thus formed may be either employed as such, or reconverted into oxide of mercury and hydrocyanic acid.

_Prop., &c._ A rather thin, colourless liquid, of great refractive power and characteristic and agreeable odour; soluble in 35 parts of water; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; it boils at 356° Fahr.; on exposure to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic acid; heated with solid hydrate of potassa hydrogen is evolved, and benzoate of potassium formed; with the alkaline bisulphites it forms beautiful crystalline compounds. Its flame, and that of its vapour, is bright but very smoky. Sp. gr. 1·043. It differs from the crude or common oil of bitter almonds chiefly in the absence of hydrocyanic acid, and consequently in not being poisonous. It has hence been proposed as a substitute for the crude oil as a flavouring ingredient in cookery, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.; but is unfitted for the purpose, owing to the rapid deterioration it suffers unless it be kept absolutely excluded from the air.

_Formiate of Hydride of Benzoyle._ See FORMOBENZOIC ACID.

=BER'BERINE= (-een).[164] C_{20}H_{17}NO_{4}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BAR'BER[)I]NE*, BER'BERITE* (of Thomson); BERBERI'NA, L. A substance discovered by Buchner and Herberger in the root of the common barberry shrub (_ber'beris vulga'ris_, Linn.); and subsequently, by Bödecker, in calumba-root; and more recently by Mr Perrins, in the calumba-wood (_menispermum fenestratum_) of Ceylon, which contains a considerable quantity of it.

[Footnote 164: This substance must not be confounded with BEEBERINE or BIBERINE (which _see_).]

_Prep._ 1. A soft watery extract of the root, or of the wood, is digested in rectified spirit, with trituration, as long as anything is taken up; the resulting tincture, after repose, is filtered, and the alcohol gradually distilled off until the residuum has the consistence of a thin syrup. The crystals which form as the liquid cools are drained in a funnel, washed with a few drops of ice-cold water, pressed dry in bibulous paper, and then purified by solution and crystallisation, first in rectified spirit, and next in distilled water.

2. By digesting the root, or the wood (coarsely powdered) in rectified spirit, and then proceeding as before.

_Prop._ Berberine may be classed with the azotised colouring substances; or, from its composition and its possessing feeble basic properties, with the alkaloids. It crystallises in fine needles, or in stellated prisms, which are yellow, odourless, very bitter-tasted, neutral to test-paper, and contain 12 equiv. of water. At 212° Fahr. it acquires a red colour; but recovers its normal yellow on cooling. A much higher temperature decomposes it, yellow vapours being evolved. It is freely soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, from either of which solutions it may be readily obtained in crystals. It requires 500 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it, and very much more at lower temperatures. Its solutions are yellow; that in alcohol appears green by reflected light. The concentrated mineral acids destroy it. Its salts are more or less soluble.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly in medicine, in similar cases to those in which the use of calumba-root is indicated. It has been highly recommended in dyspepsia and heartburn, in disturbed action of the liver, and, combined with iron (lactate, phosphate, or hyposulphite), in chlorosis, anæmia, &c. According to M. Altin, it is an effectual remedy for the mucal, colourless diarrh[oe]a, and the derangement of the urinary secretions which commonly follow cholera.--_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.; in larger doses it proves laxative. See CALUMBA, &c.

=BERENIZON= (Dr Charles Wortley). A preparation for promoting the growth of the hair. Balsam of Peru 3 grammes, castor oil 3 grammes, tinct. cinchona 4 grammes, spirit 85 grammes, rosewater 40 grammes. (Schädler.)

=BERG'AMOT.= _Syn._ BERGAMO'TA, L.; BERGAMOTE, Fr.; BERGAMOTTE, Fr., Ger. The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of _cit'rus ber'ga'mia_; also sometimes, colloquially, the fragrant oil obtained from its rind. See OILS (Volatile).

=BERGBALSAM--MOUNTAIN BALSAM= (of G. Schmidt, Berlin). Recommended for hemorrhoids, want of appetite, headache, constipation, &c. Rhubarb 2 parts, cortex frangulæ 10 parts, milfoil flowers (_Achillea millefolium_) 1 part, tansy 1 part, crystallised soda 1-1/2 parts; be digested for some hours in warm water, the fluid expressed made up to 26 parts, 30 parts of sugar dissolved in it, and lastly mixed with 17 parts of rectified spirit. (Hager.)

=BER'RY= (b[)e]r'-re). _Syn._ BAC'CA (pl. _bac'cæ_, -s[=e]), L.; BAIE, Fr.; BEERE, Ger. Any small succulent or pulpy fruit containing several naked seeds or granules. In _botany_, an indehiscent pericarp or seed-vessel, pulpy, many-celled, and many-seeded, the seeds being naked, and for a time connected by a slender membrane, from which they become detached at maturity, and then remain dispersed through the pulp. It is distinguished by its figure, &c., into several varieties.

The leading berries employed in domestic economy and the arts are noticed in their alphabetical places (which _see_).

=BER'YL= (b[)e]r-r[)i]l). _Syn._ AQUAMARINE' (r[=e]ne); A'QUA-MARI'NA, BERYL'LUS, L.; AIGUE-MARINE, BÉRIL, Fr.; BERYLL, &c., Ger.; SMARAGD, It. A beautiful mineral, which, in its richer forms, is classed with the gems. It is usually of a green colour of various shades, passing into honey-yellow and sky-blue. It is allied in composition to the emerald; but occurs in much larger crystals than that gem, and owes its colour to oxide of iron instead of oxide of chromium. According to Gmelin its composition is--Silica, 68·7%; alumina, 17·6%; glucina, 13·4%; red oxide of iron, ·24%. Other (previous) authorities state that it contains fully 14% of glucina, 2% of lime, and 1% of oxide of iron.

The finest beryls come from Dauria on the frontiers of China, from Siberia, and from Brazil. Some of gigantic size have been found in the U.S., at Ackworth and Grantham, New Hampshire, and at Royalston, Mass. One of these measured 32 × 22 × 15 inches, and weighed 2900 _lbs._; another, 12 × 24 × 45 inches, and weighed 1076 _lbs._

Apatite or Saxony beryl, chrysolite or pierre d'asperge, coloured fluor-spar, and even natural crystals of phosphate of iron, are often worked up by the lapidaries and passed off as beryls, or false beryls, emeralds, topazes, &c. See GEMS, PASTES, &c.

=BERYL'LA*.= See GLUCINUM, OXIDE OF.

=BERYL'LIUM*.= See GLUCINIUM.

=BETAINE.= C_{5}H_{11}NO_{21}. An alkaloid occurring in the juice of the mangold-wurzel. Scheibler prepares it as follows:--The expressed juice of the mangold-wurzel, strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is mixed with a solution of sodium phosphotungstate;[165] the resulting precipitate containing albumen, colouring matter, woody fibre, and a small quantity of the base, is filtered as quickly as possible, and the filtrate, mixed with a fresh quantity of the precipitant, is left to itself for eight or ten days. It then gradually deposits on the bottom and sides of the vessel a crystalline precipitate, which is rinsed with a little water and treated with milk of lime, whereby insoluble calcium phosphotungstate is produced, while the betaine remains in solution. The filtered liquid freed from lime by carbonic acid, and evaporated, leaves impure betaine, which may be purified by recrystallisation from alcohol, with help of animal charcoal.

[Footnote 165: Prepared by dissolving sodium bitungstate in ordinary phosphoric acid, adding hydrochloric acid, and decanting the clear solution from the precipitate thereby produced.]

A hydrochlorate, a sulphate, an aurochloride, and a platinic chloride of betaine have been prepared.

=BE'TEL= (b[=e]'tl). [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ BE'TLE, BE'TEL-TREE, B. PEPPER-TREE; BÉTEL, Fr.; WASSERPFEFFER, &c., Ger.; PI'PER BE'TEL (Linn.), CHAVICA BETLE (Miquel), L. A climbing plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ, common in India and the East. Its leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the citron, are bitter, stomachic, tonic, stimulant, and sialogogue.

=Betel.= A common masticatory in the East, where it is chewed in the same way as tobacco is by Europeans and Americans, but much more generally, being regarded by the Malays, Sumatrans, &c., as an absolute necessary of life. It is commonly formed by dividing areca-nuts[166] into four or six equal parts or slices, one of which is rolled up, with a little chunam,[167] in a sirih or leaf of the piper-betel,[168] and then constitutes a 'quid' ready for use.

[Footnote 166: In many cases suitable pieces of the whole fruit, including the husk, are used; and in others only the husk (PINANG); there being different strengths and qualities of 'betel' employed.]

[Footnote 167: Lime made by burning shells.]

[Footnote 168: In some cases, the leaf of chavica siriboa (Miq.), which possesses similar properties, is employed.]

_Prop., &c._ Betel, in those accustomed to its use, produces a species of pleasing excitement or intoxication, stimulates the action of the salivary glands, stomach, and kidneys, corrects acidity, diminishes cutaneous perspiration, restrains excessive discharges, increases the power of physical exertion and endurance, moderates the effects of climate, and appears to act as a general tonic on the system. It darkens the teeth, and tinges the saliva as well as the mouth and lips of a bright red colour. In those unhabituated to its use it causes giddiness, astringes and excoriates the mouth and fauces, and temporarily deadens the sense of taste. The Indians conceive that it preserves and fastens the teeth, cleanses and strengthens the gums, sweetens the breath, cools the mouth, assists respiration, and acts as a general aphrodisiac on both sexes. Peron states that he preserved his health during a long and very trying voyage by the habitual use of betel, whilst his companions, who did not use it, died mostly of dysentery.[169]

[Footnote 169: 'Voyage aux Terres Australes.']

=BE'TEL-NUT.= _Syn._ ARE'CA-NUT; NUX ARE'CÆ CAT'ECHU, N.-BE'TEL, &c., L. The seed of the catechu-palm (_are'ca_, _cat'echu_, Linn.), divested of the husk or fibrous pericarp. The whole fruit (ARECA-NUT of commerce) is about the size of a small egg; the husked nut is of the size of a large nutmeg. The whole fruit is remarkable for its narcotic or intoxicating power. It has, however, been thought doubtful whether its intoxicating effect is not owing to the piper-leaf in which it is wrapped when eaten (chewed), rather than to any special property of its own. See ARECA CATECHU.

=BETTNASSEN, Remedy for Incontinence of Urine= (prepared by Dr Kirchhoffer, in Kappel by St. Galle). Thirty powders, each consisting of 2 grammes ferri carbonas, 4 grammes ergotæ pulv., ·03 grammes extract. sem. strychni. aquos. The prescription for the embrocation runs--Spirit serpylli 120 grammes, tinct. sem. strychni. 60 grammes, liq. ammon. 15 grammes. (Hager.)

=BET'ULINE= (-[=u]-l[)i]n; b[=e]-t[=u]). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BETULI'NA, L. A crystalline substance obtained from the bark of the white birch (_be't[)u]la al'ba_, Linn.).

=BE'ZOAR= (-z[=o]re). [Eng., L. indecl.; prim. Pers.[170]] _Syn._ BE'ZOAR-STONE; BEZOÄR'DUS, LA'PIS BEZOÄR'DICUS, &c., L.; BÉZOAR, BÉZOARD, Fr.; BEZOARSTEIN, Ger. The name of preternatural concretions found in the stomach, intestines, &c., of certain animals, and formerly supposed to possess the most extraordinary antidotal power and medicinal virtues. So far, indeed, did this belief extend, that other substances regarded as antidotes were called BEZOAR'DICS[dagger], or otherwise named after them; whilst the adj. BEZOAR'DIC[dagger] (b[)e]z-) and BEZOAR'TICAL[dagger] (bézoardique, Fr.; bezoar'dicus, L.), came to be synonymous with antidotal. Certain bezoars were once valued at even ten times their weight in gold. They were not only taken internally, but also worn as amulets. They have, however, long since fallen into disuse in this country.

[Footnote 170: Some authorities derive this word from _badzahr_ or _pazahar_, Persian compounds implying 'antidote to poison,' others, from _paseng_, or _pasahr_, the name of the goat in Persia. Mayne's notation--_bez oar_, is unusual; and several of his analogues, synonymes, &c., are incorrectly given (? misprinted).]

Among the leading bezoars of old medicine are--

=Bezoar, Ger'man.= _Syn._ BE'ZOÄR GERMAN'ICUM, B. CAPRI'NUM, L. From the Alpine goat.

=Bezoar, Hu'man.= _Syn._ B. HOM'INIS, L. Falsely stated to be found occasionally in man.

=Bezoar, Microcos'mic.= _Syn._ B. MICROCOS'MICUM, L. Human urinary calculi.

=Bezoar, Mon'key.= _Syn._ B. SIM'Æ, LA'PIS S., L. From certain species of ape or monkey, obtained by giving an emetic.

=Bezoar Occiden'tal.= _Syn._ WEST'ERN B.; B. OCCIDENTA'LE, L. Found in the fourth stomach of the chamois or wild goat of Peru, &c.; or, according to others, of a species of antelope.

=Bezoar, Orien'tal.= _Syn._ EAST'ERN B.; B. ORIENTA'LE, LAPIS B. ORIENTA'LIS, L. From the fourth stomach of _ca'pra æga'grus_, a species of goat inhabiting the mountains of Persia, &c.

=Bezoar, Ox.= _Syn._ B. BOVI'NUM, L. From the ox, and other bovine animals.

=Bezoar, Por'cupine.= _Syn._ B. HYS'TRICIS, B. HYS'TRICUS, LA'PIS H., L. PORCI'NUS, &c., L. Said to be found in the gall-bladder of the Indian porcupine. Chiefly from Malacca. Has an intensely bitter taste, which it imparts to water.

=Bezoar, West'ern.= See OCCIDENTAL BEZOAR (_antè_).

Of the preceding, those from the stomach of ruminants vary in size from that of a bean to that of a hen's egg, and have a composition and appearance closely imitated by the following formula, the product of which is commonly sold for them:--

=Bezoar, Facti''tious.= _Prep._ From pipe-clay, or clay and chalk, equal parts, made into a stiff paste with ox-gall; a little hair or wool being added, and the resulting mixture pressed by the hands into small masses of a flattened spheroidal or egg-like form. These give a yellow tint to paper rubbed with chalk, and a green one to quick-lime, which tests are used for genuine bezoars. Like the latter, they are antacid or absorbent, which is probably the only virtue they possess.

Amongst 'chemical bezoars' now obsolete even on the Continent were--

=Bezoar, Ar'gentine[dagger]=; B. LUNA''RE, L. Made by distilling butter of antimony with a solution of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed in epilepsy and head diseases.

=Bezoar, Min'eral=; B. MINERA'LE, L. Powder of algaroth deflagrated with nitre in a red-hot crucible, and then well washed with water. Once used as a diaphoretic. Other similar preparations were B. JOVIA'LE (from tin), and B. MARTIALE (from iron).

=Bezoar, Sat'urnine=, B. OF LEAD; B. SATUR'NI, L. Made by distilling a mixture of oxide of lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once highly esteemed in diseases of the spleen.

=BHAURTA.= In Indian cookery, a dish made of mashed potatoes and onions, strongly spiced with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-powder, shaped in a mould, and then slightly baked.

=BIBAS'IC.= _Syn._ BIBAS'ICUS, L.; BIBASIQUE, Fr. In _chemistry_, having two bases, or two atoms of the base or basic radical in its composition. See ACID, NOMENCLATURE, SALT, &c.

=BIB'ERON= (b[)i]b'-r[=o]n_g_). [Fr.] A sucking-bottle or 'artificial mother.' See BOTTLES.

=BI'BIRINE= (b[=e]'-). See BEBEERINE.

=BIB'ULOUS= (-[=u]-). _Syn._ BIB'ULUS, L.; SPONGIEUX, Fr. Absorptive; spongy.

=BICAR'BONATE.= A salt in which only half the hydrogen in (hypothetical) carbonic acid (H_{2}CO_{3}) is replaced by a metal, _e.g._ bicarbonate of sodium, NaHCO_{3}.

=BICE= (b[=i]se), _Syn._ BLUE BICE. See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=Bice, Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=BICKEL'SCHER THEE=, for constipation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, loss of appetite, stomach complaints, and similar diseases. Cassia lignea and anise, of each 3 parts; cumin and fennel seed, each 4 parts; senna leaves, 20 parts; to be bruised together. (Selle and Hager.)

=BI'DERY= (b[=e]'-). _Syn._ VI'DRY. An alloy of which the chief seat of the manufacture is the city of Bider', near Hyderabad, India. It was first brought under the notice of the British public at the International Exhibition of 1851, where many articles made of it were greatly admired for the elegance of their forms, and the gracefulness of their engraved and enchased patterns.

_Prep._ 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead, of each 2 parts; melted together, with the usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and beeswax, to prevent oxidation.[171]

[Footnote 171: These are very nearly the proportions which Dr Hamilton says he saw used in India.]

2. (Dr Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part; melted together, as before. For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and to every 3 parts of it 16 parts of zinc are added.

_Prop., &c._ Colour between that of pewter and zinc; does not corrode by exposure to air or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can only be broken by extreme violence. It possesses a convenient degree of fusibility, above that of zinc and tin, but much lower than that of copper. For the turner it is usually cast in moulds of baked clay; but otherwise in moulds of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful black colour which the finished articles possess is imparted by dipping them into a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and blue vitriol. See BRASS, BRONZE, PEWTER, &c.

=BIDET'= (b[)i]d-[)e]t'; -[=a]'--Fr.). An article of bedroom furniture conveniently formed for laving the lower part of the body. Besides the value of its use as an instrument of personal cleanliness and health, it offers a ready means of medicating the parts, often highly serviceable in piles, prolapsus, affections of the scrotum and prostate gland, strangury, ischuria, suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See ABLUTION, BATHS, &c.

=BIELEFELDER TROPFEN--BIELEFIELDER DROPS= (Bansi). A spirituous extract of wormwood, unripe oranges, rhubarb, cascarilla, cloves, and gentian. (Hager.)

=BIEN'NIAL= (b[=i]-[)e]n'-y'[)a]l). _Syn._ BIEN'NIS, L.; BIENNAL, BISANNUEL, DE DEUX ANS, Fr.; ZWEIJÄHRIG, Ger. Occurring once in, or lasting, two years. In _botany_ and _gardening_, applied to plants that do not produce flowers and seed until the second year or season of their growth, and which then die; subst., a biennial plant.

The existence of the biennials, like that of the annuals, may be prolonged by art; indeed, many of them, by carefully removing the flowers ere the seed-vessels begin to form, may be made to bloom a second season, and even for several seasons following, like perennials. See ANNUALS, FLOWERS, PLANTS, &c.

=BIFF'IN.= A baked apple, flattened by pressure.

_Prep._ The apples are placed in a cool oven 6 or 7 times in succession, and flattened each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as soon as they are soft enough to bear it; after which they are taken out, and as soon as cold put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart variety of apples is the best for baking. If the process be well managed, the appearance of the prepared fruit is very rich and the flavour delicious.

=BIL'BERRY.= The whortleberry.

=Bilberry, Bear's.= Uva ursi.

=BILE.= _Syn._ BI'LIS,[172] CHO'LE,[173] FEL,[174] L.; BILE, FIEL, GALLE, Fr.; GALLE, &c., Ger. A bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and in part regurgitating into the gall-bladder. Its composition is of a very complex character; and its uses in the animal economy appear to be--to separate the chyle from the chyme, to promote the digestion and assimilation of oleaginous substances, and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the intestines. The fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence of bile; as, without it, they possess a dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the substances which enter into its composition, or which are formed from those which do so, are noticed elsewhere, under their respective names. Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts are given under GALL.

[Footnote 172: Properly, the 'gall' after it leaves the 'gall-bladder'--a sense retained in its English analogue.]

[Footnote 173: [Greek: Cholê], Gr.]

[Footnote 174: Strictly, the gall-bladder with the gall.]

=Bile= (of Animals). See GALL.

=BILE, Bil'iousness.= Under these terms are popularly included all those slight affections of the stomach usually accompanied with derangement of the head and bowels, apparently arising from excess of bile. Persons subject to attacks of this description should be particularly careful to avoid excess in both eating and drinking, and should more especially shun those articles of food and those liquors which, from experience, they find are apt to disagree with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-dressed, is an excellent article for the breakfast, or the lunch, of bilious patients; and good beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so that the gravy be retained, is better for dinner than many dishes apparently more delicate. These, with fresh game and venison, form a good variety from which to choose a bill of fare. New beer and porter should be particularly avoided, as well as boiled meat, stews, soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are very indigestible, and, by overtasking the powers of the stomach, very apt to derange it. Strong cheese,[175] salads (particularly cucumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit, new bread and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and especially peas, beans, nuts, almonds, and the like, are also objectionable for parties with delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The bread eaten by such persons should be perfectly free from alum, and preferably prepared with meal retaining the whole of the bran in it; and should be two days, or at the least one day old. The quantity of animal food per day, except for the laborious, should be limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 _oz._; and warm slops of all kinds, except moderately strong tea and coffee, should be taken as seldom as possible, and, in general, avoided altogether. Even cocoa and chocolate prove injurious to the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise and plenty of fresh air are essential to the health of such persons. Those who indulge in them freely are never attacked with affections of this kind, unless it be after gluttonising or heavy drinking. Above all things heavy and late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the better plan is to take nothing more than a hard biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.

[Footnote 175: Rotten cheese is absolute poison to the bilious.]

In general, attacks of bile may be prevented by the exercise of moderate judgment and temperance in living; and in those hitherto subject to them by the occasional use of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and they may be generally rapidly removed by an emetic, followed by a dose of castor oil, Epsom salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure cold water taken on retiring to rest, and another (or even two) on rising in the morning, will often remove both the tendency and the fit, when all the usual remedies have failed. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, ANTIBILIOUS, DYSPEPSIA, STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.

=BILHARZIA HÆMATOBIA.= A fluke-like parasite. It is bisexual. The body of the male is thread-shaped, round, white, and flattened anteriorly. The female is thin and delicate. This creature was discovered in the portal vein and bladder of man by Bilharz, of Cairo, after whom it was named. It is especially prevalent in those who dwell by the banks of the Nile, and is also very frequently met with amongst the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope. It is the cause of very serious disturbance in the human economy, and not infrequently of death.

The main symptoms of the disease this dangerous parasite sets up are those which point to derangement of the urinary organs; but its effects are not confined to these, since there seems little room to doubt that it is the chief cause of the dysentery so prevalent in Egypt, the eggs of the diatoma being found deposited within the intestinal vessels, or beneath the exudations of the swollen mucous membrane. Dr Harley has found the ova in the urine of persons affected with hæmaturia at the Cape of Good Hope. When death ensues from the presence of this parasite the post-mortem appearances are various. In the bowels, congestion, deposits upon the mucous membrane, and extensive ulcerations, degeneration and atrophy of the kidneys, dependent upon an infiltrated state of the ureters, and blocking of the portal vein, due to the presence of myriads of the parasites, are some of the most important pathological changes.

=BIL'IARY AFFECTIONS= (-y[)a]r-e). See BILE (_antè_), CALCULI, JAUNDICE, LIVER, &c.

=BI'LINE= (-l[)i]n). _Syn._ BILI'NA, L. This name has been loosely applied to two substances:--1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the mucus of the gall-bladder, and gently evaporated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass, white when powdered:--2. Tauro-cholalic or choleic acid. See GALL, &c.

=BIL'IOUS= (-y[)u]s). _Syn._ BILIO'SUS, L.; BILIEUX, Fr.; GALLIG, GALLICHT, &c., Ger. Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having excess of bile. See BILE, BILIOUSNESS.

=BILIPH'EINE= (-e-[)i]n). Cholepyrrhine.

=BILIV'ERDINE= (-d[)i]n). A green colouring matter, identical with chlorophyll, found in bile, and in the green dejections of children.

=BILL OF FARE.= In _cookery_, _domestic economy_, &c., a list of things ready dressed or prepared for the table (CARTE, C. D'UN RESTAURANT, MENU, &c., Fr.); also a list of articles of food in season. For Tables of the latter, see FOOD.

=BI'NARY.= _Syn._ BINA''RIUS, L.; BINAIRE, Fr. Consisting of two parts. In _chemistry_, compounded of two elements, or of two bodies performing the function of elements.

BINOC'ULAR (-[=u]-). Having two eyes. In _optics_, of or with two eyes, as binoc'ular v[)i]''sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or tubes, so as to be used with two eyes, as a b. mi'croscope, b. tel'escope, &c.

=BIRCH.= _Syn._ BE'TULA, L.; BOULEAU, Fr.; BIRKE, Ger. The common name of trees of the genus _be'tula_; appr., _b. al'ba_ (Linn.), or white birch; also its wood. See BETULINE, and _below_.

BIRCH, BLACK. _Syn._ CHER'RY B., SWEET B., MOUNT'AIN MAHOG'ANY; BETULEN'TA, L. A forest tree of N. America. Wood used for cabinet work; bark yields a volatile oil similar in odour and taste to that of gualtheria; juice obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields BIRCH-SUGAR.

=Birch, White.= _Syn._ BIRCH, (or) COMMON B.; BE'TULA, L. A tree found in the woods of England. Wood neither very hard nor durable; leaves formerly used in itch and dropsy; bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by distillation. See OILS (and _above_).

BIRD[176] [Eng., Sax.] _Syn._ A'VIS, L.; OISEAU, Fr.; VOGEL, Ger. Any fowl or animal of the feathered kind. In fashionable and gourmandic cant, appr. a partridge. See BIRDS (_below_).

[Footnote 176: Properly, a 'chicken' or 'young flying animal,'--It is remarkable, as observed by Webster, that a nation should lay aside the proper generic name of flying animals--'fowl' (_fugel_, _fugl_, Sax.; _vogel_, Ger., Dut.; _fugl_, Dan.; _fogel_, Sw.; from the root of the Lat., _fugio_, _fugo_), and substitute the name of the young of those animals as the generic term.]

=BIRD'LIME.= _Syn._ VIS'CUS, L.; GLU, Fr.; VOGELLEIM, Ger. _Prep._ The middle bark of the holly (gathered in June or July) is boiled for 6 to 8 hours in water, or until it becomes quite soft and tender; the water is then drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit underground (commonly on layers of fern), and covered with stones. Here it is left to ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if necessary, until it assumes a mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced to a uniform mass, which is then well kneaded with the hands in running water, until all the refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an earthen vessel, and covered with a little water; in which state it may be preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit for use.

_Prop._ Greenish coloured: very gluey, stringy, and tenacious; when air-dried, brittle and pulverisable, but capable of gradually assuming its previous viscosity when moistened.

_Uses._ To cover twigs to catch birds, and other small animals. It is said to be discutient, but is now never employed in medicine.

_Obs._ Birdlime may also be made from mistletoe berries, the young shoots of the elder, the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other vegetables, by a similar process to that above described. Should any of it stick to the hands it may be removed by means of a little oil of turpentine.

A kind of factitious birdlime is made by boiling linseed oil either with, or without, a little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid, stringy paste when cold. This is chiefly used, spread on paper or cloth, to catch insects. See FLY-PAPERS, &c.

=BIRDS.= _Syn._ A'VES, L. Birds, besides their value as food, play an important part in the economy of organic nature, and particularly in that of the vegetable kingdom. They are the best friends of the agriculturist and the gardener; and their presence, in numbers, appears essential to keep down the innumerable races of insects that prey upon our cereals, fruits, and culinary vegetables. M. Florent Prevost, who has for fifty years presided over the Natural History Museum of Paris, and who has, like the ancient Roman augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of fowls with scientific curiosity, avers, as the result of his long experience, that birds, of whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to the farmer, and that the detritus and organic particles found by inspection of them in whole hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the Royal Forest Rangers, he has sacrificed on the altar of utility, show an immense preponderance of insect corpuscula in their digestive organs, whilst the traces of cereal or other valuable products are infinitesimal in comparison. It is found that even sparrows, rooks, and owls--three of the feathered tribe the most persecuted by the farmer--are, in reality, the faithful and vigilant conservators of his fruits and crops. In one of the smaller states of Germany, where, owing to public rewards being given to their destroyers, the whole race of sparrows were exterminated, the crops failed to such an alarming extent that it became necessary to offer large premiums for the reintroduction of these useful birds from other parts. In some of the agricultural districts of France, where the destruction of small birds has been carried on with relentless activity for years, insects have so prodigiously multiplied as to attack everything green around them. Even the forest trees are, in many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and are rapidly perishing. Venomous species of caterpillars, previously scarcely known except to entomologists, have now become common; and cases of children losing their lives from attacks of them whilst birdnesting have been published in newspapers.[177] In our own country the extension of sparrow-clubs--associations disgraceful to the boasted intelligence of the nineteenth century--threatens similar results. Already the gardener finds his fruit-crops lessening year by year; and that many of them, particularly of the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so precarious, that they now scarcely pay for cultivation. In our own neighbourhood, where small birds have for some years been destroyed by bushels at a time, it is almost impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry, cherry, or plum; whilst seedling flowers and culinary vegetables often entirely disappear on the first night after being planted, or are so completely deprived of the succulent portion of their leaves and stems, that the remaining skeleton of network in a few days withers and dies. But this is not all--the columns of our diurnals bring us continual reports of failing grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which these bird-clubs have existed for any length of time, and that even on land previously remarkable for its fertility.[178] Did this loss fall only on the benighted beings who so wilfully cast back the blessings of an all-wise protecting Providence, it would be a just retribution; but, unfortunately, it affects the whole nation, and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by legislation, to prove a national calamity. The only apparent remedy for the evil, at present, is the diffusion of information tending to show that the farmer and the gardener, in destroying small birds, destroy their best friends.

[Footnote 177: A striking fatal case of this description is given in the 'Times' of June 12, 1862.]

[Footnote 178: See the 'Times' and other leading 'journals' for 1862.]

[For further information respecting birds, see AVES, BIRD (_antè_), GAME, GERMAN PASTE, NESTS (Edible), POULTRY, PUTREFACTION, TAXIDERMY, TRUSSING, &c.]