Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (29)

=BIRKENBALSAM--BIRCH BALSAM= (Dr Friedreich Lengiel). A cosmetic against wrinkles, small-pock marks, freckles, mole spots, red noses, acne, &c. 5 grammes water glass, 2 grammes potash, 1 gramme soap, 5 grammes gum arabic, 10 grammes glycerin, 400 grammes water. (Schädler.)

=BIS'COTIN.= [Fr.] A small biscuit. In _cookery_, &c., a species of confection made of eggs, flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously compounded and flavoured according to the taste of the operator.

=BIS'CUIT= (-k[)i]t). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BUCCELLA'TUM, PA'NIS BIS COC'TUS, L.; SWIEBACK, Ger.; BISCOTTO, It.; BIZCOCHO, Sp. Literally, 'twice-baked,' appr., a well-known variety of hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin flat pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA'-BISCUITS, CAP'TAIN'S B.[179]) are composed of flour and water only. When made of fine flour and a few caraway seeds are added, they are commonly called AB'ERNE'THY BISCUITS. Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar and butter, to which almonds, caraways, mace, ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically called 'flavourings,' are frequently added.

[Footnote 179: A captain's biscuit differs from a common 'sea biscuit' in being made of finer flour.]

_Prep._ On the small scale, biscuits are made by forming the flour and water into a dough by the common process of hand-kneading, occasionally assisted with a lever, as in making ordinary bread. The dough is then rolled into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired size and form. These, after being stamped, are exposed to the heat of a moderately quick oven, when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to their size) are sufficient to bake them.

On the large scale, the whole manual process, from preparing the dough to the point at which the newly-made biscuits are ready for baking is now generally performed by machinery. The articles so prepared are commonly known in trade as 'MACHINE-MADE BISCUITS,' and are not only much cheaper, but of fully equal quality to those 'made by hand.' In the bakehouses of her Majesty's Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, the ingenious machinery invented by Mr T. T. Grant is employed. These establishments are said to be capable of producing annually above 8000 tons of sea-biscuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000_l._ a year, from the cost that would have been incurred for the purpose on the old system. Under the latter it is stated that wages, and wear and tear of utensils, cost about 1_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new system the cost is only 5_d._

The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in the royal navy is 1 _lb._ per day; or, on the average, six biscuits.

=Biscuits Depuratifs= (Olivier) are made with meal, milk, and sugar. Each biscuit contains 1 centigramme corrosive sublimate. (Foy.)

=Biscuits, Fancy.= The varieties of these are almost innumerable. In a printed list now before us we observe the names of upwards of one hundred different kinds. These are produced by varying the number and proportions, of the ingredients used in their composition, and the form and size in which they are turned out of hand. They are further modified by the relative heat of the oven, as well as the length of time they are allowed to remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste of space to give particular directions for the preparation of each. The proportion of butter and sugar, or either of them, may be from 1 _oz._ and upwards, to flour, 1 _lb._; according to the degree of richness desired. In a few cases milk, or eggs, or both, are introduced. The 'flavourings' embrace a wide range of substances--bitter almonds, caraways, cassia, cinnamon, ginger, mace, nutmeg, lemon, orange-peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach kernels, vanilla, &c., &c.; many of which give their name to the biscuit.--AR'ROW-ROOT BISCUITS are usually made of equal parts of arrow-root and flour; MEAT'-BISCUITS, from about 1 part of lean meat (minced small and pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts of flour, and a little seasoning, no water being added;[180] SODA BISCUITS, by adding 1 to 2 _dr._ of carbonate of soda to each _lb._ of flour. In most other cases, the mere inspection of the biscuit will convey to the experienced biscuit-baker and cook sufficient information to enable him to produce an exactly similar one, or at least a very close imitation. The richest kind of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are made as follows:--Add the whites and yelks of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to 1-1/2 _lb._ of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it rises in bubbles, then add 1 _lb._ of the finest pastry-flour, and the grated rind of 2 lemons. Put it into 'shapes,' sift a little sugar over them, and bake them in buttered tin moulds, in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half an hour.[181]

[Footnote 180: For the MEAT-BISCUITS used in the navy, and by travellers, see MEAT.]

[Footnote 181: A few fancy biscuits will be found noticed in their alphabetical places. See CRACKNELS, MACAROONS, &c.]

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Caroz). Each biscuit contains 2 decigrammes scammony. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Sulot). Each biscuit contains 6 decigrammes scammony.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges= (Ferd. Gräf, Aschbach) contain 1/4 gramme resina scammonii in each.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges au Calomel= (Sulot). There are 3 decigrammes of calomel in each. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Vermifuges à la Santonine= (Sulot.) Each biscuit contains 5 centigrammes of san tonin. (Reveil.)

BISCUITS, DEV'ILED, in _cookery_, are captain's biscuits (or any similar kind) buttered on both sides, peppered well, and then covered on one side with a slice of good cheese formed into a paste with made mustard; the whole being seasoned with a little cayenne pepper is, lastly, grilled. Chopped anchovies, or essence of anchovies, is a good addition.

=BISMUTH.= Bi. BISMUTH, ETAIN DE GLACE, Fr.; BISMUTH, WISMUTH, W.-METALL, Ger. One of the metals.

_a_, Eliquation-tube.[182]
_b_, End at which it is charged.
_c_, End from which the metal flows.
_d_, Receiving-pan.
_e_, Water-trough.
_f_, Grate, &c.[183]
_g, g_, Draught-holes.]

[Footnote 182: Several of these tubes are usually set side by side together.]

[Footnote 183: Usually one to each eliquation-tube.]

_Sources._ Bismuth occurs in the mineral kingdom in the metallic state (NA'TIVE BISMUTH), and in combination with sulphur (BIS'M[)U]TH[)I]NE), and with oxygen (B. O'CHRE, &c.). That of commerce is mostly imported from Saxony, where it is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by the simple process of eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the gangue, and broken into pieces of about the size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited iron pipes of the furnace (see _engr._) until these latter are filled to about one half their diameter and to three fourths of their length. From these the liquefied metal is allowed to flow into iron pans containing some coal-dust, and from these into a trough of water, in which it is granulated and cooled. It is subsequently remelted and cast into moulds so as to form 'bars' varying in weight from 25 to 56 _lbs._ each. In this state it usually contains a small admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and sulphur; from the first of which it may be freed by exposure for some time, under charcoal, at a dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure condition by heating to redness, in a covered crucible, a mixture of oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.

_Prop._ Colour greyish-white with a reddish tint; crystalline; very brittle (may be powdered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does not re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below this point; it volatilises at a strong heat, and, in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged in crystalline laminæ; little acted on by the air, but when exposed to it at a high temperature burns with a faint blue flame, emitting yellow fumes which condense into a yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled, in large masses, it forms large cubic crystals or octahedrons of great beauty; nitric acid, somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is highly diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9·8 to 9·83, which, by careful hammering, may be increased to 9·8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated from 32° to 212°, expands exactly 1/710 in length.

_Uses, &c._ Bismuth enters into the composition of STEREOTYPE-METAL, SOLDER, PEWTER, FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys. Added to other metals it renders them more fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and silver is said to hinder iron from rusting. A mixture of bismuth, lead, and tin is much employed for taking impressions from dies, forming moulds, and for other purposes.

Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or decomposed by any quantity of water into free acid and a basic salt. They are nearly all colourless, and, except the chloride, more volatile. They are easily recognised by the following reactions:--

Their saturated or concentrated solutions giving a white precipitate on dilution with water:--Sulphuretted hydrogen blackens them, or gives a black precipitate:--The nitric solution is unaffected by the addition of sulphuric acid:--Chromate of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, which differs from that from lead, by being soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in potassa.

Von Kobbell takes a mixture of potassium iodide and flowers of sulphur in equal proportions, and heats the whole on charcoal before the blowpipe; the production of bright scarlet, very volatile bismuth iodide ensues, even when only traces of bismuth are present.

For a method of volumetrically estimating bismuth, consult a paper by Mr Pattison Muir, in the 'Journal of the Chemical Society,' April, 1876.

=Bismuth, Car'bonate.= (Ph. B.) Mix nitric acid, four fluid ounces, with three fluid ounces of distilled water, and add in successive portions purified bismuth, in small pieces, two ounces. When effervescence has ceased apply for ten minutes a heat approaching ebullition; then decant the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate to two fluid ounces, and add this in small quantities at a time to a cold filtered solution of six ounces of carbonate of ammonia, in two pints of distilled water, constantly stirring. Collect precipitate on a calico filter; wash till washings pass tasteless. Remove water by slight pressure of the hands, and dry at a heat not exceeding 150°.--_Dose_, 5 to 20 grains.

=Bismuth, Chlorides of:=

=Basic Chlo''ride.= Bi_{3}Cl_{8}. _Syn._ SUBCHLO''RIDE OF BISMUTH, PEARL'-POWDER; BISMU'THI SUBCHLORI'DUM, L. _Prep._ A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid is dropped into another of bismuth (prepared by dissolving that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting precipitate, after being well washed in pure water, is dried in the shade.--_Prop., Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the subnitrate.

=Chlo''ride.= BiCl_{3}. _Syn._ TERCHLO''RIDE OF BISMUTH. _Prep._ A mixture of corrosive sublimate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; (both in powder) is exposed to heat until all the 'mercury' present is expelled, after which it is at once put into bottles. A greyish-white, granular substance.

=Bismuth, Nitrates of=:

=Basic, Nitrate.= BiONO_{3}. _Syn._ PEARL-WHITE, BISMUTH SUBNITRATE; BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS, B. BISMUTHI NITRAS, L.; BLANC DE FARD, B. D'ESPAGNE*, &c., Fr.; PERLWEISS, SCHMINKWEISS, &c., Ger. _Prep._ Bismuth, 1 oz.; nitric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints; mix 1 fl. oz. of the water with the acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture; throw the solution into the remainder of the water, and, after repose, pour off the supernatant liquor, drain the powder that has subsided on a linen cloth, wash it with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.

_Prop._ A pearly white, inodorous powder, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in nitric acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it greyish. When prepared from a neutral solution, it consists of very fine microscopic crystalline laminæ; but when prepared from acid solutions, with less water, the crystals are acicular, and more silky and lustrous. When moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with litmus paper.

_Pois., &c._ Like the other salts of bismuth, it causes vomiting, purging, giddiness, cramp, insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known. The treatment may consist of an emetic, followed by the copious use of emollient drinks, as weak broth, barley water, milk and water, &c.; and subsequently, when necessary to prevent inflammation, by a low diet and aperients.

_Uses, &c._ In _medicine_, as a sedative, an astringent, or tonic, and an antispasmodic, in chronic affections of the stomach unaccompanied by organic disease of that organ, and apparently of a nervous character; particularly in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomiting, pyrosis or waterbrash, and generally in gastro-intestinal affections attended with fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic asthma, &c.--_Dose_, 5 to 10, or even 20 gr.

Externally, made into an ointment with 4 parts of lard, it has long been employed in certain chronic skin diseases. Under the name of PEARL-WHITE it is commonly used by ladies as a cosmetic; but it is stated that it injures the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of its minute vessels, rendering it yellow and leather-like--an effect which, unfortunately, it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer and more frequent application. In very large doses it is poisonous.

Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride of bismuth pass under the names of PEARL-WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their extreme whiteness and beauty. That of the druggists, however, is usually the former; that of the perfumers usually the latter, but not unfrequently both.

=Bismuth Powder=, for beautifying the skin and removing freckles. (From North America.) Consists of calcium carbonate, with much clay, and is free from injurious metals. (Chandler.)

=Bismuth, Purified.= (Ph. Br.) Put bismuth, 10 ounces, and 1 ounce of powdered nitrate of potash, into a crucible, and heat them until both are fused. Continue the heat, constantly stirring, for fifteen minutes, or till the salt has solidified into a slag above the metal. Remove the salt, add nitrate of potash, 1 ounce, to bismuth in crucible, and repeat the process. Pour the fused bismuth into a suitable mould, and let it cool.

=Nitrate.= Bi(NO_{3})_{3}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL NITRATE, TERNITRATE. Purified bismuth (in small fragments), 2 oz.; nitric acid, 6 oz.; dissolve with heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to effect entire solution of the metal; to the resulting solution add half its volume of distilled water, filter through powdered glass, and evaporate until crystals form.

_Use._ Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source of the pure oxide and the subnitrate.

=Bismuth Oxides=:--

=Bismuthous Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ TEROXIDE OF BISMUTH, PROTOXIDE OF BISMUTH. From either the neutral or the basic nitrate, by exposure, in a crucible, to gentle ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of rather difficult solubility.

HY'DRATED:--By gradually dropping an acid solution of bismuthous nitrate into a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate perfectly free from carbonic acid, and washing and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure. A rich-looking white powder.

_Prop., &c._ Fuses at a high temperature, and then acts as a powerful flux on siliceous matter without itself imparting colour, a property of which the enameller and gilder has long availed himself. Like the basic nitrate, it has been used as an antispasmodic and as a cosmetic. Sp. gr. 8·211 to 8·355.

=Bismuthic Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ BISMUTHIC ANHYDRIDE, BISMUTHIC ACID. Suspend teroxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa, and pass chlorine through the mixture until decomposition is complete; treat the powder with dilute nitric acid (to remove any undecomposed teroxide), after which wash it in cold water, and dry it.

_Prop., &c._ A reddish powder, soluble in water. Its salts, of which little are known, are called BIS'MUTHATES. When heated it loses oxygen, and a bismuthate of bismuth is formed.

=Bismuthous Sulphide.= Bi_{2}S_{3}. This compound occurs native (BIS'M[)U]TH[)I]NE), and may be easily prepared artificially by either fusing its elements together, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of bismuth.

=Bismuthous Valerianate.= _Syn._ BISMU'THI VALERIA'NAS, L. _Prep._ An acid solution of nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solution of valerianate of soda in water containing a little free valerianic acid; the precipitate is carefully washed in distilled water, and dried in the shade. Recommended as superior to the subnitrate in some forms of gastrodynia, dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.--_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr., or more.

=BIS'TRE= (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BISTER, Ger. _Prep._ 1. The most compact, best coloured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of beechwood, or of peat,[184] are selected, reduced to powder and sifted through a very fine lawn sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water for several hours, with frequent stirring; after which it is allowed to settle, when the liquid portion is decanted from the sediment. This process is repeated a second, and even a third time. The paste is next poured into a tall narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure cold water, and well agitated. The grosser parts only are now allowed to subside,[185] and the supernatant liquor, containing the finer portion of the BISTRE in suspension, is poured off into another vessel, where it is left to deposit its contents. The deposit is next collected, and carefully dried and powdered; or it is only partially dried, and at once made into cakes with gum-water or isinglass-size, and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.

[Footnote 184: The first is usually employed in England.]

[Footnote 185: Two or three minutes suffice for this purpose.]

2. (Dr MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid obtained from the dry distillation of wood is again carefully distilled until all volatile matter has passed over, and a brittle, pitch-like residuum is obtained, which is either brown or black according to the time and temperature employed; after which the heat is still further prolonged, but with increased care, until the brittle substance becomes pulverulent and carbonaceous. It is then ground and elutriated with pure cold water, as before.

_Uses, &c._ As a water colour to tint drawings, in the same way as Indian ink, to which it is esteemed superior when the subjects are intended to be afterwards tinted with other colours. It occupies the same place among water colours that brown-pink does in oil.

According to Dr MacCulloch, bistre from wood-tar, when carefully prepared, has great depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine properties of sepia; but that if the whole of the oils and acids have not been removed by the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks which interfere with its use.

=BITES= and =STINGS=. _Syn._ MOR'S[=U]S (-S[=U]S, _sing._) ET IC'T[=U]S (-T[)U]S, _s._), L. The treatment of the bites of non-venomous and non-rabid animals is the same as that of ordinary lacerated or punctured wounds, as the case may be; that of the bites and stings of venomous and rabid animals, serpents, insects, &c., often require, in addition, the use of special antidotes to destroy the virus or to prevent its absorption, or to neutralise its effects when absorbed and to promote its elimination from the system.

The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, and similar insects common to this climate may be treated by washing the part with spirit of hartshorn or dilute liquor of ammonia or eau de luce, or a weak solution of chloride of lime. Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the part become much swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches may be applied, and a cooling purgative given. The stings of venomous reptiles may be similarly treated, excepting that the strength of the solutions of ammonia, chloride of lime, &c., should be stronger than in the former case, so as to produce some pain and smarting. In cases where the venom is of a very poisonous description, the wound should be first well washed with water of ammonia, and afterwards seared with lunar caustic in every part, including the interior and deep-seated portions. In extreme cases the surface of the wound, both internal and external, may be removed with the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as a finger, the injured portion may be amputated. Prior to the use of the washes or caustic, dry-cupping or suction with the mouth may be had recourse to with great advantage. A ligature placed on the limb, above the wound, as soon as possible after the accident, will impede the absorption of the poison whilst the other treatment is in progress. A similar plan may be followed after the bite of a dog supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been lately asserted by one of our most celebrated veterinarians that he and his colleagues have been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly applied caustic to the parts they have escaped uninjured.

The poison inserted by the stings and bites of several venomous reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to occasion death within a very short space of time, and before any remedy or antidote, under ordinary circumstances, can be applied. But even in these extreme cases it is probable that absorption, and consequently the rapidity of the action of the poison, might be considerably impeded or lessened by the immediate application of a ligature above the part, as before described, the patient accompanying the treatment by swallowing a large quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora would be produced, and the functions of the absorbents for a time nearly-suspended. A few minutes thus gained would permit of the application of appropriate antidotes, by which the poison might be neutralised before it would become necessary to remove the ligature, whilst the kidneys would be in full action. Unfortunately, these wounds are generally inflicted in parts of the world where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times when people are least prepared to meet them, as well as so suddenly and unexpectedly as to stagger even those observers who may be in no absolute danger themselves. Such is the bite of the East Indian CO'BRA DI CAPEL'LO, against which two Asiatic (arsenical) pills are often prescribed by the Hindoos; but which are generally scarcely swallowed before the poison of the serpent has rendered the patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a favorite remedy in India, when liberally employed both internally and externally, is said to prove sometimes more successful. The bite of the PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a more fatal description than that of the cobra. When the venom of any of these animals or of a rabid dog is once fully absorbed into the system, there appears to be no treatment that can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira wine or 1/2 a pint of brandy or rum diluted with twice its weight of water, drank in two doses about 3 or 4 minutes apart, is a popular remedy in India in such cases. Its effect is to impede absorption.

The secret antidote so long successfully employed by Mr Underwood, the 'snake-king' of Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNAKE and the DIAMOND-SNAKE, two of the most venomous of that region, is now positively asserted to be the common male fern (_polypo'dium fi'lix mas_, Linn.). Of the powdered root, or preferably, of the green leaves of this plant nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoction, or broth, which he takes or administers liberally. A more convenient preparation would, perhaps, be a tincture prepared by digesting 1 _oz._ of the dried, or 3 _oz._ of the fresh leaves (bruised), in a pint of proof spirit or strong brandy or rum for a fortnight; as in this state it could be kept for any length of time, if well corked, without deterioration.

For HORSES AND CATTLE. Mr Finlay Dun recommends ammonia solution; solution of caustic potash; carbolic acid; prussic acid and chloroform.

[See HYDROPHOBIA, POISONS, SNAKE-BITES, STINGS, VENOM, WOUNDS, &c.[186]]

[Footnote 186: Notices of several chemical and neurotic antidotes, of great promise, will also be found in different parts of this volume. The names of the respective animals may likewise be referred to.]

=BITT'ER.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ AMA''RUS, L.; AMER, Fr. Tasting like wormwood, quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a bitter plant, bark, or root (= AMA''RUM, L.; see _below_).

=Bitter App'le[double-dagger].= Colocynth.

=Bitter Cup.= A cup or tumbler formed by the turner out of quassia wood. Liquor, by standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and stomachic. They are now common in the shops.

=Bitter Earth*.= Magnesia.

=Bitter Herbs.= See BITTERS (_infrà_) and SPECIES (Bitter).

=Bitter Salt[dagger]=, Bitter Pur''ging-salt. Sulphate of magnesia.

=Bitt'er-sweet.= Woody nightshade.

=Bitt'er-wort[double-dagger]= (-w[)u]rt). Gentian.

=BITT'ERN.= The 'mother-water' or 'bitter liquor' of salt-works from which the chloride of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by crystallisation.

=Bittern.= An intoxicating poisonous mixture sold by the brewers' druggists, composed of 1 part each of extract of quassia and powdered sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculus indicus, 4 parts of Spanish liquorice, and about 8 parts of treacle; the liquorice being first boiled with a little water until dissolved, and the solution evaporated to a proper consistence before adding the other ingredients. Used by fraudulent brewers and publicans to impart a false bitter and apparent strength to their liquors.

=BITT'ERS= (-[)e]rz). _Syn._ AMA''RA, &c., L. Vegetable bitters are commonly regarded as tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when taken occasionally and in moderation. The best time is early in the morning, or half an hour or an hour before a meal. An excessive, or a too prolonged use of them, tends to weaken the stomach, and to induce nervousness. They should not be taken for a longer period than about 8 or 10 days at a time, allowing a similar period to elapse before again having recourse to them.

Among the most useful and generally employed bitters are--calumba, cascarilla, chamomiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia, and wormwood.

=Bitters.= In the liquor-trade, a compound prepared by steeping vegetable bitters, and some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit, for some 8 or 10 days; a little sugar or syrup being subsequently added to the strained or decanted tincture. In that of the taverns and gin-shops the menstruum is usually gin, or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding strength. BRAN'DY-BITTERS and WINE'-BITTERS are prepared in a similar way with common British brandy, or some cheap white wine (Cape or raisin), as the case may be. Each maker has usually his own formulæ, which he modifies to suit the price and the palate of his customer.--This class of liquors has been justly charged with being the fertile cause of habitual intemperance, of disease, and even of death! Their occasional use as tonics or stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the trash, and even deleterious substances, which so frequently enter into their composition. See LIQUEURS.

=BITU'MEN.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ BITUME, Fr.; ERDPECH, ERDTHEER, &c., Ger. A term of a very comprehensive character, and, in general, very loosely applied, including a variety of inflammable mineral substances, consisting of varying proportions of hydrocarbons, having a strong smell and differing in consistence, all the varieties being found in the earth, of which asphaltum, naphtha, and petroleum may be mentioned as examples.

Asphalt is very extensively disseminated throughout Europe, Asia, and America. Considerable quantities are exported from the West Indian Islands, and from the Dead Sea, in Judæa; hence its commercial name, 'Jewish bitumen,' or 'Jew's pitch.' The different kinds vary greatly in quality, according to the amount of earthy matter and other impurities contained in them; they may all, however, be reduced to a state of equal purity by boiling or macerating them in hot water, by which means the earthy and siliceous matters are more or less completely removed. These latter fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the bitumen rises to the surface, or forms clots on the sides of the boiler, when it is skimmed off, and thrown into a large cooler, where more water separates. At the Seyssel and Bechelbronn bitumen works the bitumen so obtained is thrown into large cauldrons and boiled for some time, by which means the volatile products and water accompanying it are driven off, and the remaining sand and impurities fall to the bottom of the cauldron, leaving the purified asphalt in the form of a thick fatty pitch, in which state it comes into the market or is applied to various purposes. In the following table we give the composition of a few bitumens:

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.

Viscous bitumen
of Bechelbronn 88·0 12·0 -- --

Virgin bitumen
of Bechelbronn 88·0 11·0 -- 1·0

Liquid bitumen from
Hatten, Lower Rhine 88·0 11·6 -- 0·4
|_______________|
Solid bitumen of Coxatambo, |
near Cuença, in Peru 88·7 9·7 1·6

_Annexed is a table of the analysis of several
asphalts, centesimally represented_:--

Bitumen of Bitumen of
Bitumen of Pont de Chateau, Bitumen of Monastier,
Bastennes. Auvergne. Abruzzi. Haute Loire.

_______|_______ _______|_______
| | | |
Crude. Pure. Crude. Pure.

Oily matters } {20·0 -- -- -- -- 7·0
Carbon } Bitumen { 3·7 76·13 77·5 77·64 81·8 3·5
Hydrogen -- 9·41 9·6 7·86 8·4 --
Nitrogen -- } { 12·4 1·02 1·0 --
Oxygen -- } 12·66 { 0·5 8·35 8·8 --
Water -- -- -- -- -- 4·5
Gas and vapour -- -- -- -- -- 4·0
Quartz sand and mica } { -- -- -- -- 60·0
Clay } 76·3 { -- -- -- -- Ferrug. 21·0
Ashes -- 1·80 -- 5·13 -- --
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0

The solid bitumens are now extensively employed in the manufacture of bituminous mastic or cement and similar compositions, which are used for the lining of water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic purposes; as also for roofs, floors, roads, pavements, &c. For the last purpose the native varieties of 'asphaltic rock,' consisting of a mixture of bitumen and calcareous earth, when tempered with a proper quantity of crushed granite, or calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the most substantial and durable. The plan followed in laying down such pavements in Paris, where they have been the most extensively adopted, is--The ground having been made uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual manner, with curb-stones rising about 4 inches above its level, and then covered, to the depth of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about 1-6th part of good hydraulic lime), which is well pressed upon its bed, the surface being subsequently smoothed over with a very thin coating of hydraulic mortar. On this, when perfectly dry,[187] the 'bituminous mastic,' rendered semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in a suitable iron cauldron,[188] is evenly spread over so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch, or for less solid work, half an inch thick. Some coarse sand is lastly sifted over and pressed down on the surface, when the work is complete; and in a few days the pavement becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be thrown open to foot passengers.

[Footnote 187: On this point depends the success of the work. Absolute dryness is a _sine quâ non_ in the process. The mastic must also be laid down in dry weather. If laid in wet, damp, or even foggy weather, it will be liable to separate from its bed, and gradually to break up. This is why so much of the asphalt and bituminous pavement laid down in London has proved a failure.]

[Footnote 188: It is here that the mixture of the bitumen (previously crushed sufficiently small to pass through meshes 10 to the inch) is made with the sand or gravel; a small portion of mineral tar or coal-tar (3 to 7 or 8%) being commonly added to promote their fusion and complete union.]

An important precaution to be observed in making asphalt pavements or roads is to boil the bitumen which is employed thoroughly, so as to expel the water and volatile oils, which if allowed to remain are found to render the mastic more liable to be affected by the extremes of heat and cold, as well as less able to stand the wear and tear of traffic.

_Claridge's Process._ This consists in fusing the blocks of mastic in a suitable boiler, similar to that seen in fig. 1, and in adding a quantity of mineral tar, in the proportion of 1 _lb._ to every _cwt._ of the mastic. The tar is first fused in the boiler, 56 _lbs._ of the mastic are then introduced, and the whole repeatedly stirred so as to prevent the formation of a deposit. When the contents of the boiler are melted, the cauldron is covered over for a quarter of an hour, after which the remainder of the mastic is added, and its fusion proceeded with as before, the process being repeated until the boiler is full, allowing an interval of from ten to fifteen minutes between each operation.

When the mastic is sufficiently fluid it will drop freely from the stirrer, and jets of light smoke are observed to issue from it. If stiff mastic be required, the proportion of tar is lessened, and a quantity of coarse grit or river sand, to the amount of 20 or 30 _lbs._ to the _cwt._, is added.

In laying the asphalt the greatest attention and care must be paid to the preparation of a solid and dry foundation.

This is usually accomplished by removing or ramming the loose earth, and placing upon the bed a layer of coarse sand mixed with powdered limestone, in the proportion of seven parts of the former to one of the latter, and the whole is pressed or beaten solid; upon this a second layer of finer materials is laid compacted and levelled; the bed thus prepared is allowed to dry before coating it with mastic.

Fig. 2 shows the manner in which ordinary asphalting is laid down. In this figure C is the bed of coarse concrete, B the second and finer layer of the same material, and A the superior layer of asphalt.

The base or concrete must be perfectly dry when the mastic is poured on, or the work will be a failure, for the moisture will be converted into steam, which, issuing through the fluid mastic, will cause the formation of holes in the latter or blister it, and ultimately the surface will crack. To counteract in some measure the evil arising from the formation of steam, fine cinder dust is sifted over the bed of concrete previous to the application of the mastic.

When asphalting suspension bridges, a sheet of canvas is usually spread over the concrete.

In asphalting damp places, such as cellars and foundations, a brick invert is always laid in asphalt beneath the concrete. This is done by placing the bricks in rows, at the proper depth and slope, and pouring a coating of asphalt about a quarter of an inch thick upon them. Before the mastic solidifies, the bricks are separated a little by passing a knife between them, thus affording the mastic an opening by which to seal up more thoroughly the connection. The concrete is afterwards laid upon this bed, and the layer of mastic upon this in the usual way. The thickness of the layer of mastic varies according to the attrition to which it is to be subjected; but the usual depth is from a quarter to one and a quarter inch.

_Artificial Asphalt._ This is prepared from coal tar by distilling off the volatile oils which hold the tar in solution, the result being that a kind of fatty pitch is left, which must be boiled until a sample, when cooled, becomes nearly solid. The operation may be accomplished in the open air, but if this means of evaporation be adopted, the process is attended with a very unpleasant odour, and the volatile oils are dissipated. These volatile oils are used for the preparation of varnish, for lubricating machinery, and for the manufacture of a superior kind of lampblack. They have also been employed to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas, which purpose they accomplish by imparting their vapours to gas passed over them when they are placed in shallow vessels. Various forms of patent apparatus have been designed for this purpose.

When it is required to collect the oils, the coal tar is placed in a retort made of sheet iron, with a convex bottom, which is placed immediately over a fire. The products of the combustion after striking the bottom of the retort circulate round it, then proceed under a second boiler to heat the tar contained in it, and from which the retort is replenished when necessary. This vessel, when three quarters full, contains nearly 24 _cwts._ of tar; it should be perfectly embedded in masonry; the capital itself by which the volatile products escape should be surrounded with materials that are bad conductors of heat, such as ashes. But for this precaution the volatile oils would become condensed, and fall back into the evaporating vessel.

The volatile oils are collected by being made to pass through a tube cooled by a current of water, this tube running in a direction the reverse of that pursued by the vapours, and terminating in a closed vessel, which acts as the receptacle for the oils. A tube branching from the boiler conducts the uncondensed products outside the building in which the distillation is conducted.

When the tar has been boiled sufficiently long to give it the requisite consistence, it is removed by means of a pipe into a third hemispherical boiler of cast-iron. To prepare the bituminous mastic directly from this fatty pitch, the latter is kept in a state of fusion, and chalk in sufficient quantity is then added. If the chalk be previously heated, ground to a coarse powder, and sifted, the mixture is effected more rapidly and satisfactorily.

The asphalt becomes the more solid the greater the proportion of chalk added; on the other hand, it becomes less elastic and more brittle. The asphalt is moulded as follows:--A long table is covered with cast-iron plates, surrounded with a framework, which is subdivided into eight or ten equal compartments by means of rules of about six inches in height, introduced vertically into grooves formed at equal intervals in the long sides of the frame. The eight or ten moulds obtained by this means are coated internally with a paste composed of sixty parts of water and forty of chalk. This compound prevents the mastic adhering to the sides of the mould, and ensures its being easily detached.

Two barrels, or 9 _cwts._ of tar, lose by distillation one fourth of their weight, the loss consisting of 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 15 _lbs._ of volatile oils, and 1 _qr._ 13 _lbs._ of water.

Sometimes ground or fine sand enters into the composition of asphalt in proportions equal to the chalk; but in some cases only half as much sand as chalk is used.

In the manufacture of asphalt it is very important that the contents of the cauldron should be stirred during fusion, not only to prevent the tar adhering to the bottom, and so getting burnt, but to ensure the ingredients being brought into intimate combination, and a homogeneous and smooth compound being produced.

As soon as the whole is thoroughly incorporated, the proper consistence attained, and the vapours of the volatile oils and water come off in very minute quantities, the asphalt is run off into the moulds before described, and when sufficiently set may be removed, and is ready for use.

Dr G. H. Smith has patented a process for making artificial asphalt, waterproof concrete, &c., which promises to become of great value in the construction of sea walls, docks, and harbour works, &c. Dr Smith's invention consists in filling up the interstices of any porous substance, such as brick, burned or unburned clay, soft stones, plaster of Paris, &c., with pitch or tar which has been boiled to such a consistence that the pores or cells of the material used are completely filled with solid matter when cold.

Other hydrocarbons, resins, or gums may be used instead of pitch or tar; but it is essential that the saturating substances, though naturally fluid or semifluid, can be so changed by boiling that they lose their fluidity when cold; or they must be, though hard under all ordinary temperatures of the atmosphere, capable of reduction by heat or otherwise to a fluid condition, so that they will penetrate the porous materials.

The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de Travers, in the Canton of Neufchâtel, is said to be the richest and most extensive in the world of its particular class. The calcareous bitumen which it yields contains 20% of nearly pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime; and it has a sp. gr. (2·115) approaching that of ordinary bricks.

The 'Val de Travers Company,' and the 'Bastenne and Gaujac Company,' are, it is said, those which have hitherto been the most successful in laying down asphalto-pavements. See ASPHALTUM, PETROLEUM, &c.

=Bitumen, Elastic.= _Syn._ MIN'ERAL CAOU'TCHOUC (k[=o][=o]'-ch[)o][)o]k), EL'ATERITE. A rather rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from the other solid varieties in being elastic.

=Bitumen, Liq'uid.= Petroleum.

=BITU'MINOUS.= _Syn._ BITUTM[)I]NO'SUS, L.; BITUMINEUX, Fr.; ERDPECHIG, Ger. Of bitumen, or resembling or containing it.

=BIX'EINE= (-e-[)i]n). The red colouring-principle of annotta. It is obtained by treating bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent free contact of air.

_Prop., &c._ When pure, a rich deep-red powder, soluble in alcohol and in alkalies, and turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to be oxidised bixine.

=BIXIN.= The red resinous colouring matter of annatto. Bolley and Mylius prepare it by digesting the dried alcoholic extract of annatto with ether; repeatedly treating the least soluble portion (which contains the greater part of the colouring matter) with hot ether; dissolving the remainder in alcohol; precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate; decomposing the washed precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; extracting the colouring matter therefrom by hot alcohol; and precipitating the alcoholic solution with water.

=BIX'INE= (-[)i]n). The yellow colouring-principle of annotta.

_Prep._ A solution of annotta is precipitated with a solution of acetate of lead; the precipitate, after having been washed in cold water, is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the decanted liquor or filtrate yields crystals by cautious evaporation.

_Prop., &c._ Yellowish white, turning full yellow by exposure to air; soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; by oxidation it is converted into bixeine. For a correct knowledge of both of these substances we are indebted to M. Preisser.

=BLACK.= _Syn._ A'TER,[189] NI'GER, L.; NOIR, Fr.; SCHWARZ, Ger.; BLAC, BLÆC, Sax. In _dyeing_, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of night; subst., a black colour.

[Footnote 189: Black, deep black; as opposed to _albus_, white.]

=Black Ash.= The waste lye of the soapmakers is evaporated in large iron boilers, the salt separated as it falls down, and then heated in a reverberatory furnace, until it is partially decomposed and fused, when it is run into iron pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of alum and common soap.

=Black Col'ours= (k[)u]l'-). See BLACK PIGMENTS.

=Black Draught.= See MIXTURE, SENNA (Compound).

=Black Drop.= See DROPS, PATENT MEDICINES, &c.

=BLACK DYE.= _Syn._ TEINTE NOIRE, Fr.; SCHWARZE FARBE, Ger. The following are the processes and materials now commonly employed in dyeing black:--

_a._ For COTTON:--

1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped for about 24 hours in a decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in water, and passed through a bath of acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they are next again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air; after which they are passed a second time through the bath, to which a little more iron-liquor is previously added. The whole process is repeated, if necessary, according to the intensity of the shade of black desired.

2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, worked well, and then passed through a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. Less permanent than No. 1.

_Obs._ About 2 _oz._ of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 _oz._ of sumach, are required for every pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The first should be boiled in the water, in the proportion of about 1/2 gal. of water to every lb. of cotton. The sumach-bath is better made by mere infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot water.

3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put into a boiling bath made of 3 lbs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with occasional 'working,' until the liquor is perfectly cold; they are next passed through lime water, and, after having drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free exposure to the air for about an hour they are again passed through lime water, and, after draining, 'worked' for an hour in a bath made with 3 lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they are then 'lifted,' and 1/4 lb. of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, 'worked' well for about 30 minutes, and finished. Good and deep.

_Obs._ Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be used, observing to take 1-1/2 pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the former ordered above.

_b._ For FLAX and LINEN:--

This, for the most part, closely resembles that employed for cotton; but, in some cases, a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas, followed by passing the goods through lime-water, and exposure to the air, precedes the dye-bath.

_c._ For SILK:--

Silk goods are dyed much in the same way as woollens, but the process is conducted with less heat:--

1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to 36 hours, occasionally working the goods therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and well aired, after which they are passed for a few minutes through a bath containing sulphate of iron, and are then again drained, rinsed, and aired. The steep in the nut-gall bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed, as before, by the iron-bath previously replenished with a little fresh copperas. The whole quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk varies with their quantity from 1/2 to 3/4 lb., that of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to 4 _oz._

2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 _lbs._ of bruised Aleppo galls, for 2 hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of water, observing to add boiling water from time to time, to compensate for that lost by evaporation; to the clear bath add 32 lbs. of copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of gum; digest with agitation for 1 hour, and when the ingredients are dissolved, pass the silk (previously prepared ['galled'] with 1/3rd of its weight of gall-nuts) through the bath for about an hour; then rinse and air it well; next leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and this immersion or steep may be repeated, if necessary, at will. This is said to be the process commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa and Tours.

3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an hour through a mordant formed of 1 lb. of copperas and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer's), with sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water and airing them, 'work' them for an hour in a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb. of fustic; then lift them from the bath, add 2 oz. of copperas, reimmerse, and 'work' them well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse, air, and finish. A full deep black.

4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use 1/2 lb. of copperas; rinse, and air; for the 'dye-bath,' a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which 1/2 pint of stale urine has been added; after 'lifting' the goods add 2 _oz._ more of copperas to the bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A good black. By adding 2 _oz._ of dyer's nitrate of iron to the mordant the same ingredients will give a deep black; and by substituting a little white soap for the urine, and omitting the addition of copperas to the logwood-bath, it will give a blue-black. The last may also be produced by first dyeing the goods deep blue as with 'prussiate,' and omitting the urine and soap, in which case one half only of the logwood will be required.

_d._ For WOOL:--

To produce a good permanent black on wool or woollen goods, they must be first dyed of a deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply, by the Prussian-blue process. When the goods are coarse or common, and price is an object, they are generally 'rooted' instead of being 'blued.' This consists in giving them a dun or brown colour with the husks of walnuts or the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like cheap astringent substances.

1. (For 1 _cwt._ of wool.) Good logwood-chips, 20 _lbs._, and Aleppo-galls, 18 _lbs._; are inclosed in a coarse bag, and boiled with water, q. s., for 5 or 6 hours; 1/3rd of this decoction is then transferred into another copper, with verdigris, 2 _lbs._, and a sufficient quantity of water having been added, the goods (previously dyed dark blue) are passed through the liquor for two hours, at a heat slightly below the boiling-point. The goods are next lifted and drained, another 1/3rd of the decoction of logwood and galls, with copperas, 9 _lbs._, added to the boiler, after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as the copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned to the bath, and again well 'worked' for at least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly aired, and the remaining 1/3rd of the decoction added, with sumach, 20 _lbs._ The whole is then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2 _lbs._, together with a pailful of cold water, thrown in; after which the goods are put in a third time, and 'worked' for one hour; they are then taken out, rinsed, aired, and again passed through the bath for another hour. After being thoroughly rinsed, the goods are at once either 'fulled,' dried, and folded, or are further softened and beautified by passing them for 15 minutes through a hot weld-bath (not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c. (but not 'fulled'), as before. A beautiful though expensive dye. With management the above quantities of the ingredients will dye 1-1/4 or even 1-1/2 _cwt._ of wool.

2. (For 1 _cwt._) The cloth (previously dyed blue) is 'galled' with 5 _lbs._ of nut-galls, and then dyed in a bath made with 30 _lbs._ of logwood, to which about 5 _lbs._ of copperas has been added; after which it is rinsed, aired, and 'fulled,' as before. This is said, by Lewis, to be the usual proportions and plan adopted by the English dyers.

3. (For 1 _cwt._) Make a bath, as before, with fustic, 2 _lbs._; logwood, 5 _lbs._; and sumach, 10 _lbs._; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sulphate of iron, 10-1/2 _lbs._, and when dissolved, pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse, air well, and again pass the goods through the bath for an hour; lastly, rinse until the water runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less expensive.

4. (For 1 _cwt._, without previous blueing or 'rooting,')--_a._ Work the goods at about 200° Fahr. for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7 _lbs._ of cam-wood; lift, add 6-1/2 _lbs._ of copperas, and again work the goods for an hour, after which withdraw the fire, and allow them to steep for 10 or 12 hours; next drain and rinse them, and work them in a second bath made with 60 _lbs._ of logwood for 1-1/2 hour; lift, add 3 _lbs._ of copperas, and again work for an hour; lastly, rinse, air, and finish:--_b._ The goods are first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of 3 _lbs._ of fustic, in which 5 _lbs._ of bichromate of potash and 4 _lbs._ of alum have been dissolved; after exposure to the air for about an hour and thorough rinsing they are worked for a second two hours in a bath made with 45 _lbs._ of logwood, 3-1/2 _lbs._ of barwood or cam-wood, and 3 _lbs._ of fustic; they are then lifted, and 3 _lbs._ of copperas having been added to the bath, are again immersed and worked for half an hour to an hour.

5. (For 10 _lbs._ of wool or w. cloth.) Work the goods for 1/2 an hour in a bath of 1/2 _lb._ of cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 _oz._ of copperas, and after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw the fire, and leave them in the liquor for 10 or 12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain, and then work them for an hour in a bath made with 5 _lbs._ of logwood, to which 1 pint of urine has been added; lift, add 4 _oz._ of copperas, work them for half an hour longer, and, lastly, wash and dry them.

6. (For 7 _lbs._) Take of galls (bruised), 1/4 _lb._; logwood chips, 1-1/2 _lb._; for the bath; boil or work the goods for 2 hours, take them out, add of copperas, 1/4 _lb._; and when it is dissolved, work the goods through the liquor for at least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling; again take them out, wash, and air; then add 1 _oz._ more of copperas to the bath, and pass the cloth through it for another hour; lastly, air, rinse, and finish.