Chapter II: BLEACHING of =Linen=:--Linen may be bleached in a similar way to (2)

It consists essentially of a tin tube (to which is fixed a branch tube open to the air), through which water may be driven from a supply tap into a properly fitted bottle. Air becomes thus entangled with the water in its course through the tube, and carried with it into the bottle. The water is then got rid of by means of a syphon, and the air is conducted by an elastic tube to the blow-pipe.

_A_, _B_, Tin tube, eighteen inches long, half-inch diameter.
_C_, _D_, Tin tube, three inches long, one third-inch diameter, inserted
at right angles.
_E_, _F_, Tin tube, long enough to reach the level of A, one third-inch
diameter, inserted at an angle of 45°.
_G_, _H_, _I_, Siphon, half-inch diameter.
_K_, _L_, Air tube, one third-inch diameter.
_M_, India-rubber tube to convey away the air.]

To set the apparatus in action, connect the tube C D with a water tap by means of a piece of elastic tubing, and turn on the water; pinch the tube M for a few moments between the thumb and finger until the syphon has begun to act. A blast of air will at once be felt at the extremity of M.

=BLUB'BER.= _Syn._ AD'EPS BALÆNA''RUM, L.; GRAISSE DE BALEINE, Fr. The soft fat of whales, and of other large sea-animals, from which the oil (TRAIN' OIL, WHALE' OIL) is obtained by heat.

=Blubber, Sea.= The popular name of several species of marine animals of the genus _medusa_, having a body resembling a large mass of jelly. They are very plentiful in some parts of the coast of England, and are said to form a rich and cheap manure for pasture and arable land. They are used at the rate of about 1 _ton_ to every 20 or 30 loads of mould, together with a chaldron of lime, per acre. In 3 or 4 months the land is usually found in prime condition. Pilchards, and other fish that swarm upon our coasts, and for which there is not a ready market, may be used in the same way, and are much richer, being, when properly managed, but little inferior to guano.

=BLUE= (bl'[=o][=o]). _Syn._ CÆRU'LEUS, L.; BLEU, Fr.; BLAU, Ger. Of the colour of the clear sky, or of any shade of it, whether lighter or darker; subst., a blue colour, blueness (COL'OR CÆRU'LEUS, L.); or a blue, colouring material or pigment (CÆRU'LEUM, L.).

=Blue Dye=. _Syn._ TEINTE BLEUE, Fr.; BLAU FARBE, Ger. The most permanent blue is that given by indigo, and particularly by what is called the 'indigo-vat.' A variety of shades, of great beauty, and considerable permanence, may also be given by the 'Prussian-blue process.' Cheaper blues are commonly dyed with logwood. Each of these is noticed at length under their respective heads. The following are also employed, and are well adapted for common goods, on the small scale and for domestic use.

1. Give the goods a mordant of alum, or of acetate of alumina ('red liquor'), then rinse them well, and boil them in a bath of logwood, to which a small quantity of blue vitriol has been added; lastly, rinse and dry.

2. Boil the goods for a short time in a bath of logwood; then add to the liquor tartar and verdigris, in the proportion of 1 oz. of each to every lb. of logwood employed; and again boil for a short time.

3. Give the goods a mordant of tartar; lift, add a little chromate of potash; again work for 15 or 20 minutes, and rinse; next boil in a bath of logwood, adding towards the last a few grains more of the chromate; again boil, and finish. The whole quantity of chromate used should not exceed 1/4 oz. to each lb. of logwood taken for the bath. Very dark.

4. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, privet-berries, and several other like vegetable substances, may be used to dye blue, as above, instead of logwood.

_Obs._ By increasing the proportion of alum or red-liquor the colour verges on purple; and by employing a little acetate of iron or green copperas, the darker shades of blue are produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and alkalies, turn it more on the blue; whilst a mordant of tin imparts a violet cast. If much more chromate be used than that ordered the result is a blue-black. See DYEING, INDIGO, LOGWOOD, MORDANTS, PRUSSIAN BLUE, &c.

=Blue Pig'ments=. _Syn._ CÆRU'LEA, &c., L. The preparation of the principal blue pigments of commerce is described under their respective names. In the following list those for which directions are given are of a miscellaneous and less usual character.

=Az'ure.= _Syn._ Azure Blue. A name frequently given to smalts. That of the oil-painter is ultramarine; that of the ancients is noticed below. See ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=Blue, Barth's=. See INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Berlin.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Bice.= Native blue carbonate of copper, prepared by grinding and elutriation. That of the shops is generally a factitious compound made from smalts.

=Blue, Carmine.= See CARMINE and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Char'coal.= Carbonised vine-stalks are triturated with an equal weight of salt of tartar or pearlash, the mixture put into a crucible, and heated over the fire until it ceases to swell, the mass being kept well stirred all the time; when cold, it is dissolved in water, and the excess of alkali saturated with dilute sulphuric acid. The liquid becomes blue, and a dark precipitate falls down, which turns of a brilliant blue colour when dried and cautiously heated.

=Blue, Chi'na.= _Syn._ Roy'al Smalts. The crude oxide of cobalt, or zaffre, is ground with an equal weight of potash, and about eight times its weight of felspar, the mixture submitted to fusion in a crucible, and when cold reduced to an impalpable powder. Used to paint pottery, and as a blue pigment.

=Blue, Co'balt.= _Syn._ Cobalt'ic Az'ure. This is commonly prepared by one or other of the following formulæ:--

1. Zaffre, 1 lb., is dissolved in nitric acid (diluted with an equal weight of water), 3/4 lb., by digestion for some hours; the solution is evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum redissolved in warm water; to this solution, after filtration, a solution of phosphate of soda is added as long as a precipitate forms; this last is collected on a filter, washed with cold water, and mixed, whilst still moist, with 8 times its weight of fresh-precipitated hydrate of alumina; the paste is then dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat in a crucible, after which the mass is cooled and reduced to a very fine powder.

2. A solution of nitrate of cobalt is precipitated with ammonia-alum, and the precipitate washed, dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat, as before. The products of the above formulæ are very beautiful and permanent. See COBALTO-ULTRAMARINE.

=Egyp'tian Az'ure.= Alexan'drian Frit, Azure of the Ancients. A mixture of carbonate of soda, 1 _lb._; calcined flints, 1-1/2 _lb._; copper filings, 1/4 _lb._ (all in fine powder); fused together in a crucible for 2 or 3 hours, and when cold, reduced to an impalpable powder. A beautiful and unchangeable sky-blue colour. Used in both oil and fresco painting; and as a substitute for smalts, of which, indeed, it is a variety.

=In'digo= (which _see_).

=Blue, I'ron.= Fer'ric blue. Ordinary phosphate of iron prepared by precipitating a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of phosphate of soda, the resulting powder being washed, and dried at a gentle heat. A lively sky-blue colour, but without much depth or body.

=Blue, Lake.= See LAKES and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Molybde'num.= From sulphuret of molybdenum, dissolved in nitric acid, and some tin filings and a little muriatic acid added. After digestion for some time the clear liquid is poured off, and evaporated to dryness. The resulting powder is then mixed with moist hydrate of alumina (as in making cobalt blue), heated to a very dull red, and when it has again become cold, reduced to powder. Used both as a paint and an enamel-colour.

=Blue, Moun'tain.= Native carbonate of copper, mixed with more or less earthy matter, reduced to fine powder. That of the shops is often factitious.

=Blue, Par'is.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Pow'der.= Smalts.

=Blue, Prus''sian= (which _see_).

=Blue, Queen's.= See THUMB-BLUE (_below_).

=Blue, San'der's.= Ultramarine-ashes.

=Blue, Sax'on.= Saxon Az'ure. A compound of hydrate of alumina and Prussian blue, prepared as follows:--

1. To sulphate of iron, 1 _oz._; and alum, 8 _oz._; dissolved in water, 1 gall.; add, simultaneously, separate solutions of prussiate of potash and common pearlash, until they cease to produce a precipitate; after repose collect the deposit, wash it well with water, and dry it.

2. A solution of sulphate of iron is precipitated with another of prussiate of potash, and instantly mixed with the precipitate which has just been obtained by treating a solution of alum with a solution of pearlash; the mixed precipitates being finally treated as before.

=Smalts= (which _see_; also CHINA-BLUE and EGYPTIAN AZURE, _above_).

=Blue, Thénard's.= See ULTRAMARINE (Cobaltic).

=Blue, Thumb'.= Cake'-blue, Crown'-blue, Fig'-blue, Knob'-blue, Mech'lenburg-blue, (m[=e]k'-), Queen's-blue, Stone-blue, &c. Names given to the lump-blue used in laundries, which vary according to the quality and the particular form given to it.

_Prep._ 1. A mixture of powdered starch with sufficient indigo (in impalpable powder) to give the necessary colour, made into a stiff dough with starch-paste, and then formed into lumps or cakes of the desired size and shape, and dried. This forms the ordinary 'washerwoman's blue' of the shops.

2. As the last, but substituting cæruleo-sulphate of potassa or blue carmine[226] for the 'powdered indigo' ordered in the last formula. Very fine.

[Footnote 226: See INDIGO (Sulphate of).]

3. As No. 1, but substituting whiting for the powdered starch and weak size, or a decoction of Irish moss for the starch-paste. Inferior.

_Uses, &c._ Employed by laundresses to impart a faint blue tinge to linen, in order to increase its apparent whiteness. The common forms given to it are that of small balls of about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter; the same, but rather larger, and pinched with the thumb and finger in three directions, so as to leave corresponding depressions (THUMB-BLUE); and cakes, which are cut out of the mass, previously rolled into a sheet, by a suitably shaped cutter.

=Blue, Turnbull's.= Ferridcyanide of iron (which _see_; also TURNBULL'S BLUE).

=Blue Verditer.= See VERDITER.

=Ultramarine'= (-r[=e]ne'), _U.-blue._ See ULTRAMARINE.

=BLUSH'ING.= _Syn._ RU'BOR, RUBE'DO, L. In _physiology_, &c., the red glow on the cheeks or face occasioned by confusion, bashfulness, surprise, or shame.

Blushing is caused by a sudden increase in the quantity and velocity of the blood in the capillaries, occasioning their turgescence; and, consequently, a heightening of the natural pale-reddish hue of the skin. It is referable to sudden mental emotions of an exciting character, such as surprise, confusion, consciousness of slight, injury, or indignity, and the like. Emotions of a depressing character frequently produce an opposite effect. This is termed pallor, and depends on the rush of blood from the skin and surface of the body upon the internal organs. The first, though often unpleasant, is never dangerous; the last always so. The cure of the habit of blushing consists in persisting efforts to maintain a sufficient degree of presence of mind and self-confidence to permit of reflection, or a calm view of the exciting circumstance, instead of sinking into a state of temporary mental imbecility and helpless confusion.

'=BLUTANDRANG UND LUFTROHREN-VERSCHLEIMUNG=' (remedy for congestion and obstruction of the air-vessels), manufactured and sold by the inventor, C. Tänzer, 18, Kesselstrasse, Berlin,' is the title of a twelve-page pamphlet. For cold in the head, the apparatus, which consists of a small linen cushion to bind over the mouth, is moistened with 10 to 15 drops of the fluid. The fluid (150 grammes) is a mixture of spirit of wine and acetic ether, in which some arnica, milfoil, &c., have been macerated. (Hager.)

=BLUTHENHARZ--FLOWER RESIN= (Kwizda, Kornenburg). Against barrenness in domestic animals. A mixture of 9 parts powdered Bergundy pitch with 1 part pine pollen, 3/4 oz. (Hager.)

=BOARDS, to make White.= Boards may be rendered white and clean by scrubbing them, instead of with soap, with a mixture composed of one part of freshly slaked lime and three parts of white sand.

=BOCKBIERESSENZ=, for the artificial imitation of bockbier. A tincture of 1 part lupulin, 2 parts pyroligneous acid, and 8 parts spirit of wine. (Hager.)

=BOG SPAVIN.= In horses, a distension of the bursa or sheath of the true hock joint. Mr Finlay Dun prescribes rest; high-heeled shoe, fomentation, cold water, spring truss, counter-irritation, firing-iron; seton.

=BOIL= (boyl). _Syn._ FURUN'CULUS, L.; FURONCLE, Fr.; BEULE, EITERSTOCK, Ger. In _surgery_, a well-known inflammatory tumour, of a superficial and more or less temporary character, which generally terminates by suppuration.

Boils (_furun'culi_) generally attack the healthy and robust during the period of youth and early manhood, and seldom trouble persons who have arrived at the middle age of life.

_Treatm., &c._ When boils begin to appear, and exhibit persistency by daily enlargement and increasing pain, suppuration should be promoted by warm poultices of bread and linseed-meal, to which a little fat or oil may be added, to prevent their getting hard. If poultices are inconvenient, warm and stimulating embrocations, or exposure to the vapour of hot water, or the application of stimulating plasters, may be adopted instead. When the tumour is sufficiently 'ripe,' the matter should be evacuated by gentle pressure, and the wound dressed with a little simple ointment spread on a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may be full and liberal until the maturation of the tumour and the discharge of the matter, when it should be lessened, and the bowels kept gently open by saline purgatives, as Epsom-salt or cream of tartar. When there is a disposition in the constitution to the formation of boils, the bowels should be kept at all times regular, and tonics, as bark or steel, had recourse to, with the frequent use of sea-bathing when possible. An occasional dose of the Abernethy medicines (which _see_) also often prevents their recurrence. A course of sarsaparilla may be likewise taken with advantage. See ABSCESS, TUMOURS, &c.

Dr Sydney Ringer prescribes a 1/16th grain of sulphide of sodium, mixed with sugar of milk, three or four times a day on the tongue; but this should only be administered under medical supervision.

_Treatment_ for HORSES and CATTLE.--Fomentations; poultices containing belladonna, cold water, carbolic acid dressing, counter-irritants, laxatives, sulphites, and chlorates.

=BOIL'ERS.= See INCRUSTATION and STEAM.

=BOIL'ING.= In _cookery_, the operation of dressing food in water at the point of ebullition, or one very closely approaching it. The practice of cooking animal food by boiling, although exceedingly simple, and often most convenient, is neither judicious nor economical when the broth or liquid in which it has been dressed is to be rejected as waste; as in this way the most nutritious portion of the flesh of animals, consisting of soluble saline and other matter required for the formation of bone, and the nutrition of the muscular tissues, &c., is to a great extent lost. This particularly applies to small pieces so dressed, and to those presenting a large surface to the action of the water in proportion to their weight. Large pieces of meat suffer less in proportion than smaller ones, for the same reason; but even with them the outside should be rejected, as it is both insipid and innutritious compared with the interior portion. To reduce the solvent and deteriorating action of the water to the lowest possible point, the articles to be boiled should not be put into the water until it is in a state of full ebullition, which should be maintained for 5 or 6 minutes afterwards, by which time the surface and the parts lying immediately beneath it will have become, to a certain degree, hardened, and will then act as a protective shield to the inner portion of the mass. The boiling being continued for 5 or 6 minutes cold water is added, until the temperature becomes about 150° F., and the cooking of the joint is carried on at this heat until the meat is done: meat loses nearly a fourth of its weight in boiling, salt meat, which is intended to be eaten cold, should be allowed to cool in the water in which it has been boiled. The practice of dressing meat by putting it into cold water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling-point, cannot be too much censured. A 1/4 of an hour per lb. for dressing young meat, poultry, and small pieces, and 20 minutes per lb. for old, tough, and larger ones are the usual times allowed by cooks for the purpose. See BOUILLI, FOOD, &c.

=BOIL'ING-POINT.= See EBULLITION.

=BOIS DURCE= (bwah d[)u]r-s[=a]). [Fr.] The substance invented in France, and to which this name is given, is made from sawdust, which, under the influence of a high temperature and the enormous pressure of 600 tons, acquires a degree of hardness very much exceeding that of ordinary wood. It has a very fine grain, and is unaffected by atmospherical variations; but its principal merit is its adaptation to moulding, so that by the most economical processes forms and impressions are given to it which it would require, in any other way, considerable labour and workmanship.

=BOLAS.= Sweet light cakes which, according to Mrs Rundell, are prepared as follows:--Into flour, 2 lbs., pour of warm milk, 3/4 pint, a small teacupful of yeast, and 6 eggs; make a dough, add of butter 1 lb. (by degrees), and set it in a warm place to rise for an hour; then mix in of powdered sugar 1 lb.; and make the mass into cakes; put these into cups or tins previously well buttered, and ornament the top with candied orange or lemon peel; lastly bake them. See CAKES.

=BOLDO= (nat. ord. Monimiaceæ). A shrub growing in the Chilian Andes. The bark is used in tanning, and the wood makes a good charcoal. It is reported to be useful in affections of the liver and digestive organs. It has been employed as a tonic in cases where quinine is inadmissible. In large doses it provokes vomiting. The powder of the dried leaves is a sternutatory. See a paper by M. Claude Verne, translated into the 'Pharm. Journ.,' 3rd series, v, 405.

=BOLE.= _Syn._ BO'LUS, L.; TERRE BOLAIRE, &c., Fr. The name of several argillaceous minerals, varying in colour from white to yellow, red, and brown, which they owe chiefly to iron. See OCHRES and RED and BROWN PIGMENTS.

=BOLOG''NA PHI'AL= (-lawn'-y[)a]). See PHIALS.

=BO'LUS=, [L., Eng.] _Syn._ BOL, Fr. Boluses, in _pharmacy_ and _medicine_, are small, roundish masses of medicinal substances, which are taken in the same manner as pills, which they resemble, except in their larger size. Those persons who object to swallowing them in their common state may wrap them in soft paper, or introduce them into the emptied husks of raisins or grapes.

Boluses (bo'l[=i], L.) are prepared with the same ingredients, and in a similar manner to pills (which _see_).

=Bolus, Guaiacum= (HORNE). Guaiacum resin 1/2 drachm, elder rob, enough to make into a bolus. Formerly given in quinsy.

=Bolus for Ague.= (The _bolus ad quartanum_ of the French Hospital). Peruvian bark 1 ounce; carbonate of potash 1 drachm; tartarised antimony 15 grains; syrup, a sufficient quantity, one to be taken every four hours during the intermission.

=Bolus, Vermifuge= (Dr Campbell). Basilie powder one scruple, conserve of wormwood, a sufficient quantity to make into one bolus for an adult. (FOY.) Powdered pomegranate root 1 drachm, assaf[oe]tida half a drachm, croton oil 3 or 4 drops, syrup sufficient. Divide into 15 boluses; 5 daily for tapeworm. (FRENCH HOSPITAL.) Wormseed 1 scruple, calomel 5 grains, camphor 15 grains, syrup sufficient. Make into 3 doses; one, two, or three in the day.

=BON'-BON= (b[=o]n_g_'-b[=o]n_g_). [Fr.] A sugarplum. See CONFECTIONERY and SUGARPLUMS.

=BONBONS VERMIFUGES OF GAROZ.= A bonbon containing 15 centigrammes of scammony, and 2 centigrammes of santonin. (Reveil.)

=BONE.= _Syn._ Os, L., Fr.; BEIN, KNOCHEN, Ger.; BÁN, Sax. The hard substance forming the interior skeleton of animals, or any single part of it.

_Comp._ According to Berzelius:--

Human bones. Ox bones.

Animal matter soluble in
boiling water 32·17} 33·30

Vascular substance 1·13}

Phosphate of calcium,
with a little fluoride of
calcium 53·04 57·35

Carbonate of calcium 11·30 3·85

Phosphate of magnesium 1·16 2·05

Chloride of sodium and
other salts 1·20 3·45
-------- --------
100· 100·

The soluble animal matter is chiefly fat and gelatin.

_Uses, &c._ The bones of animals are employed for various purposes in the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy. Those of good meat form most excellent materials for making soups and gravies, as is well known to every cook. In France, soup is extensively made by subjecting bruised bones to a steam heat of 2 or 3 days' continuance. In England the same is commonly effected in an iron Papin's digester. When the earthy matter of a bone is dissolved out by digesting it in a large quantity of very dilute hydrochloric acid, a lump of gelatine is obtained, which, after being well washed with water, is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of making soups and jellies. The following is the process recommended by Proust for making the best of bones, in hospitals, gaols, and similar establishments:--

The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled for 15 minutes in a kettle of water, and the fat (which is fit for all common purposes) skimmed off as soon as cold. The bones are then to be ground, and boiled in 8 to 10 times their weight of water (of which that already used must form a part), until half of it is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will be obtained. Iron vessels should alone be used in this process, as the jelly and soup act upon copper, brass, and the other common metals. The bones of fresh meat are the most productive; those of boiled meat come next, whilst those of roasted meat scarcely afford any jelly. As 'boning' meat before cooking is now a very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones may always be obtained.

Bones are, for the most part, WROUGHT, TURNED, BLEACHED, and DYED in a similar manner to ivory, but with less care, owing to their inexpensive and coarser character. Before being submitted to any of these operations they are, however, first submitted to long boiling, to deprive them of grease.

The bones of living animals may be dyed by mixing madder with their food. The bones of young pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24 hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 days; but the bones of adult animals take a fortnight to acquire even a rose colour. The bones nearest the heart become tinged the soonest. In the same way extract of logwood tinges the bones of young pigeons purple. See BLEACHING, DYEING, IVORY, &c.

In all manufacturing processes in which bones are operated upon, foul vapours, unless special precautions are observed, will be thrown off, to the great annoyance and discomfort of those living near the building where the operations are performed.

To avoid this the offensive vapours should always be carried by a flue made for the purpose into the furnace-fire, and there consumed. But this will not remedy another source of annoyance which arises from the disgusting stench caused by the putrefaction of the flesh adhering to the bones, which lie in heaps about the premises.

The trade of a bone-boiler comes under the head of offensive trades (see 'Public Health Acts,' s. 112-114), and is under the control and regulation of an urban sanitary authority, which has also the power of preventing the bone-boiling being carried on within its district if it thinks proper.

=BONE'-ASH.= Impure triphosphate of calcium, obtained by calcining bones to whiteness, and reducing the ash to fine powder. Used to make pure phosphate of calcium, to form cupels, &c.; also sold for burnt hartshorn.

=BONE'-DUST.= _Syn._ BONE-MANURE. Bones (previously boiled for their grease) ground to different degrees of coarseness, in a mill. It is sown along with the seed in a drill. Wheat thus treated is said to yield 30 to 50 per cent, more weight in straw and grain than by the common methods. Turnip and other light soils it renders more than ordinarily productive. Bone manure is much used in the west of Yorkshire, Holderness, and Lincolnshire. The usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used alone; but when mixed with ashes or other common manure, 30 bushels per acre is said to be enough. When coarse, and applied in the same manner as other manures, it has been found to remain upwards of seven years in the ground, the productiveness of which it has increased during the whole time.

=BONE'-GLUE.= See GELATIN.

=BONE'-GREASE.= From refuse bones, bruised, boiled in water, and the broth skimmed when cold. _Prod._ 1/8th to 1/4th of the weight of the dry bones. (Proust.) Used for making soap and candles. See CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.

=BONE'-PHOSPHATE.= See TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

=BONE'-SHAVINGS.= _Syn._ BONE'-DUST (Turners'), BONE-TURNINGS. This, by boiling with water, yields a beautiful jelly, which is nearly equal to that produced from hartshorn and ivory shavings, for which it is very frequently sold. Used to make jellies and blancmanges, to stiffen straw bonnets, &c.

=BONE-SPAVIN.= A bony enlargement on the antero-internal parts of the hock in horses. In recent cases it is best to apply cold applications, but in protracted and chronic cases, hot fomentations will be found best. In case of these failing, recourse should be had to blistering or firing, or if need be to a seton.

=BOOK'BINDING= (-b[=i]nd-). Although a full description of the various operations of this well-known art, or handicraft, does not properly fall within the province of this work, a brief notice of them will probably, in many cases, prove useful to the amateur and the emigrant:--

The process of binding books is divided into several distinct operations, which, in large establishments, are usually performed by different persons; such a method being found to produce greater expedition, and better work, than when the whole is done by one person.

The sheets received from the hands of the printer are--

1. _Folded_, which is done correctly by observing the 'marks' or 'signatures' at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo--

2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by passing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.

3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See _engr._) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for--

4. _Glueing._ The back being knocked into shape with a hammer, and the sheets placed in the cutting-press, which is then slightly screwed up, melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After a short time, to permit it to become sufficiently set and hard, the book is removed from the press, and the back properly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again put into the cutting-press, where it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready for--

5. _Cutting._ The instrument employed for this purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a stout flat knife, double-edged at the 'cutting point,' firmly set in a kind of frame, in which it may be adjusted by screws.

6. _Affixing the boards._ The bands are now scraped out fine at the ends, and fastened to the pasteboard intended to form the covers, which is then properly adjusted, and further shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of shears. The edges now undergo the operation of--

7. _Sprinkling_, _gilding_, or other adornment. The first is performed with a stiff brush made of hog's bristles, dipped in the colour; the brush being held in the one hand, and the hairs moved with the other, so as to scatter the colour in minute drops equally over the surface.

8. The external covering of leather, fancy cloth, or paper, is now applied, having been previously soaked in paste, to make it properly adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the book are next pasted against the inside of the cover, to screen the ends that are turned over when the book is finished; or for choice work, is handed to a 'finisher' for--

9. _Lettering_, _gilding_, &c. Ordinary gold-leaf is applied by means of white of egg, the pattern being given by pressure with heated brass tools, having the design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is then glazed over with white of egg and polished.

10. _Burnishing book edges._ This is performed with a wolf's or dog's tooth, or a steel burnisher. Place the books in a screw press, with boards on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume. First rub the edges well with the tooth to give them a lustre. After sprinkling, or staining, or when the edges have become dry, burnish the front; then turning the press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of the volume. Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having applied the gold; but observe in gilding to put the gold first upon the front, and allow it to dry; and on no account commence the burnishing until the gold is quite dry.

The succession of the above operations sometimes slightly varies with the workmen, and with the nature of the binding. The examination of a bound book during their perusal will, however, render the whole quite familiar to the reader.

There are several varieties of binding, of which only the following deserve notice here:--

BOARDS. A book rather loosely done up, without cutting the edges, and covered with coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in 'boards.'

CLOTH, CLOTH-BINDING. This is the style of binding in which the majority of works are now issued. It admits of great neatness and even beauty, is cheap, and when well executed is very durable.--The prepared cloth (hard-glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern to the proper size, is passed rapidly between the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by which the design is given to it. Paste is now applied to each piece of cloth, which is then placed over the volume previously prepared to receive it. In many cases the covers are prepared separately before being embossed, and are afterwards fastened in the finished state to the book by means of a piece of canvas or calico previously affixed to its back for the purpose, when all that is required is to paste the ends of it to the inside of the boards, with the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth are seldom cut at the edges, unless they are otherwise highly finished.

HALF-BINDING. Books forwarded in boards, and finished with leather backs and corners, are said to be 'half-bound.'

LEATHER-BINDING. A book is only said to be 'bound,' or 'fully-bound,' when both its backs and sides are wholly covered with one piece of leather.--The leather is wetted by immersion in water, wrung or squeezed, stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper size, pared thin on the edges, and covered with paste. It is then applied to the book (previously forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn tightly over it, turned down on the inside, rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and otherwise adjusted; after which it is placed in some suitable situation, at a distance from a fire, to dry.

Rough calf requires to be damped on the grain side with a sponge and water before pasting and covering.

Russia-leather is well soaked in water for an hour, taken out, beaten, and rubbed; after which the paste is well worked into the flesh side before covering.

Morocco is first 'grained' by rubbing it on a board, with the grain side inside, and, after being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter of an hour; after which it is drawn on with a piece of woollen cloth, to preserve the grain.

Roan is either soaked in water, or left to soak when pasted.

SCHOOL-BINDING. Originally applied to school-books strongly sewn and 'done up' in sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain brown, or sprinkled or marbled with copperas water. Similar works of a cheaper class are now often 'done up' in canvas, brown-holland, and even coarse and strong coloured glazed calico.

_Concluding Remarks._ Numerous patents for improvements in binding books, several of which possess very great merit and usefulness, have been obtained during the last 30 years. Among these, one known as 'Hancock's Patent Binding,' from its extreme novelty, simplicity, durability, and inexpensiveness, deserves a passing notice here. By Mr Wm. Hancock's method the sheets are folded in double leaves, and by being properly placed together and adjusted (by setting them vertically, with the edges forming the back of the book downwards, in a concave mould so formed that whilst giving shape it may leave the whole breadth, and nearly the whole length exposed), and firmly secured by a few turns of packthread, the book is subjected to the action of a press, and a strong and quick-drying solution of india rubber is smeared over the back with the finger, when the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or longer, to dry. The operation is repeated as often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth are cemented on with the same varnish, and the book is ready to have the boards attached. The sheets of books that cannot be folded in 'double leaves' may be strongly stitched through, separately, before adjusting them in the mould. In this way several of the usual operations of binding are dispensed with. We most willingly bear testimony to the strength and durability of this method, as well as to the great convenience it affords in allowing the books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to be distorted in any possible manner, without injury to their backs. It is, undoubtedly, the best way of binding books for travellers. The Editor of the last edition of this work once had a large trunk of books, among which was a massive volume bound on Hancock's plan. All the rest were nearly torn to pieces by a few months' journey, but this one remained uninjured even after five years, during which time it accompanied him in his travels, extending, collectively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See GILDING, MARBLING, SPRINKLES, STAINS, &c.

=BOONEKAMP OF MAAGBITTER.= Dried orange berries, 100 grammes; bitter orange peel, 30 grammes; gentian root, 60 grammes; cascarilla bark, 30 grammes; turmeric, 15 grammes; cinnamon, 25 grammes; cloves, 15 grammes; rhubarb, 7-1/2 grammes; 90 per cent. spirit, 750 grammes: water, 1650 grammes; star-anise oil, 40 drops; sugar, 250 grammes; digested, expressed, and filtered. (Hager.)

=BOOTS and SHOES.= The cleaning of boots and shoes forms no unimportant part of the domestic duties of a large establishment; as on it being properly performed depend both their appearance and durability. A votary of St Crispin, in whom we place considerable reliance, assures us that to effect this object in the best style, all that is necessary is to employ very little blacking (merely enough to moisten the surface of the leather), and to brush it off whilst still damp. Never make the surface wet, nor allow the blacking to dry before applying the polishing brush. For this purpose a portion only of the boot or shoe should be attended to at a time. The dirt is, of course, to be carefully brushed off before applying the blacking. When it is desired to restore the shape of a boot or shoe, as well as to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the brushes, we are told that there should be at least three--one (dirt brush) with bristles stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove mud and dirt; another (blacking-brush), with fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush), covered with long, fine, springy, and slightly stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employment of inferior or worn-out brushes is said to be false economy, and proves particularly destructive to the lighter classes of leather.

The occasional use of a little oil or grease to the uppers of boots and shoes increases their softness and durability, as well as the 'depth,' but not the brilliancy of the polish, from common blacking. For this purpose some good tallow or 'dubbing' may be used; the absorption being aided by a very gentle heat. The soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may be thoroughly saturated with similar substances, by which means their durability will be fully doubled. The common practice among the shoemakers is to moisten the surface of the leather with a wet sponge before applying the oil or grease; by which (they say) its pores are opened and its absorbent powers increased.

_Varnish for Boots and Shoes._--1. Boil together in a pipkin one pint of linseed oil; 1/2 _lb._ of mutton suet, the same quantity of beeswax, and a small piece of resin; and when the mixture becomes milk-warm, apply it with a hair brush. After two applications the articles will become waterproof. Great caution must be exercised in melting the above ingredients, lest the mixture boils over, and so give rise to a conflagration.

2. Common tar may be made warm and brushed over the soles of boots or shoes. These latter are then put near the fire so that the tar may be absorbed. When the absorption has taken place, a second or third application may be given with advantage. This application is not suitable for the upper leathers.

3. India-rubber varnish will be found very useful for anointing the upper leather of boots and shoes; but the lower parts, which are exposed to the wear and tear caused by friction with the ground, are but little benefited by its application.

Patent-leather boots and shoes are best cleaned with a little sweet oil or milk (preferably the first), the dirt having been previously removed in the usual way.

India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be cleaned with a sponge or brush, and water, care being taken not to wet the linings. The same applies to gutta percha. See BLACKING, LEATHER, WATERPROOFING, &c.

The reasons why boots and shoes so commonly cause corns, and fatigue, and give pain in wear, are explained in our article on the FEET (which _see_).

Paramount in importance to the appearance of boots or shoes on the wearer is the desideratum, not only of having them so made as to ensure personal comfort in walking, but additionally to have them so constructed as to protect the feet from wet during damp and rainy weather. The evils arising from getting the feet damp cannot be overstated; amongst them are to be included--cold, cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, and rheumatism. In those inheriting a constitutional consumptive taint, a cold caught from wearing damp or leaky boots has very frequently been known to have precipitated the disease, that has ended in more or less speedy death. Hence arises not only the duty of changing damp boots or shoes as soon as ever the opportunity offers, but the wisdom of adopting the preventive precaution of wearing them of such stout construction as to be impervious to water during rainy weather. If the dangers arising from a neglect of this advice are visited with such serious consequences upon adults and grown persons, they affect infants and children with even far greater intensity, because of the much more tender and sensitive organisation of the latter. It therefore behoves every mother not only to see that her children are shod with good thick boots or shoes, but to take especial care that whenever these are damp they are removed at once.

Mr Chavasse, in his excellent work, 'Counsel to a Mother,' recommends "boots for walking out of doors and shoes for the house." He adds, "that the constant wearing of boots in the house is weakening to the ankles, as weakening as tight lacing is to the waist; indeed it acts much in the same way, namely, by wasting away, by pressure, the ligaments of the ankles, as stays waste away the muscles of the waist." In support of his argument he quotes Dr Humphrey, who says, "The notion is in both instances fortified by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to the pressure either upon the ankle or upon the waist, feel a want of it when it is removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by the appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter, they would never have experienced the former. The deduction to be drawn from Dr Hutchinson's opinion is that no more fertile source of weak ankles exists than that of wearing laced boots during childhood. Boots with elastic sides, as exerting much more equal pressure, and allowing full scope for the ankles to play, are far preferable to tightly laced-up boots.

=BOOT-POW'DER.= French chalk reduced to powder by scraping or grating. Used to facilitate the 'getting on' of new or tight boots, a little of it being rubbed on the insides of the backs, heels, and insteps.

=BOOT-TOP LIQ'UID.= _Syn._ BOOT'-TOP COMPOSI''TION. There are numerous articles of this class extant, but, with few exceptions, they are most unchemical mixtures, not infrequently containing ingredients which are either unnecessary, or opposed to the action of the rest. The following are examples:--

_Prep._ _a._ WHITE-TOP:--1. Oxalic acid and white vitriol, of each 1 _oz._; water, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve. It is applied with a sponge, the leather having been previously washed with water; after a short time it is washed off with water, when the boot-tops are either dried in a current of air or by a gentle heat; they are lastly either polished with a brush, so as to appear like new leather, or they are left rough, as the case may require.

2. Sour milk, 1 quart; butter of antimony, cream of tartar, tartaric acid, and burnt alum, of each 2 oz.; mix.

3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of tartar, 2 _oz._; alum and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._

4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; salt of sorrel and sugar lead, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart. The preceding are for white tops.

_b._ BROWN-TOP:--Alum, annatto, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; isinglass and sugar of lead, of each 1/2 _oz._; salt of sorrel, 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.

_c._ Saffron, 15 grains; boiling water, 2 _oz._; infuse and strain. Add tincture of rhubarb 1-1/2 _oz._; concentrated infusion of rhubarb, to make up to 4 _oz._

=BORACIC ACID= (-r[)a]s'-). H_{3}BO_{3}. _Syn._ BORIC ACID, SEDATIVE SALT[dagger], S. S. OF VIT'RIOL[dagger]; ACIDUM BORACICUM (-r[)a]s'-), L.; ACIDE BORACIQUE, A. BORIQUE, Fr.; BORAXSÄURE, &c., Ger. The pure acid is obtained from common borax. That of commerce is extracted from the boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany.

_Prep._ 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4 parts; dissolve, and add sulphuric acid until the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction, for which purpose about 1/2 the weight of the borax will be required. As the solution cools, crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited. These may be purified by placing them on a filter, and washing them with a little very cold water, followed by re-solution, in boiling water, and recrystallisation. Nearly pure.

2. As the last, but substituting hydrochloric acid for the sulphuric acid, there ordered. Very nearly pure.

3. By exposing the product of the first crystallisation of either of the preceding formulæ to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving and recrystallising the residuum. Chemically pure. Used in analysis.

_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter-tasted; dissolves in 25 times its weight of cold water, and in 3 times its weight of boiling water; very soluble in alcohol, which then burns with a bright green flame; reddens litmus; browns turmeric-paper (properties characteristic of this substance); when strongly heated it forms a brittle glass (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3 atoms, or 43·5% of water. Its salts are called BO''RATES.

_Uses._ Boracic acid was once administered internally, in large doses, as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and sedative, but is now scarcely ever employed as a medicine. The crude acid is used in the manufacture of borax; the pure acid in the manufacture of certain chemicals.

Boracic acid is extensively used in Sweden and other countries for the preservation of milk. Meat which has been soaked in a solution of the acid for a few seconds, and milk to which a small quantity has been added, will keep much longer than they would otherwise do. In Sweden alone boracic acid to the amount of 75,000_l._ was consumed in one year. It is said to be a perfectly harmless antiseptic.

=BORACIC ANHYDRIDE.= See BORIC ANHYDRIDE.

=BORATE.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BO''RAS, L.; BORAXSÄURE SALZE, Ger. A salt in which the hydrogen of boracic acid is replaced by a basic radical. The borates may be formed by either digesting the hydrate of the base in a solution of the acid, with the assistance of heat, or from a solution of borax and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition. They are all decomposed by the stronger acids.

_Tests._ The borates may be tested by digesting them in a slight excess of oil of vitriol, evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, powdering the residuum, and dissolving it in alcohol; the resulting solution possesses the property of burning with a green flame if the sample examined was a borate, or contained a notable quantity of one. See BORACIC ACID.

=BORAX.= [Eng., Fr.; Ger., L., B. P.] 2NaBO_{2}.B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ BIBO''RATE OF SO'DA, BO''RATE OF S*, SUBBO''RATE OF S.[dagger], GOLD SOLDER[dagger]*, REFINED' TINC'AL[dagger]*; SO'DÆ BIBO''RAS, S. BO''RAS, L.; CHRYSOCOLLE, &c., Fr.; BORAXSAURES NATRON, &c., Ger. COMmercial biborate of soda. Borax is obtained either by purifying native borate of soda (TINC'AL, TINC'AR), or by saturating crude boracic acid with the alkali. It is never prepared on the small scale unless for chemical analysis.

_Prop._ Crystals, six-sided prisms, which contain 10 equiv. of water, and effloresce in dry air; soluble in 20 parts of cold, and in 6 parts of boiling water; solution has an alkaline reaction on test-paper; by heat it loses its water of crystallisation, and at a higher temperature fuses to a glass-like substance (see _below_).

_Pur._ This may be ascertained by determining the quantity of sulphuric acid required to neutralise a given weight of the sample under examination, as indicated by litmus paper. Common salt and alum are frequently mixed with borax to lower the value. The first may be detected by a solution in hot water giving a curdy-white precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia; the last, by water of ammonia, giving a bulky-white pulverulent precipitate. The former must be distinguished from the white pulverulent precipitate of borate of silver, which is thrown down from pure borax.

_Uses, &c._ Borax is extensively employed as a flux for metals, for soldering, and in medicine. Internally it is diuretic, sedative, emmenagogue, and refrigerant, in doses of 15 to 40 gr.; externally, made into a gargle for sore throat, and in powder as a detergent in aphthæ, and ulcerations of the month. Dissolved in rose-water, it is used as a cosmetic; and mixed with about 8 times its weight of lard, forms a useful ointment in piles and sore nipples.

The 'Comptes Rendus' (lxxx, 473) contains the results of some experiments made by M. Schnetzler, with the view of testing the antifermentative and anti-putrefactive properties of borax.

When the leaves of the _Elodea Canadensis_ were plunged into a concentrated solution of borax, the living matter of the cell was killed, and the same result followed with the fresh leaves and spores of the _Vaucheria clavata_, the spores of the grape fungus (_Oidium sacchari_), and of yeast moulds, &c. Infusoria, rotifera, and _entomostraca_, placed in water containing borax, quickly ceased to move and then died. The larvæ of frogs placed in a solution of borax were killed in less than an hour after immersion. M. Schnetzler thinks the deduction to be drawn from these facts is that borax ought to act antagonistically to fermentation, if this latter be a chemical phenomenon accomplished under the influence of the life of the yeast. To test the correctness of this hypothesis experiments were undertaken with a view of determining the action of borax upon fermentable matters.

Ripe grapes and currants after being kept two years in a concentrated solution of borax, in a closed vessel, presented no trace of fermentation, although, however well preserved, they were not eatable. As a counter test grapes were placed in a well-closed vessel filled with ordinary water, when after a time, according to the temperature, fermentation took place, with evolution of carbonic acid. Thirty cubic centimètres of fresh milk were placed in a test tube with one gram of borax. The cream quickly formed a rather thick layer on the upper portion. Although the test tube was closed by a cork a mould was formed upon the cream, but the remainder of the liquid underwent no acid fermentation, and retained during several months the appearance of very clear creamed milk, and although afterwards under the influence of summer heat the liquid became perfectly limpid, and deposited the casein as a soft white matter, neither the deposit nor the liquid had an acid taste, and after three months they still had the odour of fresh milk. Fresh milk put into a well-closed tube without borax underwent fermentation in two or three days. A piece of sheep's brain treated with powdered borax, after eight days, although it evolved sulphuretted hydrogen, gave no indications of putrefaction, and after retaining a soft consistence during some months, became hard and almost horny without any disagreeable smell.

A pound of beef was placed in a concentrated solution of borax, in a tin case not hermetically sealed.

The liquid into which the colouring matter of the blood, and some of the soluble nitrogenous substances of the meat had diffused, was three times removed during a year and a half, and the meat washed with cold water; but at the end of the above time it had not the least odour of putrefaction. It was of a yellowish colour, but soft and tender as fresh meat. Removed from the borax solution the meat remained in the same state in the air. Beef, veal and portions of sheeps' brains were placed in a vessel which was filled with solution of borax and hermetically sealed. The liquid soon became clear red, and this colour remained during several months without alteration. The meat presented not the least disagreeable smell as long as excess of air was prevented. Meat placed in water in a flask hermetically sealed became rotten in a few days.

The peculiar odour of the meat preserved in borax in contact with air the author considers to be due to the decomposition of matters which result from the metamorphosis of substances that constitute the muscular and intermuscular fibre. Although probably the use of borax will not be applicable to the preservation of meat for culinary purposes, the author considers that it may be economically substituted for alcohol in the preservation of anatomical specimens. Moreover, its power of suspending life in the lower organisms would seem to indicate its probable utilisation in the treatment of wounds, &c.

In support of the above views as to the antiseptic properties of borax, M. Schnetzler refers to a letter from an English traveller in California, who there observed that in a soil containing borax the carcass of a horse had, for four months, remained without decomposition, the flesh continuing perfectly fresh, and the eye retaining its clearness and brightness. For most of the proposed applications of salicylic acid to the preservation of milk, and the products derived from it, it is affirmed that borax is equally efficacious, and has the advantage of being cheaper and more convenient.

=Borax, Glass of.= Borax dried at a gentle heat, and then melted by increasing the heat until it forms a vitreous mass on being cooled. Used in soldering, and as a flux, particularly in blowpipe experiments.

=BO''RIC ACID.= See BORACIC ACID.

=BORIC ANHYDRIDE.= B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS BORACIC ACID, BORACIC ANHYDRIDE, BORIC OXIDE. The only known oxide of boron. It can be produced by burning boron in oxygen, in the air, or in nitrous oxide, but is most easily and economically prepared by strongly heating boracic acid so as to deprive it of water. It is a brittle vitreous solid, not volatilised by heat except in the presence of water. Dissolves in water, forming boracic acid. Its alcoholic solution burns with a green flame, like that of boracic acid.