Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (20)

_The preparation of herbs_ is carried on as follows:--The workman plunges into a shallow vessel, containing a sufficiently liquid solution of Schweinfurt green, one or several stalks of natural plants, perfectly dried, and agitates them quickly, seizing them by their roots with a pair of forceps. This operation, which is termed 'steeping,' stains the fingers, the arms, the person, and the clothes of the workman, and the surrounding objects are covered with traces of this kind of paint. The plants thus prepared are hung on a line, and there allowed to dry for thirty-four or forty-eight hours. At the end of that time all the stalks are gathered and formed into bundles, which are used finally for bouquets. Often enough, to satisfy some freak of fashion, they are sprinkled with powdered arsenite of copper. This is the powdering. The bouquet-work constitutes one of the principal dangers; for the colouring matter not having been fixed by any mordant, detaches itself in the form of a fine dust, which penetrates the skin of the hands, and which the workman breathes constantly. This danger is still more increased when he handles bouquets covered with arsenical powder. At other times, however, in the manufacture of the plants, the Schweinfurt green is diluted with a sufficient quantity of turpentine. In this way the colour takes a smooth appearance, not altered by contact with water, and does not escape immediately in the form of powder by gentle handling; but when it is thoroughly dry it falls to the ground in little flakes, and may again rise in the air with ordinary dust. Thus the danger is modified, a little retarded, but always exists. There are then in this speciality of the florist the operations of steeping, drying, powdering, and arranging the flowers for bouquets, which in their details place the workman or the purchaser under the more or less direct, and more or less active influence of arsenical salt. This particular industry is exercised under conditions which render it still more injurious; for it is freely practised by a number of poor workpeople, by households living in one or two rooms, ill-ventilated, ill-lighted, and which they never sweep, and of which the floor like the furniture, and like the clothing of the workpeople, is continually impregnated by pigment and covered with arsenical dust. The preparers of the cloth destined for the manufacture of the artificial leaves by the aid of arsenical greens, comprehend the portion of the work most exposed to deleterious action. They use arsenite of copper alone, mixed principally with starch, and in rare instances associated with acetate of copper in variable proportions. Some use _eublèe_, a mixture of picric acid and of greenish indigo, in which they steep their stuffs. Other manufacturers use fabrics prepared with hot solutions by ordinary dyers. According to the hue which the Schweinfurt dyer wishes to obtain, the workman commences by giving the stuff a yellow shade, by plunging it into a solution of picric acid and pure alcohol. He squeezes it between his fingers, in order to completely impregnate it and dries it. It is this preliminary operation which stains the workman's fingers yellow. Frequently the latter mixes picric acid by grinding it with the Schweinfurt green, and applies this paste immediately to the fabric. The paste is prepared by kneading the Schweinfurt green, already treated with water, with a solution of starch thick enough, yet sufficiently liquid, to be easily spread on the cloth. During this working up the paste the fingers, arms, and hands of the workman are covered with arsenical solution. This being ready, the workman lays out his stuff, distributes the paste over it, then beats it between his hands, in order to make the colouring matter thoroughly penetrate the cloth. The longer it is beaten the better is the quality of the article. During this operation the skin of the hands and arms is completely impregnated with the solution. Sometimes the cloth, having been touched here and there with arsenical paste, is attached to a hook in the wall, and twisted different ways--wrung as it were. In this way a very uniform colouring is obtained. This process is as bad to the workman as the former. Lastly, a process which is generally practised consists in placing the fabric, stained or not with picric acid, on a wooden table, and distributing on both sides the arsenical preparation with a brush, and then beating the stuff with a thick rubber. In this way the hands and arms of the workman are much less exposed to the paste than in the preceding processes. After the brushing and beating of the fabric comes the drying, to which operation attention must next be directed. Once impregnated with the green colour by whatever process, the pieces in squares of about 1 metre 50 cent. are hung on wooden frames, furnished with teeth, on which the borders of the cloth are transfixed. During this simple operation the workmen stain themselves much. When the stuffs are detached from the squares they are folded, and from every crease falls a fine dust, which may then be carried into the mucous membranes. The workmen then are liable to all the accidents of the manufacturers of flowers, especially in the operations of kneading the paste, or during the beating, brushing, drying, and folding of the cloths. From the hands of the fabricator the fabrics are very often immediately consigned to the manufacturers of artificial flowers, who press them, figure them (that is to say, make the nerves), arm them with a wire, and mount them with flowers. It may be at once understood how much all the manipulations I have just mentioned are liable to develop the arsenical dust. The paste has not been fixed on the stuffs by any mordant; the starch with which it is mixed has given it a very brittle consistence, and has predisposed it to be easily detached from the cloth.

The stamping is effected by putting a certain number of folded pieces one above the other, and submitting them to the pressure of a stamping instrument. Repeated blows of this instrument detach the paste in scales, and cover with dust the fingers and person of the workman. A series of small packets are taken from the stamping press, which contain, strongly pressed together, from twelve to twenty-four leaves. They are passed on to another workman, who is charged with the folding. This operation is performed by holding the little bundle of leaves between the thumb and index finger of the left hand.

The thumb of the right hand presses the edges quickly and sharply so as to separate the leaves one from another, as you separate the leaves of a book recently bound. During this process still more dust escapes. Then comes the figuring, which by reason of successive blows applied to each leaf covers the body of the operator with the same pulverulent material. Fixing a wire to the leaves at their lowest part by the aid of gum follows that operation.

Then the leaves are arranged together in dozens, and passed to the bouquet manufacturers, who mount them. From thence they go to the milliners, who adapt them to different articles of dress, and sell them to the public. Through all this series of transformations there are the same manipulations, the same production of dust, the same action on the skin and mucous membrane, only in a decreasing degree, from the first preparer to the milliner. There is, however, a process of preparing the cloth which diminishes notably the severity and frequency of the evils of the Schweinfurt green. It is that which immediately after the drying of the stuffs submits them at once to the "calendrage." This operation causes the arsenical paste to penetrate mechanically into the fibres of the stuff, and gives it a smooth and glazed aspect, which only permits imperfectly the production of the arsenical dust. This process renders the successive workings of the cloth less injurious, but it would be an error to consider it as inoffensive. During the action of the press, and especially during the separating and the fixing of the flowers, a notable quantity of the toxic dust is still produced. However well prepared the fabrics may be, you have only to tear it, to detach the coating under the form of a palpable powder.

It is only necessary to add that the waxing of the leaves, after they have been separated and figured, and before putting them into bouquets, constitutes a protecting envelope against the effects of the powdered coating for workmen who then handle them, as well as for women who wear them; but this film of wax is only applied, comparatively speaking, to a small number of leaves, for it alters the green and vivacity of its colour.

In the preparing of the stuffs in the process of drying, Dr Vernois says:--A new condition and serious results appear. The multiplicity of sharp points fixed in the wooden squares inevitably pricks and scratches the skin of the workmen. An inoculation of the arsenical salt immediately takes place, as if it had been practised experimentally. The skin irritates and inflames, a vesicle first, then a large pustule covers the orifice of the prick, and undergoes all the stages of inflammation, which produces suppuration and often gangrene, below which a deep and painful ulceration is developed--all the more tedious to heal as the inoculation is renewed from day to day.

The action of picric acid mixed with the paste can only augment and aggravate the irritation of the wounds. If the ulcerations are numerous the workmen may absorb the arsenious acid and be liable to serious results. I have seen a certain number of workmen with glandular enlargements under the armpits, and the hands in such a state that they were obliged to come to the hospital, where they were only cured after one or several months of treatment. The aspect of the hand was then characteristic to the greenish-yellow tint of all the skin, and especially of the palmar aspect of the hands. To the greenish crust under the nails was nearly always added a yellow colour of the nails, produced by the repeated contact with picric acid.

When we add a generally diffused erythema, then a series of black points, or of inflamed pustules, and sometimes a whitlow, we shall have a faithful representation of the evils which most frequently present themselves in the preparers of stuffs, for artificial flowers tinted with Schweinfurt green.

Amongst the endeavours to counteract the evils entailed upon the workers in this branch of industry may be mentioned the attempt to substitute chrome for Schweinfurt green, as the less poisonous of the two substances, and the ingenious process of M. Bérard-Zenzilin, which consists in directly incorporating the arsenical colouring matter with a specially prepared collodion.

=AR'SENIDE.= _Syn._ ARSEN'IURET; ARSENIURE'TUM (-i-[=u]-), L.; ARSÉNIURE, Fr. A combination of arsenicum with a metal (including hydrogen), in definite proportion.

=AR'SENITE= (-n[=i]te). _Syn._ AR'SENIS, L.; ARSENITE, Fr.; ARSENIGSÄURE SALZ, Ger. A salt of arsenious acid.

=ART.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARS (gen., ar'tis; pl., ar'tes), L.; [Greek:¬technê], (tech'ne), Gr.; KUNST, Ger. Primarily, strength, power, and hence also mental strength, skill; the application of knowledge or power to effect a desired purpose; the power or ability of doing something not taught by nature or instinct; practical skill guided by rules. SCIENCE is knowledge--ART, practical skill in applying this knowledge. ART is applied science; whilst SCIENCE is knowledge obtained by observation, experience, and ratiocination. This distinction is nowhere more fully seen than within the domain of chemistry, where knowledge, deduction, great power of generalisation, and great expertness are necessary elements of success. Art has filled the world with luxuries, conveniences, and comforts; and art--the ARTS--useful or fine--are the safest and surest civilisers of our race. See SCIENCE.

=ARTESIAN WELL.= A cylindrical perforation bored vertically down through one or more strata of the earth till it reaches a porous bed of gravel containing water, this fluid being placed under such incumbent pressure that it rises up the perforation either to the surface, or to a convenient height for the operation of a pump. When they rise to the surface these wells are called spouting or flowing. The name of these wells is taken from Artois, a province in the Departement du pays de Calais, where their use was revived. They have been in use for a long time in Italy and in the East. The accompanying drawing represents the manner in which rain may be supposed to distribute itself when it falls upon a portion of the surface of our globe. The figure represents a geological section, showing the succession of the different strata.

The figure is supposed to represent two beds, A, B, more porous, and consequently more absorbent than the rocks by which they are interstratified. The condensed dews and rains falling upon the distant hills pass rapidly by the outcrops of the strata to the lower levels, until the entire mass becomes thoroughly saturated with water. Supposing two such beds as are represented in the section to exist, fully charged with water, it is evident that if we bored down into them through the rocks as represented at C, D, the water would rise through those wells or borings, and spring out in the form of a jet to such a height above the surface as is due to the height of the hills from which the water has been obtained. The fountain derived from B would necessarily flow as much higher as that derived from the bed A, as is the height of B above A.

For particulars as to the modes of constructing artesian wells, the reader is referred to 'Traité sur les puits Artesiens,' by M Gamier, and to 'Considérations Géologiques et physiques sur la théorie des puits forcés, ou fontaines Artésiennes,' by M. le Vicomte Hericart de Thury, and to 'Rudimentary Treatise on Well-digging, Boring, &c.,' by J. G. Swindell, and also to Ure's 'Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,' edited by Mr Robert Hunt.

=ARTHANI'TINE= (-t[)i]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARTANITI'NE; ARTHANITI'NA, L. A peculiar substance first obtained by M. Saladin, by the action of alcohol on the tuberous stems of the herb _arthrani'ta_, or sow-bread. It is acrid, colourless, and crystalline, and imparts its acridity to the plant.

=AR'TICHOKE.= _Syn._ CIN'ARA, CYN'ARA; SCOL'YMUS, L.; ARTICHAUT, Fr.; ARTISCHOCKE, Ger. The _cynara scol[)y]mus_ (Linn.), a thistle-like perennial plant of the _nat. ord._ Compositæ (DC.). _Hab._ Southern Europe; but now extensively cultivated in our gardens, for its 'bottom,' or the sweet fleshy receptacle of its flowers, which is eaten as a pot herb. These are soaked in brisk boiling in water, stalk-ends uppermost, until tender; and take 1/2 to 1 hour according to their age. Sometimes they are preserved in brine (PICKLED ARTICHOKES); and also after depriving them of the 'choke' and spiny hairs and blanching them by immersion in boiling water, by drying in the sun (DRIED ARTICHOKES; CULS D'ARTICHAUT, Fr.), by which they retain their flavour for some time. Infusion of the flowers, used with rennet.

As an esculent the artichoke resembles asparagus in its general properties; but it is said to be more nutritious, and even more diuretic.

=Artichokes, Jeru'salem.= The _helianthus tuberosus_ (Linn.), a perennial plant of the sun-flower family, and quite distinct from the preceding. _Hab._ The Brazils. The appellation "Jerusalem" is believed to be a corruption of the Italian word _girasole_--"a sunflower," to which botanical family the plant belongs. It is cultivated in England for culinary purposes. Roots (tubers) resemble the artichoke in flavour; but are considered far from wholesome, being apt to produce flatulence and dyspepsia. They are diuretic, and impart the odour of turpentine to the urine. They are cooked by boiling (15 to 25 minutes, according to size), or frying; in the former case served with melted butter. They are also served mashed, like turnips. The flowers yield a volatile oil resembling that of turpentine.

Composition of the Jerusalem artichoke from an analysis by Payen, Poisot, and Fevry:--

Nitrogenous matter 3·1
Sugar 14·7
Inulin 1·9
Pectic Acid 0·9
Pectin 0·4
Cellulose 1·5
Fatty matter 0·2
Mineral matter 1·3
Water 76·0
-----
100·0

From the above it will be seen that this esculent contains no nitrogen.

=ARTIFICIAL FOODS.= See FARINA.

=ASARABAC'CA= ([)a]s-[)a]-). _Syn._ AS'ARUM, A. EUROPÆ'UM: (Linn.), NAR'DUS MONTA'NA*, &c., L.; ASARET, A. D'EUROPE, CABARET, AZARUM C., NARD SAUVAGE, OREILLE D'HOMME, &c., Fr.; HAZELWURTZEL, Ger. The [Greek: asaron] of Dioscorides, a small round, hard, stemless, hardy herbaceous plant, bearing chocolate-coloured flowers; and of the nat. ord. Aristolochieæ (DC.). It grows freely in central France, and is found in woods and shady places in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and other parts of England. _Hab._ Europe, between 37° and 60° latitude.--Root & rhizome (AS'ARI RA'DIX) has a pepper-like odour and an acrid taste:--Leaves (A. FO'LIA) less odorous, though bitter-tasted, acrid, and aromatic; formerly officinal in the pharmacop[oe]ias:--Whole plant (ASARABACCA of the shops) nauseant, emetic, and purgative. Before the introduction of ipecacuanha it was the common emetic (6 to 9 of the green leaves in whey); but, owing to the violence of its action, it has long fallen into disuse. Its common name in France (CABARET, or public-house plant) is said to have arisen from its frequent employment to relieve the stomach of those who had drunk too hard. It is now almost solely used as a sternutatory or errhine, and is probably one of the best.

According to Gräger[84], asarabacca contains three volatile, oily principles, which may be obtained by distillation with water:--VOLATILE OIL (o'leum as'ari):--AS'ARITE, an odourless, tasteless, and crystalline solid; fusible and volatilisable, yielding white and very irritating fumes:--AS'ARUM-CAM'PHOR, differing chiefly from the last in being precipitated, by water, from its alcoholic solution in cubes or six-sided prisms, instead of delicate flexible needles. Also a brownish, bitter, crystallisable principle (AS'ARINE, AS'ARUM-BIT'TER), which is soluble in alcohol.

[Footnote 84: Gobel and Kemze, 'Pharm. Waarenk,' 1830-1.]

_Uses, Dose, &c._ Dried leaves, 20 to 30 gr., or root, 10 to 12 gr.; as a purge or emetic. As an errhine--leaves, 3 to 5 gr.; root, 1 to 3 gr.; in powder, snuffed up the nose every day, or every other day, at bedtime. It excites irritation and a copious watery discharge, more or less muculent, which frequently continues to flow for several days, and occasionally proves highly useful in certain affections of the brain, eyes, mouth, nose, ear, and throat, on the principle of counter-irritation. It has been found "particularly serviceable in cephalalgia (headache), obstinate headache, chronic ophthalmia (inflammation of the eyes), and some other lethargic affections." (Dr A. T. Thomson.) In dimness of sight (especially that arising from fatigue or congestion), deafness, and slight paralytic affections of the mouth, tongue, lips, or eyelids, not of a serious organic character, and particularly in chronic earache, it also sometimes affords relief after other remedies have failed. It constitutes the basis of several CEPHALIC SNUFFS, ASARABACCA-SNUFF, BARON MCKINSEY'S MEDICINAL POWDER (or SNUFF), and several other like nostrums, which are much extolled by their venders, and sold at marvellously high prices. See PATENT MEDICINES, POWDERS, SNUFFS, &c. (also _below_).

=AS'ARIN= (-r[)i]n). C_{20}H_{26}O_{5}. _Syn._ ASARONE. A species of stearopten, discovered by Görtz, in asarabacca. It has an aromatic taste and an odour resembling camphor, and is said to be emetic. It is probably a mixture of asarum-camphor and some partially oxidised volatile oil. (See _above_.)

=As'arine= (of Gräger). _Syn._ ASARI'NA, L. The crystallisable bitter principle of asarabacca, noticed above. It is said to greatly resemble cytisine.

=AS'ARITE= (-r[=i]te). See ASARABACCA.

=ASBES'TOS.= _Syn._ ASBES'TUS ([Greek: asbestos], incombustible, unconsumable, Gr.), AMIANTH'US, LA'PIS A., &c., L.; ASBESTE, AMIANTE, Fr.; ASBEST, STEINFLACHS, Ger. In _mineralogy_, a soft, fibrous substance, composed of flexible or elastic filaments which, in their most highly developed form, greatly resemble those of flax or silk, and which bear exposure to a very considerable degree of heat without suffering decomposition. It has been proposed to clothe our firemen in dresses of asbestos; but without freedom of respiration could be insured in a heated and poisonous atmosphere, this envelope would be of little service. Gloves are sometimes made of it, for holding red-hot crucibles. It is also used as a filtering medium for corrosive liquids. A kind of felt made of asbestos is now used as a substitute for wire gauze to support beakers, retorts, &c., over lamps.

_Var._ Of these there are several; as AM'IANTH or ELAS'TIC ASBESTOS, LIG'NIFORM A., MOUNTAIN-CORK, M.-LEATHER, M.-WOOD, &c.; varying from a grey, brown, or green colour, to pure white, and from extreme flexibility and softness, to rigidity and hardness, as indicated by the respective names.

=ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES.= A parasite belonging to the genus _entozoa_, commonly known as the round worm, and found in the intestines of man, the horse, the ox, the pig, and some other of the lower animals. It is of a greyish-red colour and in size and general appearance like the common earthworm.

Children are very frequently infested by them. Their usual habitat is the small intestines. But they are occasionally found in the stomach, and have been known to transport themselves into the gall-ducts, frontal sinuses, nostrils, and mouth. The males are smaller than the females and much more rare. The females produce eggs in great numbers, but it is doubtful if the young are ever developed in the intestine in which the parent worm dwells.

It is probable that the ova gain access to the intestines of the animals of which they eventually become the pests from various outer sources. They are said to be very frequent in persons who partake much of raw leaves and roots. Dr Paterson, of Leith, noticed that families who drank certain water from a well supplied from a dirty pool, which contained various vermiform animalcules, were much infested with this particular species of intestinal worm; whilst others in the same street, who had recourse to a different water supply, entirely escaped. For medicinal treatment, see WORMS.

=ASCARIS MYSTAX.= A parasitic round worm infesting the cat. It has been also occasionally found in man.

=ASH.= _Syn._ FRAX'INUS, L.; FRÊNE, Fr.; ESCHE, Ger. The popular name of several species of valuable hardy trees bearing apetalous flowers (except in the 'flowering ash'), belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ (DC.), and gen. Fraxinus; but appropriately the--

=Ash.= _Syn._ COMM'ON ASH; FRAX'INUS, F. EXCEL'SIOR (Linn.), F. APET'ALA (Lamb.), F. OR'NUS (Scop.), L.; FRÊNE, F. COMMUN, Fr.; GEMEINE ESCHE, Ger. A large tree common to our woods and hedges; timber (ASH or ASH-WOOD) used by carpenters, cabinet-makers, and machinists, and much esteemed for its great toughness and elasticity; bark febrifuge, diuretic, resolvent, and tonic; has been successfully exhibited in agues; seeds acrid, bitter, and diuretic; leaves purgative, diuretic, and febrifuge; sometimes used instead of senna. In southern Europe it exudes an inferior kind of MANNA, and its medicinal properties are much greater than in our climate.--_Dose._ (Leaves) 1/4 _oz._ to 1-1/2 _oz._ (made into an infusion), as a purge; seeds, 1 dr., as a diuretic, &c.

=Ash, Flow'ering.= _Syn._ MAN'NA-ASH; FRAX'INUS OR'NUS (Linn.), L. A small tree of southern Europe. Yields MANNA. The 'round'-leaved flowering-ash' (CALA'BRIAN-ASH; FRAX'INUS ROTUNDIFO''LIA, Lamarck) is a smaller variety of the preceding, and a native of Calabria and the Levant. Said to yield the best MANNA. The 'small'-leaved flowering-ash' (FRAX'INUS PARVIFO''LIA, Lam.) is another manna-yielding species, indigenous to Asia Minor.

=ASH.= Ashes (which _see_).

=ASH-BALLS.= The ashes of land-plants, especially ferns, damped and made into balls. Used as a substitute for soap in washing, and in cleaning paint.

=ASH'ERY.= [Amer.] A place where potash or pearlash is made or kept.

=ASH'ES.= (-[)i]z). [Eng. pl.] _Syn._ ASH; CI'NIS, L.; CENDRES (_pl._), Fr.; ASCHE, Ger. The remains of anything burned. In _antiquity_, the remains of a body consumed on the funeral pyre; and hence, figuratively, the remains of the dead. The word, in English, has properly no singular; although 'ash' is very commonly heard; and is now almost exclusively used in composition, as in pearlash, potash, soda-ash, &c.

=Ashes.= In _commerce_, the residuum of the combustion of vegetable substances containing either carbonate of potassium ('land-plants'), or carbonate of sodium ('marine plants'), and from which the commercial alkalies are obtained. Their value depends upon their richness in 'alkali,' which is determined in the manner explained under ALKALIMETRY. The word is also commonly employed as a general term for the crude carbonates of potash of commerce (which _see_).

=Ashes of Plants.= See following page, on which will be found a table giving the chemical composition of the ashes of a few well-known plants used as food for men and animals. See also MANURES, PLANTS, VEGETATION, &c.

A careful determination of the ash of different substances is of great use to the analyst, by enabling him to detect adulteration; for instance, almost every plant on being burnt yields a very constant amount of ash, and not alone the quantity is constant, but the different proportions of the various components are also, within certain limits, tolerably unvarying. Many plants have the power of extracting from the soil certain elements; for instance, the ash of the tobacco contains lithium; tea, manganese; seaweed, iodine. It seems by no means improbable that by the examination of the ashes of plants by means of the spectroscope new elements may be discovered. Appended is a short list of the amount of ash, contained in a few important substances:--

Total Ash.
Cayenne pepper, from 5 to 6 per cent.
Chicory " 5 "
Cocoa " 3 to 4 "
Coffee " 4 "
Flour " ·7 to 1·5 "
Mustard " 3 to 4·5 "
Pepper " 4·3 to 5 "
Rice " 5 "
Tea " 5·6 "
Turmeric " 5 to 6 "

The ashes of plants are employed by the agriculturist according as the nature and proportion of the different salts they contain is suited to the soil and to the crops it is desired to raise. M. SOULANGE BODIN says that ashes hold the middle place between stable-dung and pasture manure. They act mechanically by dividing soils that are too compact, hygroscopically by absorbing moisture, and they appear to have an action similar to lime in accelerating the decomposition of the mould. They also probably exercise a stimulating effect on the soil. In the case of low-lying lands they are particularly suited for very damp clayey soils. In Picardy the ashes of turf are made use of; in England, the low countries and the north of France, coal ashes are employed.

-----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
| | | Red | |Wheat | | | |Turnip
| Peas.|Beans.|Clover.|Sainfoin.|Grain.|Straw.|Barley.|Oats.| Root.
-----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
Potassa | 42·43| 36·72| 18·44| 31·90 | 29·76| 10·51| 20·07 |17·70| 23·70
Soda | 3·27| 0·14| 2·79| ... | 5·26| 1·03| 4·56 | 3·84| 14·75
Lime | 5·73| 12·06| 35·02| 24·30 | 2·88| 5·91| 1·48 | 3·54| 11·82
Magnesia | 5·92| 6·00| 11·91| 5·03 | 11·06| 1·25| 7·45 | 7·33| 3·28
Sesquioxide| | | | | | | | |
of Iron | 0·44| 0·65| 0·98| 0·61 | 0·23| 0·07| 0·51 | 0·49| 0·47
Sulphuric | | | | | | | | |
acid | 6·23| 4·28| 3·91| 3·28 | 0·11| 2·14| 0·79 | 1·10| 16·13
Silica | 1·74| 1·52| 4·03| 3·22 | 2·23| 73·57| 32·73 |38·48| 2·69
Carbonic | | | | | | | | |
acid | 4·38| 1·63| 12·92| 15·20 | 0·22| ... | ... | ... | 10·47
Phosphoric | | | | | | | | |
acid | 29·92| 33·74| 5·82| 9·35 | 48·21| 5·51| 31·69 |26·46| 9·31
Chloride of| | | | | | | | |
potassium| ... | ... | ... | 6·24 | ... | ... | ... | 0·92| ...
Chloride of| | | | | | | | |
sodium | ... | 3·26| 4·13| 0·78 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 7·05
-----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
Total | | | | | | | | |
amount | 99·96|100·00| 99·95| 99·96 | 99·96| 99·99| 99·98 |99·96| 99·93
Per-centage| | | | | | | | |
of dry ash| | | | | | | | |
in dry | | | | | | | | |
substance | 2·60| 2·90| 7·87| 6·37 | 2·05| ... | 2·50 | 2·50| 6·00
Per-centage| | | | | | | | |
of ash in | | | | | | | | |
the fresh | | | | | | | | |
substance | 2·24| 2·54| 6·77| 5·65 | 1·81| ... | 2·25 | 2·27| 0·75
-----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
-----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------
| | | | |Lettuce | | | |
| | | | |Leaves |Olive- | | |
|Turnip | Beet |Carrot|Pota- | and | tree | | |Clupea
|Leaves.| Root.| Root.|toes. |Stalks. |Wood. |Hops. |Hay. |Sprouts.
| | | | [85] | [86] | [87] | [88] | [89] | [90]
-----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------
Potassa | 11·56 | 21·68| 37·55| 25·41| 22·37 | 20·60 | 24·88 | 11·93| 17·23
Soda | 12·43 | 3·13| 12·63| ... | 18·50 | ... | ... | 1·07| 1·19
Lime | 28·49 | 1·90| 9·76| 2·34| 10·43 | 63·02 | 21·59 | 14·76| 23·57
Magnesia | 2·62 | 1·79| 3·78| 4·17| 5·68 | 2·31 | 4·69 | 5·30| 3·01
Sesquioxide| | | | | | | | |
of Iron | 3·02 | 0·52| 6·74| 0·50| 2·82 | ... | 1·75 | 2·75| 0·28
Sulphuric | | | | | | | | |
acid | 10·36 | 3·14| 6·34| 4·71| 3·85 | 3·09 | 7·27 | 0·20| ...
Silica | 8·04 | 1·40| 0·76| 3·64| 11·86 | 3·82 | 19·71 | 53·43| ...
Carbonic | | | | | | | | |
acid | 6·18 | 15·23| 15·15| ... | ... | ... | 2·17 | ... | ...
Phosphoric | | | | | | | | |
acid | 4·85 | 1·65| 8·37| 10·38| 9·38 | 4·77 | 14·47 | 6·34| 43·52
Chloride of| | | | | | | | |
potassium| ... | ... | ... | 12·40| ... | 1·09 | ... | ... | ...
Chloride of| | | | | | | | |
sodium | 12·41 | 49·51| 4·91| Trace| 15·09 | ... | 3·42 | 2·27| 11·19
-----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+--------
Total | | | | | | | | |
amount | 99·96 | 99·96| 99·99|100·00| 99·99 |100·00 | 99·95 |100·00|100·00
Per-centage| | | | | | | | |
of dry ash| | | | | | | | |
in dry | | | | | | | | |
substance | 16·40 | 11·32| 5·12| 4·86 | ... | 0·58 | 5·95 | 6·97| ...
Per-centage| | | | | | | | |
of ash in | | | | | | | | |
the fresh | | | | | | | | |
substance | 1·97 | 1·02| 0·77| ... | ... | ... | ... | 6·15| ...
-----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------

[Footnote 85: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 86: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 87: A. Müller.]

[Footnote 88: Way.]

[Footnote 89: Hubert.]

[Footnote 90: Way.]

Coal ashes, when mixed with excrement, besides disinfecting the latter, make an excellent manure.

=ASPAR'AGIN= (-[)a]-j[)i]n). C_{4}H_{8}N_{2}O_{3}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALTHE'INE, ASPAR'AMIDE, MAL'AMIDE*; ASPARAGI'NA, ASPARAGI'NUM, L.; AGÉDOÏLE, Fr.; SPARGELSTOFF, Ger. A peculiar azotised principle discovered by Vauquelin and Robiquet in asparagus, and since found in the potato, marsh-mallow, liquorice, climbing vetch, and several other plants. Many plants which do not naturally contain it may be made to yield it by growing them in dark damp cellars; whilst many which only normally contain it in very small quantities are found to yield much more when allowed to vegetate in the same manner.

_Prep._ 1. From ASPARAGUS-SPROUTS:--The expressed juice, after being heated to the boiling-point (to coagulate albumen) and carefully skimmed and filtered, is evaporated, at a gentle heat, to a syrupy consistence, and then abandoned to spontaneous evaporation in a warm dry atmosphere for several days; the resulting crystals being purified by cautious washing with very cold water or very strong alcohol, re-solution, and re-crystallisation.

The following are cheaper and more convenient processes.

2. From MARSHMALLOW-ROOT:--_a._ The root (chopped small, or grated) is macerated for several days in milk of lime, in the cold; the filtered liquid precipitated with carbonate of ammonium, and the clear solution evaporated in a water-bath, and otherwise treated as before.

_b._ From the expressed juice, 2 parts; milk of lime, 1 part; agitated well together; the liquid portion, after some hours, being decanted, filtered, and evaporated, &c., as before.

3. From the ETIOLATED SHOOTS OF VETCHES:--The expressed juice of the young shoots when from 2 or 3 to even 12 or 15 inches long, is gently simmered for 8 or 10 minutes, to coagulate the albumen; and, after straining or clarification, the clear liquid is gently evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup, and set aside to crystallise, as before. The resulting brown crystals are purified by washing with very cold water, re-solution in boiling water, and re-crystallisation, as in No. 1; or, and what is better, the hot liquid, before evaporation to a syrup, is digested for a short time with a little pure animal charcoal in coarse powder, and then filtered, when large and beautifully white crystals are obtained by the first operation.[91] An excellent and very economical process.

[Footnote 91: This use of animal charcoal may also be advantageously extended to the other formulæ. Mr C. G. Williams, in Ure's 'Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,' 4th ed., directs the shoots to be used when of "a length of 2 inches;" but some authorities recommend them to be of 9, 12, or even 15 inches. The selection must, however, in many cases, depend upon circumstances and convenience.]

_Prop., &c._ Crystals brilliant, transparent, colourless, right rhombic prisms; neutral to test-paper; non-basic; having a faint, cooling, and scarcely nauseous taste; scarcely soluble in cold water; freely soluble in hot water; insoluble in strong alcohol and ether; solution unaffected by alkaline sulphurets, oxalate of ammonia, acetate of lead, or infusion of galls; triturated with quick-lime, ammonia is evolved; heated to 212° Fahr. the crystals lose two equiv. or 12% of water; heated with water under pressure in a closed vessel, or boiled along with an acid or an alkali, or dissolved in a saccharine liquid and then submitted to fermentation it is converted into ammonium and aspartic acid; aqueous solutions of asparagin and aspartic acid treated with a current of nitrous acid evolve pure nitrogen, with the formation of malic acid which remains in solution. It was called asparamide under the impression that it is aspartite of ammonia minus 1 atom of water; and malamide, for similar theoretical reasons.

_Uses._ It is sedative and diuretic.--_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.; in dropsies, heart-affections, &c.

=ASPAR'AGUS.= [L., Eng.] In _botany_, a genus of low, spiny plants, with scale-like leaves, many of which are shrubs and climbers, of the nat. ord. Asparageæ (DC.).; Liliaceæ (Lindl.). The following species, which is that best known in England, is, however, an exception to this description, as it is neither climbing nor spinose.

=Asparagus Officina'lis.= [Linn.; L.] _Syn._ ASPAR'AGUS, COMM'ON A., GARD'EN A.; SPAR'AGUS§, SPAR'ROW-GRASS§, SPER'AGE[dagger]§; ASPERGE, Fr.; SPARGEL, Ger. A well-known perennial plant, and one of the oldest and most delicate of our culinary vegetables.--Young shoots, from the underground eyes (TURIO'NES ASPAR'AGI, L.), the asparagus of our tables; diuretic; communicate a peculiar f[oe]tid odour to the urine, and, when eaten in excess, occasion bloody urine and accelerate fits of gout; formerly esteemed emmenagogue and aphrodisiac.--_Root_ (RA'DIX ASPAR'AGI, L.), properties resemble those of the young shoots, but stronger; one of the five 'greater aperient roots' (RAD'ICES APERIEN'TES QUIN''QUE MAJO''RES, L.) of old pharmacy. The tops and roots, though no longer officinal in the British Pharmacop[oe]ias, are both occasionally employed as popular remedies in dropsy and stone--the first being eaten in the usual way at table; and the second made into an infusion or decoction (1/2 _oz._ to the pint), taken ad libitum.

As an article of food, asparagus, in moderation, is both wholesome and nutritious. It is cooked by simply boiling it rather quickly until tender, like the other soft green vegetables; and is either served up plain, or on toast with melted butter or sauce Hollandaise in a boat (Soyer; Rundell.) When very small and green, it is frequently dressed and served like green-peas, the tender portion of each shoot being cut into bits of equal size, and about 1-3rd of an inch long. (Miss Acton.)

_Choice, &c._ "The large grass is generally preferred; although the smaller has the fullest flavour for a dish." (Soyer.) Unlike other plants, the asparagus officinalis has not produced a single well-marked permanent variety by cultivation.[92]

[Footnote 92: "The young shoots of polygona'tum (Solomon's Seal), and others, have been substituted for asparagus." (Lindley's 'Veg. King.,' 3rd ed., 203.)]

=Asparagus Petræ'a.= [L.] _Syn._ ROCK'-ASPAR'AGUS; CORRUDA; ASPAR'AGUS ACUTIFO''LIA, L,; CORRUDE, Fr. Resembles the last in its general qualities; but is said to contain more asparagin.

=ASPAR'AMIDE= (-m[)i]d). See ASPARAGIN.

=ASPAR'TIC ACID.= HC_{4}H_{6}NO_{4}. _Syn._ MALAM'IC ACID; ACIDUM ASPAR'TICUM, L.; ACIDE ASPARTIQUE, Fr. An acid first obtained, by Plisson, from asparagin, by boiling it along with hydrate of lead or of magnesia. Its salts are called ASPAR'TATES (Eng., Fr.; ASPAR'TAS, L. sing.) See ASPARAGIN.

=AS'PEN= (-p[)e]n). _Syn._ ASP*, TREM'BLING POP'LAR[double-dagger]; POP'ULUS TREM'ULA (Linn.), L.; TREMBLE, Fr.; AESPE (äspe), &c. Ger. A large tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceæ; (DC.), not uncommon in the moist woodlands of England, and found native on many of the Scottish mountains. It derives its name from the trembling motion of its leaves, which, owing to the peculiar flattening of the leafstalks, are agitated by the slightest impulse of the air. Bark and leaves contain POP'ULIN associated with SAL'ICIN. Both bark and leaves have been used with advantage in strangury and intermittents.

=ASPHALT'= (-f[)a]lt'). Asphaltum.

=ASPHALT'UM.= [L., prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ASPHALT', COMPACT BITUMEN, MINERAL PITCH, JEW'S PITCH, FOSS'IL BITU'MEN, VIT'REUS B., &c.; ASPHAL'TUS, BITUMEN FOS'SILE (-e-le), B. JUDA'ICUM, B. SOL'IDUM, B. VIT'REUM, MU'MIA[dagger], M. MINERA'LIS*, &c., L.; ASPHALTE, BITUME MASSIF, B. SOLIDE, POIX JUIVE, &c., Fr.; ASPHALT, ERDPECH, JUDENPECH, &c., Ger. A black, hard, brittle, and glossy variety of bitumen found on the shores of the Dead Sea (hence called _La'cus Asphalti'tes_), on and near the shores of the Great Pitch Lake of Trinidad, and as a mineral product in various other parts of the world.

_Prop., &c._ Melts without decomposition, and, when pure, burns without residue. It is distinguished from other varieties of bitumen by its more difficult fusibility, and by its fracture being clean, conchoidal, and vitreous. Distilled by itself it yields about 36% of a peculiar bituminous oil (crude PETROLENE), together with combustible gases, traces of ammonia and water. To anhydrous alcohol it yields 5% of a yellow resin, soluble in rectified spirit and ether; by digesting the residuum in ether, a further 70% of a brownish-black resin is obtained, which is freely soluble in the volatile oils and in about 5 times its weight of mineral naphtha. The portion (25%) left undissolved by ether is very soluble in the oils of turpentine and petroleum. These three resinous principles dissolve altogether, when digested, in the oils of anise, rosemary, and turpentine, and in the fixed oils. (John.) According to others, asphaltum consists almost entirely of asphaltene. (Boussingault.) Paranaphthaline has been found in some varieties. (M. Laurent.) Average sp. gr. 1 to 1·68. By friction it affords negative electricity. It is soluble in oil of turpentine, benzole, mineral and coal-tar naphtha, the fixed oils, solutions of the caustic alkalies, and several other liquids, by the aid of heat.

_Sources._ That of commerce is chiefly obtained from the shores of the Dead Sea; but much of that of the shops is a spurious article of the most worthless character. A short time since some specimens of the purest and most beautiful description, from the Great Bitumen Lake of Trinidad, were given us by our respected and venerable friend, the late Earl of Dundonald, who stated that the supply of both liquid and indurated bitumens, of every grade of quality, was unlimited from that source; but that owing to injudicious importations of inferior kinds (those most easily shipped), a prejudice had been created against them in the London market. Our personal investigations have since confirmed the accuracy of these statements.

_Uses._ The finer varieties are chiefly used as a 'glazing colour' by artists, and in the manufacture of black varnishes and japans. The inferior kinds are applied to the same purposes as ordinary solid bitumen. The Egyptians used it in embalming under the name of MU'MIA; and the Babylonian builders are said to have employed it, as a cement, in lieu of mortar. It is, however, doubtful whether the hard semi-vitreous variety of bitumen, properly termed 'asphaltum,' was that which was thus employed; its present hardness being probably due to time. As a _medicine_ it is stimulant; and it was formerly used as an ingredient in certain plasters and ointments. See BITUMEN, PITCH, &c. A mixture of asphalt, chalk, sand, ground sandstone, &c., is used as a pavement for making water-tight tanks and covers, as a coating for gas and water pipes, and for various other similar purposes. Sometimes the pitchy residue obtained by distilling off the more volatile portions of gas tar is employed to replace the asphalt in the foregoing mixture; the product is called artificial or gas-tar asphalt.

=Asphaltum, Facti''tious= (-t[)i]sh-'[)u]s). _Syn._ ASPHAL'TUM FACTI''TIUM, L. That of the shops, when not an inferior kind of true asphaltum, is commonly made from the bottoms of Barbadoes tar, and other mineral bitumens, by heating them until quite hard. Sometimes a little Scio turpentine, balsam of copaiba, or even common resin, is added. Colour, hardness, &c., inferior to those of native asphaltum.

=Asphaltum, Liq'uid.= _Syn._ PREPARED' ASPHALTUM; ASPHAL'TUM LIQ'UIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Scio turpentine, 2 _oz._; melt; add asphaltum (in powder), 1 _oz._; mix, cool a little, and reduce with hot oil of turpentine.

2. (Wilson's.) Asphaltum, 1/2 _lb._; melt; add of hot balsam of copaiba, 1 _lb._; and, when mixed, thin it with hot oil of turpentine. Both are used as 'black japan' or 'varnish,' and as a 'glazing colour' by artists.

=ASPHYX'IA= (-f[)i]k'-sh'[)a]; -f[)i]ks'-e-[)a][double-dagger]). [L., Gr.] _Syn._ ASPHYX'Y[double-dagger] (-e), Eng.; ASPHYXIE, Fr.; PULSLOSIGKEIT, SCHEINTOD, Gr. Literally, absence of pulse; hence, a fainting fit; apparent lifelessness. Its use is now generally confined to a suspension of vitality from some cause interrupting respiration, but in which life is not actually extinct, and may, under favorable circumstances, be revived.

Asphyxia is commonly divided into four varieties by nosologists:--

1. ASPHYXIA ALGIDA:--_Cause._ Exposure to intense cold.--_Symp._ Countenance pale, livid, and shrivelled; limbs rigid.

2. ASPHYXIA ELEC'TRICA:--_Cause._ Stroke of lightning or electricity.--_Symp._ Countenance pale, limbs flexible, blood incoagulable.

3. ASPHYXIA MEPHIT'ICA:--_Cause._ Inhalation of irrespirable gases or fumes.--_Symp._ Countenance pallid, lips wan, &c.

4. ASPHYXIA SUFFOCATIO'NIS:--_Cause._ Suffocation or strangulation, as from drowning, hanging, &c.--_Symp._ Countenance turgid and livid.

_Treatm., &c._ No general rules can be given exactly suitable to each variety. Whenever it is possible to procure medical aid, it should, of course, be immediately sought, as the delay of even a single minute may render it unavailing. In the _treatment_ of suspended animation the principal object is to effect a restoration of the respiratory and circulatory functions; the former of which has been arrested by the external condition of the patient; the latter by the contact of morbidly carbonised blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs. The first thing to be attempted is the restoration of warmth by active friction with the warm hands, flannels, &c.; the second, the re-establishment of natural respiration by an available means, of which, perhaps, none is simpler or better than alternate pressure and its relaxation, applied to the thorax and abdomen, so as to induce expiration first, and inspiration immediately afterwards, by the natural action and elasticity of the ribs and diaphragm. Cold water may also be suddenly dashed on the face and general surface previously warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing a more decided inspiration. If these measures fail, artificial respiration should be promptly had recourse to. (Dr Marshall Hall.) The warm bath, and slight electrical shocks, or continued streaming electricity, may also be applied.

See CHARCOAL, COLD, DROWNING, HANGING, RESPIRATION (Artificial), SEWERS-GAS, STRANGULATION, SUFFOCATION, &c.

=ASPHYX'IATED.= _Syn._ ASPHYXIA'TUS, L.; ASPHYXIÉ, Fr.; ASPHYKTISCH, SCHEINTODT, &c., Ger. Affected with or labouring under asphyxia. (See _above_.)

=ASP'IC=[dagger]. Spike lavender or French lavender; also the male lavender, spica nardi, or pseudo-nardus of old writers.

=Aspic.= In _cookery_, "savory jelly extracted from the succulence of meat." (Soyer.)

_Prep._ (Miss Acton.) Calf's feet, 2 in no.; veal, 4 _lbs._; ham, 3 _lb._; onions, 2 (large); carrots, 3; water, 1 gall.; boil 5 or 6 hours, or until reduced to less than one half, strain, and when cold, put the jelly into a stew-pan with the whites of 4 eggs well beaten, a large bunch of savoury herbs, 3 blades of mace (in shreds), a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, and salt, q. s.; keep it well stirred until pretty hot, then let it gently simmer for about 15 minutes, and, after settling, pass it through a jelly-bag till quite clear. After cooling a little, it is fit for use; or it may be allowed to cool and be at any time remelted. French cooks commonly flavour it with tarragon-vinegar, added after clarification.

_Uses, &c._ "Cold poultry, game, fish, plovers' eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables, with many other things often elaborately prepared, and highly ornamental, are moulded, and served in it, especially at large déjeûners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate raised pies and hams, and for many other purposes."[93]

[Footnote 93: Miss Acton's 'Modern Cookery,' Longmans, 1860{?}, p. 104.]

=ASPIRATOR.= An apparatus for drawing a stream of air through a tube or other vessel. There are several forms of aspirator; that invented by Brunner is perhaps one of the most convenient. It consists of two equal cylindrical vessels placed one above the other, and communicating by tubes which can be opened or closed, so that when the water has run from the upper to the lower vessel, the apparatus turning for the purpose on a horizontal axis may be inverted so as to bring the empty vessel to the bottom and the full one to the top; the water may then again be made to flow without the trouble of refilling. See AIR, ANALYSIS OF.

=ASS= ([)a]ss). _Syn._ AS'INUS, L.; ANE (âne), Fr.; ESEL, Ger. The _e'quus as'inus_ (Linn.), a well-known animal found almost everywhere.

=ASSAF[OE]TIDA.= [L. and Eng.] _Syn._ ASSAFETIDA, DEVIL'S DUNG, Eng.; ASSAF[OE]TIDA GUMMI, L.; STINKASAND, STINKENDER ASAND, TEUFELS-DRECK, Ger. A gum resin exuded from the excised root of _narthex assaf[oe]tida_ (B. P.); from _ferula assaf[oe]fida_, and probably from _ferula Persica_. It yields its virtues to alcohol, and forms a clear tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water. It is imported into Europe from Persia, viâ Bombay, in cases, mats, and casks.

_Comp._ Assaf[oe]tida contains from 4 to 5% of a peculiar volatile oil, and from 50 to 60% of resin of a whitish colour, turning rose-red and reddish-brown by exposure to the air, and giving a greenish solution with concentrated sulphuric acid. Brande resolved this resin into two others--one soluble in ether; the other insoluble in that menstruum.

_Pur._ The assaf[oe]tida of the shops is generally in masses of a whitish, reddish, or violet hue, formed principally of adhering tears or grains, possesses a peculiar f[oe]tid, alliaceous odour, and forms an emulsion with water in all proportions. Hot sulphuric acid blackens it and forms a dark blood-red liquid, sulphurous fumes being evolved. This solution diluted with water, and then saturated with potassa, has a blue colour, which is most visible by reflected light. Digested first in alcohol, and afterwards in weak spirit-and-water, the residuum should not exceed 16%. Sp. gr. 1·325 to 1·330. It is frequently adulterated with inferior gums, and with chalk, clay, sand, &c. The purest and best is that which is clear, of a more or less pale-red colour, full of white tears, and very f[oe]tid.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Assaf[oe]tida is stimulant, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, expectorant, aphrodisiac, and anthelmintic, and is the most powerful of all the f[oe]tid gum-resins. It is administered with advantage in several uterine diseases, hysteria, chorea, flatulent colic, hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, spasmodic asthma, and some other affections of a spasmodic and convulsive character.--_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 30 gr.; in pills, or preferably made into an emulsion; as an enema, 2 dr., with warm water, q. s.--_Dose for Animals._ Similar to Assaf[oe]tida. Some oriental nations esteem it highly as a condiment. The Brahmins use it against flatulence, and to correct the coldness of their vegetable food. In Persia the leaves of the plant are eaten as salad; and the root, after being roasted. In _cookery_ it is now frequently employed as a substitute for garlic. "I am assured by an experienced gastronome that the finest relish which a beef-steak can possess may be communicated by" (slightly) "rubbing the gridiron on which the steak is to be cooked with assaf[oe]tida."[94]

[Footnote 94: Pereira, 'Mat. Med. & Therap.,' 4th ed., iii, 177.]

=ASSAF[OE]TIDA, PREPARED.= As AMMONIACUM, PREPARED.

=ASSAMAR.= A substance described by Reichenbach, and found by him in the crust of bread. It possesses the faculty of retarding tissue metamorphosis.

=ASSAY'= (-s[=a]). _Syn._ ESSAI (_anc._, asaie), Fr. PRÜFUNG, &c., Ger. Literally, a 'trial' or examination. In _chemistry_, the determination, by any chemical means, of the richness of a substance in its essential material or more valuable ingredient; more particularly applied to quantitative analyses of the commercial alkalies, bleaching-powder, oxide of manganese, ores, and other like articles that are employed on the large scale. In _docimacy_ and _metallurgy_ the determination of the quantity of metal in any ore, alloy, or other metallic compound, particularly in the 'dry way,' or by the process of cupellation; and more especially of the quantity of pure gold, or pure silver, contained in coin, bullion, and the commercial alloys and ores of these metals. The substance assayed*. See ASSAYING, &c.

=ASSAY'ING.= _Syn._ ASSAY', DOC'IMACY (d[)o]os'-) DOCIMAS'TIC ART; COUPELLATION, Fr.; ABTREIBEN AUF DER CAPELLE, Ger. The art of assay, or of determining the quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys of these metals, in the 'dry way,' or by cupellation. It differs from chemical analysis in merely furnishing the quantity of the precious metal contained in the sample examined; instead of the nature and proportions of all, or any, of the ingredients in the compound, at the will of the operator.

_a, a_, Rollers on which the furnace rests.
_b_, Ash-pit.
_c_, One of the ash-pit dampers.
_d_, Grate supporting the muffle-plate.
_e_, Muffle containing the cupels.
_f_, The mouth-plate, upon which, during use, is piled ignited
pieces of charcoal, by which the mouth of the furnace is
closed, and heated air made to pass over the cupels.
_h_, Interior of furnace containing charcoal.
_i, i_, Walls of the furnace.
_k_, Moveable chimney for regulating the draught.]

_Materials, Appar., &c._ These are--furnace, muffle, cupels, charcoal, &c., all of which must be provided and properly arranged for use before an assay can be made:--

The FUR'NACE employed at the Royal Mint and at Goldsmiths' Hall, London, is figured in section in the above _fig._, and has the following dimensions:--Total height, 2-1/2 feet; from the bottom to the grate, 6 inches; grate, muffle-plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches; space between the grate and the bottom of the funnel or chimney, 21-1/2 inches; funnel, 6 inches. A furnace of any other shape and size may be employed, provided it affords a sufficient heat, and allows of the easy introduction of the muffle.

The MUFF'LE (m[)u]f'l) is a vessel made of clay (see _engr._), and furnished with an opening to admit of the introduction of the cupels, and the complete inspection of the process. It is placed on the muffle-plate (see _above_), by which it is introduced into the furnace.

The CU'PEL (k[=u]'-p[)e]l) is a small, porous, shallow crucible, usually made of bone ashes or burnt horn. The powder (slightly moistened with water) is placed in a circular steel mould, and after being pressed down tight, is finished off with a rammer having a convex face of polished steel, which is forcibly struck with a mallet, until the mass becomes sufficiently hard and adherent. The newly formed cupel is then carefully removed and exposed in the air for a fortnight or three weeks to dry. Fig. 1 represents a cupel in section, and fig. 2 the tongs used for charging it. The best weight for cupels ranges between 180 and 200 gr. Those used at the Royal Mint are made of the calcined cores of ox-horns.