Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (27)

_Hist._ Ale and wine are fabled to have been invented by Bacchus; the former, in Egypt, where the soil and climate would not permit of the cultivation of the grape. Herodotus ascribes the origin of the art of brewing to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and notices zythum [Greek: zythos], a beer obtained from barley. Malt-liquor was undoubtedly employed as a beverage in the fifth century before Christ; and, probably, very much earlier. Xenophon distinctly alludes to it in his famous retreat (B.C. 401). Aristotle speaks of 'beer drunkenness,' and Theophrastus calls it 'barley-wine.' The Romans learned the art of brewing from the Egyptians, and gave the liquor thus made the appropriate name of cerevisia (quasi Cererisia), from its being the product of corn, the gift of Ceres. The most celebrated beer of ancient times was the _Pelus'ian pota'tion_, so named after a town at the mouth of the Nile where beer was prepared in great perfection. The use of beer was likewise known to the ancient Gauls and Germans, and probably also to most other ancient nations inhabiting the temperate zone. Pliny says "Zythum is made in Egypt, _ce'lia_ and _ce''ria_ in Spain, and many other sorts (of beer) in Gaul." In our own country, ale was early known and valued as a beverage. The art of its preparation appears to have been obtained either from the Romans or the Saxons. According to Verstegan, "This excellent and healthsome liquor, beere, anciently called ale, as of the Danes it yet is, was of the Germans invented and brought into use." Alehouses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (A.D. 680). Alebooths were regulated by law, A.D. 728. By the beginning of the 13th century ale was drunk generally in England. By a statute of James III, of Scotland, it was made a capital offence to mix wine with beer (A.D. 1482). In 1492, a licence was granted to a brewer at Greenwich to export 50 tons of that "ale" called "beer" or "bere;" the distinction between the two apparently being, that the latter was flavoured with wormwood or other bitters; whereas ale was not. Ale was originally made from barley-malt and yeast alone, and those who put in anything else were held to sophisticate the liquor. Hops were introduced A.D. 1524; and to this date modern, or hopp'd beer, may be traced.

By statute of James I the "ale" called "bere" was taxed, and "one quart of the best thereof" ordered to be sold for a penny (A.D. 1610). Alehouses were first licensed in 1621, and during the reign of Charles II were, together with all malt-liquor, placed under the control of the Excise (A.D. 1660). By the Statutes 1 & 4 Will. IV (1834), previous enactments respecting malt liquors and their sale were reduced to their present form. Beer is now the common beverage in all European countries where the vine is not a subject of rustic husbandry.

_Qual._ Pure malt-liquor which has undergone sufficient fermentation is perhaps, when taken in moderation, one of the most wholesome beverages that can be drunk. Ale is the most nutritious variety, and, when moderately mature, is the one best adapted to the debilitated and delicate; but good porter, owing to being less rich in extractive and gummy matter, and from being slightly astringent from high-dried or scorched malt being used in its preparation, occasionally agrees better with bilious constitutions and the dyspeptic. Much, however, depends on acquired taste and habit. The most wholesome, and perhaps the least exceptionable beverages obtained from malt, are those known as East-India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales, when honestly prepared and not highly 'bittered' with the hop, as is, unfortunately, now so general. A late writer has described good beer as nutritious, from the sugar and mucilage which it contains; exhilarating, from its spirit; and strengthening and narcotic, from its hops. Pereira says, "Beer is a thirst-quenching, refreshing, intoxicating, and slightly nutritious beverage." Its effects, when taken injudiciously, or in excess, for the most part resemble those of other intoxicating liquors--disease, misery, and crime; and these in direct proportion as it deviates from the true standard of purity and excellence.

All medical authorities agree in discountenancing the use of beer for infants and children. Water or milk with the child's meals are the best beverages for them.

_Var._ The numerous varieties of malt liquor met with in commerce may be resolved into two great classes--ALE and PORTER. ALE of all kinds is brewed chiefly from pale malt, and is generally of a light amber colour. PALE ALE is manufactured from the finest and lightest dried malt, and the choicest hops, the latter in excess. MILD ALE differs from pale ale in being sweeter, stronger, and almost free from the flavour of the hop. BITTER ALE or BITTER BEER has, as a rule, less body than pale ale, and is more highly hopped. TABLE BEER is a weak liquor commonly containing three or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer or ale. PORTER differs from ale chiefly in its being artificially coloured by the use of roasted malt, which also imparts to it a peculiar bitter flavour. In point of strength it stands about midway between light and strong ales, although frequently brewed of a strength very slightly above that of table beer. STOUT, BROWN STOUT, &c., are simply richer or stronger descriptions of porter, and may be said to have nearly the same relation to the higher qualities of mild ale that porter holds with regard to pale ale or bitter beer. In London, PORTER is called BEER; and, indeed, in all parts of the kingdom, the prevailing beverage of this kind consumed by the masses, of whatever class, commonly goes by the name of beer.

The two great classes of malt liquor above referred to, are, independently of mere differences of strength, excellence, and commercial value, practically subdivided into an almost infinite number of varieties. Every county, every town, and almost every brewer, is distinguished by the production of a different-flavoured beer, readily perceived, and highly appreciated by their respective votaries. These differences may be traced to--variations in the quantity and quality of the materials employed in their manufacture--the temperature of the water used for mashing--the duration of the boiling--the temperature at which the fermentation is conducted, and the extent to which it is carried, together with numerous other circumstances, which, though usually of an accidental and uncertain character, are nevertheless sufficient to affect the flavour and quality of a brewing. Among these, those depending on the condition of the building, the locality, the apparatus, the water, the management, &c., are not the least important. In general, however, when the same quantity and quality of materials are employed, and the same time allowed for the maturation of the liquor, the chief causes of this diversity will be found to depend on the water used in the brewing, and the method followed in the preparation of the malt. Thus, Bavarian, Scotch, and Burton ales differ in style from other ales chiefly from being fermented at a lower temperature, and from the water employed in the brewing being that usually denominated 'hard,' whilst porter and stout differ from all these because they are brewed from a mixture of pale and roasted malt. It is from causes like these, though apparently trivial, that the many varieties of malt liquor met with, at the present day, originate.

The per-centage in English beers of malt extract (dextrin and sugar glucose) is least in bitter, and highest in the sweet ales. The hop extract (lupulin and hop resin) is in much smaller amount.

The alcohol varies considerably, as does also the free acidity.

The albuminous matter in most beers does not average more than 0·5 per cent.

The salts, which consist of alkaline chlorides and phosphates, and some earthy phosphates, average 0·1 to 0·2 per cent. Ammoniacal salts are found in small quantities. Caramel and assamar are found in the dark beers and porters. Carbonic acid is always more or less present. The average is 0·1 to 0·2 parts by weight per cent., or about 1-3/4 cubic inches per ounce. Volatile and essential oils are also present.

PARKES says, "Adopting means numbers; one pint (20 oz.) of beer will contain--

Alcohol 1 ounce.
Extractive (dextrin),
sugar, &c. 1·2 " (534 grains).
Free acid 25 grains.
Salts 13 "

The following beer analyses are given by Professor WANKLYN:

Bass's bottled bitter ale contains in 100 cubic centimètres:

5·3 grams of alcohol.
5·52 " organic residue.
0·36 " ash.

A sample of draught ale, costing 2d. per pint in London, contained in 100 cubic centimètres:

4·7 grams of alcohol.
5·8 " organic residue.
0·32 " ash.

A sample of London porter in 100 cubic centimètres contained:

3·3 grams of alcohol.
3·45 " organic residue.
0·30 " ash.

"A large number of analyses recently made show that in the various classes of malt liquor sold in London there is a variation in the amount of alcohol contents from 3·87 to 8·41 per cent. of absolute alcohol by weight, these two extremes corresponding to ·98 and 2·18 fluid ounces of absolute alcohol in the pint of beer. The amount of extract varies from 2·16 to 13·32 per cent. by weight, or from ·73 to 2·77 ounces per pint of beer, as will be seen from the accompanying table.

----------------------+---------+----------------------+---------+-------+------------------------
| | Per-centage of | | | Con. vols., per pint.
| |----------------------|Original |Malt, |------------------------
Kind of Malt Liquor. | Specific|Alcohol|Extract|Acetic|Gravity |per |Alcohol,|Extract|Acid,
| Gravity.| | |Acid. |of Wort. |barrel.|fl. oz. |ounces.|grains.
----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+-------
Burton ale (Allsopp's)| 1040·38 | 8·25 | 13·32 | ·32 | 1121·63 | 4·50 | 2·16 | 2·77 | 29·12
Bass's barley wine | 1032·31 | 8·41 | 11·75 | ·23 | 1114·78 | 4·25 | 2·18 | 2·42 | 20·77
Edinburgh ale | 1006·63 | 4·41 | 3·58 | ·19 | 1048·38 | 1·77 | 1·12 | ·72 | 16·73
Guinness's stout | 1015·51 | 6·81 | 6·17 | ·24 | 1078·06 | 2·88 | 1·74 | 1·25 | 21·32
Truman, Hanbury, | | | | | | | | |
& Co.'s porter | 1013·16 | 4·02 | 5·12 | ·24 | 1051·33 | 1·90 | 1·03 | 1·01 | 21·27
Whitbread's porter | 1014·04 | 4·28 | 5·15 | ·18 | 1054·11 | 2·00 | 1·09 | 1·03 | 15·97
Hoare's porter | 1012·99 | 4·18 | 5·04 | ·18 | 1052·42 | 1·94 | 1·06 | 1·03 | 15·95
Perry's ale | 1006·48 | 3·87 | 3·65 | ·14 | 1045·82 | 1·69 | 0·98 | 0·73 | 7·97
----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+-------

"The relative proportions of alcohol and extract in beer will also have some influence on its fitness in a medical point of view for certain persons; and in some instances thin dry beer, that has had the fermentation carried so far as to reduce the amount of extract to a minimum, may be very preferable to beer containing a larger amount of extract. In this respect some samples of the Prestonpans' beer are remarkable for the small proportion of extract they contain.

"In regard to the nutritive value of beer, over and above the stimulant and tonic actions due to the alcohol and to the bitter principle of the hop, it is worth notice that a pint of pale ale contains from 1/2 an ounce to an ounce of solid extract, while mild and old ale contain from 1-1/10 to 2-3/4 ounces in the pint.

"The amount of free acid in British beer appears to be uniformly larger than in the Viennese and Bavarian beer recently introduced here, and sometimes it is very much larger. This free acid is represented in the tables as acetic acid; but there is reason to believe that beer probably contains lactic acid or other fixed acids, together with a substance analogous to glucic acid, which, according to Graham, Hoffmann, and Redwood, appears to be produced in the fermentation of beer wort, as practised in this country.

"There appears to be great differences in the quality of beer sold by publicans at a given price. Thus, for instance, the variation in the pale ale sold at fourpence per pint is from 4·08 to 7·10 per cent. of alcohol, and from 3·22 to 7·53 per cent. of extract; in the mild ale sold at twopence per pint it is from 4·43 to 5·62 per cent. of alcohol, and from 5·01 to 5·56 per cent. of extract; and in old ale sold at fourpence per pint it is from 6·20 to 8·31 per cent. of alcohol, and from 4·56 to 6·2 per cent. of extract. These differences represent respectively 1·58, ·27, and ·49 bushels of malt per barrel of beer. From the great alcoholic strength of some kinds of old ale they partake more of the nature of wine than of beer, in the usual sense of this term. They are, in fact, quite equal in that respect to most of the cheaper wine imported from the Continent, while in flavour and general character old ale, such as that brewed at Burton-on-Trent and in Scotland, is far superior to any wine of the kind referred to, which can be sold here at a price even double that of the best old ale. This kind of ale, however, is but rarely sold by publicans."--Dr PAUL.

_Materials, Manuf., &c._ See MALT, HOPS, BREWING, &c.

_Purity._ The leading characteristics of good beer are transparency, a fine colour, an agreeable semi-vinous flavour, and the property of remaining for several hours exposed in a glass or cup without becoming 'flat' or insipid. If the materials used were good, if the brewing was skilfully conducted, if the liquor has been carefully stowed in perfectly sweet casks or vessels, in a suitable cellar, for a sufficient time, and has not been tampered with, this will almost always be the case. Hence colour, transparency, and flavour, and the power of resisting exposure, are tests of the purity and quality of beer, which should not be lightly treated. There are none more simple and effectual; and, together with a good 'palate,' and a close observance of its effects on the head and on the stomach, will readily distinguish pure and wholesome beer from 'doctored' and inferior liquor. If, therefore, we find a sample of beer possessing the above qualities and in good condition, and on testing it for its alcohol and saccharine matter, find these substances in such quantities as fairly to represent the amount of malt which should have been used in the brewing of such a liquor, we may, in the absence of proof to the contrary, infer it to be pure; because the object for which adulteration is practised--the saving of malt and hops--did not exist in this case. To demonstrate the purity of beer requires an elaborate and troublesome analysis, which can only be performed by those accustomed to chemical operations. Good and pure beer should contain nothing but what exists in the malt, the hops, and the water, from which it is brewed, or which is produced from them in the processes of 'mashing,' 'fermentation,' and 'maturation.'

_Adulteration._ Until the year 1862 nothing was allowed to enter into the composition of beer but malt and hops; and the Act 56 Geo. III, cap. 58, imposes a penalty of £200 on any "brewer, dealer, or retailer of beer," who "shall receive, or have in his possession, or use, or mix with, or put into any worts or beer any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea-pepper, or opium, or any extract or preparation of these substances, for, or as a substitute for, malt or hops;" and a further penalty of £500 on any "druggist, or vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever," who shall "sell, send, or deliver to any licensed brewer," &c., any of the above materials. However, by the Act 25 Vic., cap. 22, s. 20, so much of the above is repealed as relates to hops. This Act provides that--

"On and after the 16th Sept., 1862, so much of an Act passed in the 56th year of the reign of King George the Third, cap. 58, and of an Act passed in the 7th and 8th years of the reign of King George the Fourth, cap. 52, and of any other Act relating to the revenue of excise, as imposes any excise penalty upon any brewer of, or dealer in, or retailer of beer, for receiving into, or having in his possession, or using or mixing with any worts or beer, any article for, or as a substitute for hops, or as prohibits the sale of any such article to the said persons, shall be, and is hereby repealed: provided always, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to repeal any such penalty or prohibition so far as regards any article which may be used as a substitute for malt, notwithstanding that it may be also a substitute for hops."

Prior to this an Act (10 Vic., c. 5) had been passed allowing brewers to use sugar under certain restrictions.

As the law now stands, a brewer may use hops, quassia, wormwood, gentian, or any other simple bitter; but he is forbidden to use any substitute for malt, such as unmalted grain, sugar in a liquid state, molasses, or any substance which would give pungency or intoxicating properties to the beer, such as cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, tobacco, &c. It is a well-known and authenticated fact, that beer is commonly and sometimes dangerously adulterated. The cupidity of fraudulent brewers and publicans frequently induces them to introduce other ingredients than malt and bitters into their liquors, with a view of giving them a false appearance and strength. Thus, to give pungency--capsicum, grains of paradise, ginger, &c., have been added; to give intoxicating properties--opium, cocculus indicus, tobacco, &c.; as a substitute for malt--molasses, treacle, colouring, honey, &c.; to impart a false appearance of age--sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol, glycerin, mustard, &c.; to remove acidity--pearlash, soda, chalk, &c.; and to impart a frothy head--alum, foots, table-salt, &c.

The publicans generally 'reduce' their strong beer with water (which they call 'liquor'), and add treacle, together with a mixture of copperas, salt, and alum (termed 'heading'), to make it bear a frothy head. The cheap beer sold in many of the low taverns of London is made by dividing the contents of two butts between three butts, filling them up with water, and adding a bladder of porter-extract (technically termed 'P. E,') to each. This 'P. E,' is a mixture of powdered cocculus, Spanish juice, caramel, capsicum, &c., boiled up with treacle and water to the consistence of a thin extract, and then put into bullocks' bladders.

_Exam., Tests, &c._ The analysis of beer, both qualitative and quantitative, as already noticed, is a matter of considerable difficulty. We shall therefore defer its consideration until we come to the article PORTER, as that description of beer, on account of its colour, is not only the one most difficult to examine, but also the one most frequently adulterated. See ALE, BREWING, HOPS, MALT, PORTER, &c.

=Beer, Am'ber.= _Syn._ AMBER. A liquor, formerly much drank in London, brewed from a mixture of 3 parts of amber malt, and 1 part of pale malt, with about 6 _lbs._ of hops to the quarter. It was generally 'tapped' within a few days after it had done 'working,' and was chiefly used mixed with bitters, or made into 'PURL,'

=Beer, Wheat'en=, Wheat'-malt Beer. See MUM.

[asterism] Besides malt liquor, or BEER properly so called, a somewhat similar beverage, though of inferior quality, may be prepared from any vegetable substance rich in starch and sugar, as noticed in our article on BREWING. Certain summer beverages also pass under the name; but in both the cases referred to, the name of the characteristic ingredient, or that of the vegetable employed, is always conjoined; as in pea-shell beer, potato-beer, ginger-beer, &c. Examples of some of these are given below:--

=Beer, Gin'ger.= _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA (-v[)i]zh'-) ZINGIB'ERIS, C. ZINGIBERA'TA*, C. CUM ZINGIB'ERE* (-[)e]r-e), L. _Prep._ 1. Lump-sugar, 1 _lb._; good unbleached Jamaica ginger (well-bruised), 1 _oz._; cream of tartar, 3/4 _oz._ (or tartaric acid, 1/2 _oz._); 2 or 3 lemons (sliced); boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate, with frequent stirring, in a covered vessel, until barely lukewarm, then add of yeast, 1-1/2 or 2 _oz._ (about 2/3rds of a wine-glassful), and keep it in a moderately warm place, to excite a brisk fermentation; the next day rack or decant the liquor, and strain it through a jelly-bag or flannel; allow it to work for another day, or two, according to the weather; then skim it, again decant or strain, and put it into bottles, the corks of which should be 'wired' down.

2. Good white sugar, 18 to 24 _lbs._; lemon-juice or lime-juice, 1 quart; finest Narbonne honey, 1 or 2 _lbs._; bruised Jamaica ginger, 1-1/2 _lb._; pure soft water (that has been boiled, and then allowed to settle), q. s. Boil the ginger in 3 _galls._ of the water for half an hour; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with sufficient water (see _above_) to make the whole measure 18-1/4 _galls._, and strain the mixture as before. When the liquor has become almost cold, add the white of 1 egg, and 1/2 _fl. oz._ of essence of lemon, and strongly agitate the cask or vessel for about half an hour. After standing 3 to 6 days, according to the state of the weather, bottle it, and place the bottles on their sides in a cellar, just as is done with wine or beer. It will be ready for use in about 3 weeks, and will keep good for several months. If wanted for immediate use, about 1/2 pint of yeast may be added, as in formula 1; but then it will not keep so well, or be quite so transparent and free from deposit. The lemon juice and essence of lemon may be replaced, at will, by cream of tartar (in powder) or tartaric acid, 4 _oz._; and lemons (sliced) 1-1/2 to 2 doz.; added with the sugar, &c.; but the original formula is preferable.--_Prod._ 18 _galls._ = 24 doz. 1/2-pint bottles, or 30 doz. ordinary sized ones.

3. EXTEMPORANEOUS:--_a._ Into each bottle put concentrated essence of ginger, 1 drop; simple syrup or capillaire, 1/2 _oz._ (or in lieu of them, syrup of ginger and simple syrup, of each a dessert-spoonful); and fill with aërated soda-water at the 'bottling machine,' in the usual way. Very superior.

_b._ Into each bottle put two or three lumps of sugar, fill them to the proper height with pure water, throw in (quickly) an effervescing ginger-beer powder, and instantly cork the bottle, and secure the cork with wire.

_Use._ As a cooling and refreshing drink in warm weather; and as a restorative after hard drink, fatigue, &c.

_Obs._ The products of all the above formulæ, if well managed, are excellent; those of No. 2, and 3_a_., of the very finest description, much stronger and superior to nine tenths of that sold for the best in the shops. They are often called, by way of distinction, LIMO''NIATED GINGER-BEER, IMPERIAL G.-B., &c. Cheaper articles are made by omitting some of the ingredients, and particularly a portion of the sugar. The ginger-beer vended at 1_d._ and 2_d._ a bottle, with that known as GINGER POP, IMPE''RIAL POP, &c., are generally made with moist sugar (1/2 to 3/4 _lb._ to the _gall._), and merely flavoured with a little coarse ginger. No. 2, made with 2 _lbs._ of sugar to the _gall._ may be kept 2 years, if not bottled for six months, and well-stored; and with 3 _lbs._ to the _gall._, for 4 years, when it forms a splendid article (GINGER-CHAMPAGNE).

=Beer, Pine.= See, BEER SPRUCE.

=Beer, Spruce.= _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA (-v[)i]zh'-) ABI'ETIS, C. ABIETI'NA, C. ABIET'ICA*, L. _Prep._ 1. Sugar, 1 _lb._; essence of spruce, 1/2 _oz._; boiling water, 1 _gall._; mix well, and when nearly cold, add of yeast 1/2 a wine-glassful; and the next day bottle like ginger-beer.

2. Essence of spruce, 1/2 pint; pimento and ginger (bruised), of each 5 _oz._; hops, 1/2 _lb._; water, 3 galls.; boil the whole for 10 minutes, then add of moist sugar, 12 _lbs._ (or good treacle, 14 _lbs._); warm water, 11 _galls._; mix well, and, when only lukewarm, further add of yeast, 1 pint; after the liquid has fermented for about 24 hours, bottle it.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Diuretic and antiscorbutic. Regarded by some persons as an agreeable 'summer-drink,' and often found useful during long sea-voyages. When made with lump-sugar it is called WHITE SPRUCE-BEER; when with moist sugar or treacle, BROWN SPRUCE-BEER. An inferior sort is made by using less sugar, or more water. If made with 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 _lb._ of lump-sugar per gall., and without yeast, in a similar manner to that described under GINGER-BEER (No. 2), it may be kept a twelvemonth or longer in a moderately cool place.

=Beer, Sugar.= _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA (-v[)i]zh'-) SAC'CHARI, L. From moist sugar (1 to 2 _lbs._ to the _gall._) and a little hops; as treacle-beer.

=Beer, Trea'cle= (tr[=e]'kl-). _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA FÆ'CIS SAC'CHARI, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. From treacle or molasses, 3/4 to 2 _lbs._ per _gall._ (according to the desired strength); hops, 1/4 to 3/4 _oz._; yeast, a table-spoonful; water, q. s.; treated as _below_.

2. Hops, 1-1/2 lb.; corianders, 1 _oz._; capsicum-pods (cut small), 1/2 _oz._; water, 8 _galls._; boil for 10 or 15 minutes, and strain the 'liquor' through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing treacle, 28 _lbs._; then throw back the hops, &c., into the copper, and reboil them, for 10 minutes, with a second 8 _galls._ of water, which must be strained into the barrel, as before; next 'rummage' the whole well with a stout stick, add of cold water 21 _galls._ (sufficient to make the whole measure 37 _galls._), and, after again mixing, stir in 1/2 a pint of good fresh yeast; lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a moderately warm place, after which it may be put into the cellar, and in two or three days 'bottled,' or 'tapped' on 'draught.' In a week it will be fit to drink. Very superior.--_Prod._ 1 barrel, or 36 gallons. For a stronger beer, 36 _lbs._, or even 1/2 _cwt._, of treacle, may be used. It will then keep good for a twelvemonth.

_Obs._ A wholesome drink; but one apt to prove laxative when taken in large quantities. See BREWING, BEER, GINGER, POWDERS, &c.

=BEERS.= (In _pharmacy_.) _Syn._ CEREVIS'IÆ (-v[)i]zh'-e-[=e]) MEDICA'TÆ, L. The general nature and preparation of these articles have been already noticed.[127] They are little employed in this country. The ingredients should be so proportioned that from 1/4 to 1/2 a pint may form the proper dose. The following are examples:--

[Footnote 127: See ALES (Medicated).]

=Beer, Antiscorbu'tic.= _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA ANTISCORBU'TICA, L.; SAPINETTE', Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod. 1839) Scurvy-grass and buds of the spruce-fir, of each 1 oz.; horse-radish root, 2 oz. (all fresh, and bruised or sliced); new ale or beer, 3-1/2 pints (say, 1/2 _gall._); macerate 4 days, press, and strain for use.

2. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Horse-radish (fresh), 4 _lbs._; juniper berries, 3 _lbs._; root of _calamus aromaticus_ and buds of _pinus abies_, of each 1 _lb._; ginger, 1 _oz._; syrup (of brown sugar), 6 _lbs._; beer, 120 _lbs._ (say, 12 _galls._); macerate 4 days, or until it ferments, then decant, strain, and add of cream of tartar, 1/2 _lb._; tincture of mustard (flour of mustard 2 _oz._, to proof spirit 12 _oz._), 5 _lbs._ (say, 1/2 _gall._). In scurvy, &c.

=Beer, Cincho'na.= _Syn._ A'GUE-BEER, BARK'-BEER; CEREVIS'IA CINCHO'NÆ, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. Bruised cinchona-bark, 1 _oz._; proof spirit or brandy, 2 _oz._; mix; the next day add of new beer, 1 quart, and in 3 days decant or filter.--_Dose_, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls.

2. (Mutis.) Cinchona, 4 _oz._; sugar, 2 _lbs._; boiling water, 5 _pints_; when lukewarm, ferment with a little yeast, as for ginger-beer.--_Dose_, 1 or 2 wine-glassfuls.

3. (Ph. Ferrara.) Bruised Peruvian bark, 1-1/2 _oz._; cinnamon, 2 _dr._; nutmeg (rasped), 7 _dr._; sugar, 25 _oz._; yeast, 2 _oz._; water, 5 _pints_; mix, ferment, decant, and strain, as before.--_Dose_, 3 or 4 wine-glassfuls. They are all administered during the intermission of ague.

=Beer, Pipsissewa.= _Syn._ CERVIS'IA CHIMAPH'ILE, &c., L. _Prep._ (Dr J. Parrish.) Pipsissewa (_chimaphila umbellata_), 1/2 _lb._; water, 1 _gall._; boil, strain, add of sugar, 1 _lb._; powdered ginger, 1/4 _oz._; yeast, q. s.; and ferment, stain, and bottle, as for ginger-beer. In scrofulous affections; especially of the joints.--_Dose._ Half a tumblerful. It is a favorite remedy with some American practitioners.

=Beer, Sarsaparil'la.= _Syn._ LIS'BON DI'ET-BEER, SPAN'ISH JARAVE; CEREVIS'IA SAR'ZÆ, C. SARSAPARIL'LÆ, INFU'SUM S. PARA'TUM FERMENTATIO'NE, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 1-1/2 _oz._; hot water, 1 _pint_; dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or East-India ale, 7 pints.

2. Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 _lb._; guaiacum-bark (bruised small), 1/4 _lb._; guaiacum-wood (rasped), and liquorice root (sliced), of each 2 _oz._; aniseed (bruised), 1-1/2 _oz._; mezereon root-bark, 1 _oz._; cloves (cut small), 1/4 _oz._; moist sugar, 3-1/2 _lbs._; hot water (not boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a clean stone jar, and keep it in a moderately warm room (shaking it twice or thrice daily) until active fermentation sets in, then let it repose for about a week, when it will be fit for use.

_Obs._ It is said to be superior to the other preparations of sarsaparilla as an alterative or purifier of the blood, particularly in old affections. That usually made has generally only one half the above quantity of sugar, for which treacle is often substituted; but in either case it will not keep well; whereas, with proper caution, the products of the above formulæ may be kept for one, or even two years. No yeast must be used.--_Dose._ A small tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.

=Beer, Stomach'ic.= _Syn._ MED'ICATED PURL; CEREVIS'IA STOMACH'ICA, L. _Prep._ (Dr Quincy.) Centaury-tops and Roman wormwood, of each 4 handfuls; gentian root (bruised), 2 _oz._; the yellow peels of 6 Seville oranges; Spanish angelica-root and Winter's lard, of each (bruised) 1 _oz._; new ale, or beer, 3 quarts (say, 1 _gall._); digest for a few days, as before. One or two wine-glassfuls early in the morning, and an hour before a meal.

=Beer, Sulphu''ric Acid.= _Syn._ SULPHURIC LEMONADE; CEREVISIA ACIDI SULPHU''RICI, C. ANTICOL'ICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Treacle beer, or other weak mild beer or ale, to which a little concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, in the proportion of about 1 dr. to every 8 or 10 pints; the whole being well agitated together, and allowed a few hours to settle.

2. Treacle, 14 _lbs._; bruised ginger, 1/2 lb.; coriander, 1/2 _oz._; capsicum and cloves, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 12-1/2 _galls._; yeast, 1 _pint_; proceed as for ginger-beer, and when the fermentation is nearly over, add of oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 _oz._ (diluted with 8 times its weight of water), and of bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 _oz._ (dissolved in a little water). It is fit to drink in 3 or 4 days.

_Uses, &c._ It is taken with great benefit by workers in lead, especially by those employed in white lead works; also in cases of lead colic, poisoning by lead or its salts, &c. A tumblerful twice or thrice daily. It is both harmless and wholesome.

=Beer, Tar.= _Syn._ CEREVIS'IA PI'CIS, C. P. LIQ'UIDÆ, L. _Prep._ (Duhamel.) Bran, 2 pints; tar, 1 pint; honey, 1/2 pint; water, 6 pints; mix, and gently simmer together for 3 hours; when lukewarm add of yeast, 1/2 pint; let it ferment for 36 hours, and strain. Pectoral, anti-asthmatic, anti-phthisic, &c.--_Dose._ One wine-glassful before each meal, in bronchial and chest diseases, and incipient consumption. See BEERS (In Pharmacy; _above_).

=BEES'WING.= The second or pseudo-crust so much admired in port and a few other wines, and which forms in them only when kept for some time after the first or true crust has formed. It consists of minute, glittering, floating particles or lamellæ of tartar, purer, and freer from astringent matter, than that deposited in the first crust. See CRUST, WINES, &c.

=BEET= (b[=e]te). _Syn._ BE'TA, L.; BIET, D.; BETTE, Fr.; BEETE, MANGOLD, M.-KRAUT, Ger.; BIETOLA, It. The common name of plants of the genus 'beta,' and the nat. ord. Chenopodæ (DC.). There are said to be only two distinct species cultivated--_beta vulg[=a]r'is_ and _b. horten'sis_--each of which occurs in several varieties; those of the first, and which we have chiefly to consider, producing a large fleshy root (BEET'-ROOT, MAN-GOLD-R.; RA'DIX BE'TÆ, L.; BETTERAVE, Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger.), which is both sweet and succulent; those of the other, only succulent leaves. The varieties most useful, and now the most extensively cultivated in England, are of comparatively recent introduction; field-beet, the mangold-wurzel of the Germans, having been only brought under the notice of our agriculturists towards the end of the last century.

=Beet, Field.= See BEET, HYBRID (_below_).

=Beet, Hy'brid.= _Syn._ COMMON BEET, FIELD'-B.; BE'TA HY'BRIDA, B. VULGAR''IS, H.; L.; BETTE COMMUNE, BETTERAVE C., RACINE D'ABONDANCE, R. DE DISETTE, &c., Fr.; MANGOLD, M.-WURZEL, MANGEL-W., &c., Ger. A variety of _beta vulgaris_ (Linn.), and that usually cultivated by English farmers. Root red on the outside, white inside; chiefly grown as winter-food for cattle, being vastly superior to turnips. It has been used in Germany as a substitute for bread in times of scarcity. Leaves dressed and eaten like spinach.

=Beet, Red.= _Syn._ CU'LINARY BEET, GARDEN B., BEET'-RADISH, BEET'-RAVE, &c.; BE'TA RU'BRA, B. VULG''ARIS R., L.; BETTERAVE, &c., Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger. Root tender, well-flavoured, and of a rich red colour throughout, and hence much used in salads, pickles, and cookery; also made into a conserve, jam, or confection. The kinds most esteemed for salads are the small red and the yellowish-red varieties of Castelnaudari.

=Beet, Sea.= _Syn._ BE'TA MARIT'IMA, L. Said to be the best variety for dressing as spinach.

=Beet, White.= _Syn._ BE'TA AL'BA, B. VULGA''RIS A., B. CI'CLA, L.; BETTE BLANCHE, POIRÉE, &c., Fr. A sub-variety of the red beet. Root white, and hence preferred for making sugar; that with a purple crown being the most esteemed.

_Obs._ The preceding varieties of beet resemble each other in their general properties. They are all antiscorbutic, detergent, emollient, and nutritious; and their roots contain about 8% of sugar, which, by proper treatment, may be obtained from them of excellent quality. The grated root is sometimes used to dress blisters and foul ulcers. When sliced, and dried in a malt-kiln, a very palatable beer may be brewed with it. The leaves of each variety are dressed and eaten like spinach. The roots, for the table, after being carefully washed, are dressed whole--neither scraped nor cut--and, according to their size and age, require from 1 to 4 hours' simmering or baking. They are mostly served in slices, cold, intermingled with other winter salad vegetables. See BREWING, CATTLE, SALADS, SUGAR, &c. (also _antè_).

=BEET ROOT.= See BEET.

=BEE'TLE= (b[=e]'tl). _Syn._ SCAR'AB[dagger]*, SCAR'ABEE[dagger]* (-b[=e]); SCÄRABÆ'US, L.; ESCARBOT, SCARABEÉ, Fr.; KÄFER, Ger.; BETEL, Sax. In _zoology_, the common name of an extensive genus of insects (_scarabæ'us_, Linn.), of numerous species. It is also popularly applied to all coleopterous insects, or such as have hard or shelly wing-cases, especially to those of a dark or obscure colour. The common pests of our kitchens and basement floors which pass familiarly under the name of beetles, black beetles, or cockroaches, belong to the order orthoptera, and not to the coleoptera or beetle tribe, as the name implies. See INSECTS, &c.

=Black Beetle=; Domes'tic beetle. See BLATTA, COCKROACH, &c.

=Blis'tering Beetle.= See CANTHARIDES.

=BELL.= _Syn._ CAMPA'NA,[128] CAMPAN'ULA,[129] NO'LA*,[130] TINTINNAB'ULUM,[131] L.; CLOCHE, CLOCHETTE,[132] GRELOT,[133] Fr.; GLOCKE, SCHELLE, &c., Ger.; BELL, BELLA, BELLE, Sax. A hollow vessel or body, usually of cast metal, with a wide cup-like mouth expanding outwards, so formed as to emit sound when suspended and struck with a hard substance. The word is also applied, either alone or in composition, to substances having the figure of a bell; as bells (of flowers), bell-animal, b.-flower, b.-glass, &c.

[Footnote 128: Appropriately, a large bell suspended or adapted for suspension; as that of a church, &c.]

[Footnote 129: A small bell.]

[Footnote 130: Id.]

[Footnote 131: Id.; appr., one suspended as a door-bell, servants' bell, &c.]

[Footnote 132: A little bell, a hand-bell.]

[Footnote 133: A little round-bell.]

_Form, Manuf., &c._ Bells of "the common and well-known shape, with a thick lip or sound-bow, are the most effective known instruments for producing a loud and musical sound, such as you want when you erect a large public clock, or put up a peal of church-bells." "After trying a number of experiments, at Messrs Warner's, I am quite satisfied that there is nothing to be gained by deviating materially from the established proportions of the best old bells."[134] This view is borne out by the researches of the Government commissioners[135] who visited the Paris Exhibition, who report, that among the 'founders' of France and Belgium, there are no traditions of the art, nor any discoveries or appliances of modern science, tending to the improvement of bells, or to provide efficient substitutes for them; nor is there any known improvement on the established mode and usual material (BRONZE or BELL-METAL) for casting them. Sir C. Barry, indeed, according to Mr Dennison, "seemed rather impressed with the merits of cast-steel bells;" but both Prof. Wheatstone and Mr Dennison differ from him in opinion. Undoubtedly some cast-steel bells, of small size, have been produced, capable of yielding sounds of extraordinary clearness and richness, but, in most cases, owing to the difficulty in giving the peculiar molecular condition to the metal essential to a high degree of sonorousness, their tones are comparatively harsh and disagreeable. Well-annealed glass offers a cheaper and better material than steel for large bells up to a certain size, whilst its tones are exquisite. As the depth of the tone of a bell depends chiefly upon the dimensions and weight of the sound-bow, it appears likely that by directing our experiments to the increase of these, and the diminishing of the thickness of the metal in the other parts, the quantity of metal required to produce large bells might be very greatly reduced. The sound of an Indian gong that may be easily held suspended by the hand is always rich and usually as loud and deep as a bell of ordinary construction which it would take several men to lift. The Chinese often use bells made of porcelain. Small hand-bells for the toilet and boudoir are often made of silver, and then yield tones which are remarkably soft, clear, and pleasing. The tongue, clapper, or hammer, of bronze bells should be of iron; and steel bells, of bronze. Glass and porcelain bells require the striking part of the tongue to be of box-wood, the proper weight being given by a ball of iron cast on the rod immediately above it, and a similar one screwed on the end of the rod immediately below it. In all cases the hammer-head, preferably globular, should strike the bell near the verge, and should be free from projections or asperities.

[Footnote 134: Lecture on the 'Form of Bells,' deliv. at the Royal Institution, by Mr B. Dennison, to whom the Government intrusted the construction of the 'great bells' for the New Houses of Parliament.]

[Footnote 135: Prof. Wheatstone and Sir Charles Barry.]

The casting, &c., of bells is essentially similar to that of other articles in bronze, of corresponding size, and particularly of cannon. See BELL-METAL, BRONZE, &c.

=BELL'-METAL.= _Syn._ ÆS CAMPANA''RUM, L.; MÉTAL DE CLOCHE, Fr.; GLOCKENGUT, GLOCKENSPEISE, Ger. The alloy, usually bronze, of which bells, &c., are made.

The composition of bell-metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:--

1. (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts;[136] fused together and cast in the manner described under BRONZE. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous-conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

[Footnote 136: The resulting alloy probably contains 7 Cu + Sn.]

2. (Founder's Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts.[137] Slightly paler and inferior to No. 1.

[Footnote 137: More antimony, or some other metal, is often added, as subsequently noticed; but always to the injury of the alloy as bell-metal.]

3. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.[138] Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, &c.

[Footnote 138: Equal to about 8 Cu + Sn. In some gongs the proportion of tin is so low as 22, or even 20 parts, to 100 parts of copper.]

4. Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, &c.

5. Copper 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) parts.[139] Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semi-vitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells.

[Footnote 139: Nearly equal to 6 Cu + Sn.]

6. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10-1/4 parts; zinc, 5-1/2 parts; lead, 4-1/4 parts. English bell-metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.

7. Copper, 68, parts; tin, 32 parts.[140] Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-grey. Best proportions for house-bells, hand-bells, &c.; for which, however, 2 of copper, and 1 of tin, is commonly substituted by the founders.

[Footnote 140: Equal to about 4 Cu + Sn.]

8. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26-1/2 parts; iron, 1-1/2 part. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks or pendules.

9. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells.

10. Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating watches.

11. Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

12. Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing.

13. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts. This is superior to the former, as it can be rolled out. For tom-toms and gongs.

14. Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron, 1·44 part. Used in making the bells of pendules or ornamental Parisian clocks. For clock-bells.

_Concluding remarks._ Castings in bell-metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a colour varying from a dark ash-grey to greyish-white, which is darkest in the more cupreous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often added to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy. All these additions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D'Arcet recommends the 'pieces' to be heated to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, to be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, &c., a casing of sheet-iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; whilst that of silver increases it. This last metal has been detected in many old church bells remarkable for the richness of their tones--articles of silver plate having been cast into the crucibles of the founders, as votive offerings, by the pious Christians of former ages.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform throughout its whole substance; nor can the sp. gr. from any given proportion of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer toned will be the bell.

In general it is found necessary to take about 1-10th more metal than the weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the operations of fusing and casting. See BELL, BRONZE, COPPER, &c.

=BELLADON'NA= (-d[)o]n'[)a]), [It., Sp., Port.; Eng., L., Ger.;[141] B. P.] _Syn._ DEAD'LY NIGHT'SHADE, DWALE; BELLEDAME, BELLADONNE, &c., Fr.; TÖDTLICHER NACHTSCHATTEN, TOLLKERSCHE, TOLLKRAUT, WOLFSKIRSCHE, &c., Ger.; AT'ROPA LETHA'LIS*, SOLA'NUM FURIO'SUM*, S. LETHA'LE*, S. MANIA'CUM*, S. MELANOCER'ASUS[dagger], &c., L., Bot. var. Literally, fair lady; in _materia medica, botany, &c._, the usual name (adopted from the Ital.) of _at'ropa belladonn'a_ (Linn.), an indigenous, poisonous, perennial, herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Solanæ (DC); Solanaceæ, Endl., (Lind.). It flowers in June and July, and its drooping, purple blossoms are common ornaments of our hedges and wastes where the soil is calcareous. It is supposed to be the 'insane root' of Shakespeare.[142]

[Footnote 141: As a borrowed word.]

[Footnote 142: 'Macbeth,' Act I, Scene 3.]

The parts of this plant used in medicine and pharmacy are the "fresh leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the leaves separate from the branches, carefully dried, of _atropa belladonna_; gathered, when the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in Britain" (B. P.).

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Every part of this plant contains ATRO'PIA, and is consequently highly poisonous. Every part, except the berries, is f[oe]tid when bruised, and of "a dark and lurid aspect, indicative of its deadly narcotic quality."[143] Its berries, which are of a glossy violet-black, and of the size of a small cherry, are sweet-tasted, and not at all nauseous. Children and tired travellers and soldiers, allured by their beauty and the absence of disagreeable flavour, have frequently been induced to eat them; but in all cases poisoning, often fatal, has followed the indulgence.[144] Belladonna is, however, in qualified hands a safe and most valuable medicine. Its chief use is as an anodyne, antispasmodic, sedative, and discutient, and particularly to diminish sensibility and allay pain and nervous irritation in a variety of diseases--neuralgia, arthritic and migratory rheumatic pains, painful ulcers, cancer, spasmodic rigidity, strictures, and contractions (especially of the bladder and uterus), angina pectoris, iritis, epilepsy, chorea, hooping-cough, hysteria, mania, fevers, phthisis, asthma, &c.; also as a prophylactic of scarlet-fever,[145] hydrophobia, and salivation, as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated glands (particularly when painful), as an agent to produce dilation of the pupil during surgical examinations and operations, &c., &c. It is employed both internally and externally, and in various forms, as is noticed under its 'preparations' elsewhere. _Dose._ Of the powder, 1/2 to 1 gr. twice a day, gradually and cautiously increased until dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is affected.

[Footnote 143: Pereira, 4th ed., vol. ii, 545.]

[Footnote 144: One hundred and fifty French soldiers were thus poisoned at Pirna, near Dresden. (Orfila, 'Tox. Gén.')]

[Footnote 145: Of 2027 persons who took it, and were exposed to the contagion of scarlet fever, 1948 escaped. (Bayle, 'Bibl. Thérap.,' t. ii. p. 504.) Of 1200 soldiers who took it only 12 became affected. (Oppenheim, 'Lond. Med. Gaz,' vol. xiii, 814.) In this country, however, except among hom[oe]opaths, it has not found much favour as a prophylactic.]

_Pois., &c._ Belladonna and its preparations are poisonous to _all_ animals, but very much more so to the carnivora than to the herbivora. It also acts as a poison on vegetables.

_Treatm. Ant., &c._ These may be the same as those employed in poisoning by aconite, atropia, and opium. The stomach must be cleared as soon as possible, followed by active purgation. Unfortunately emetics have scarcely any action, and, therefore, must be given in large doses, assisted by tickling the fauces, &c. If copious vomiting does not rapidly follow, the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. When the poison has been removed from the stomach, copious and continued draughts of astringent vegetable solutions (weak decoction of galls or oak-bark, or strong coffee or green-tea), should be persisted in for some time; followed by like draughts of water soured with any mild vegetable acid (as vinegar, lemon-juice, citric or tartaric acid, &c.) _Detec._ The contents of the stomach or vomited matter may be searched for the berries, leaves, seed, or portions of the root; all of which are easily recognisable. The usual physiological and chemical tests of atropia may also be applied to these and to the organic liquids supposed to contain the poison. See ALKALOID, ATROPIA, EXTRACTS, OINTMENTS, TINCTURES, VEGETABLE JUICES, &c.

=BELLADONNINE.= _Syn._ ATROPIA, which see.

=BELL'Y= (-e). The abdomen (which _see_).

=BELTS.= In their connection with health and disease, _see_ BANDAGE, DRESS, STAYS, &c.

=BENEDICTINE'S HEALING-PLASTER= (Hauber). 35 grammes of a dark brown plaster, prepared by digesting together 1 part litharge with 2 parts olive oil until they become blackish-brown, then adding 4 parts yellow wax, containing the heat for a short time, and then pouring out. (Wittstein.)

=BENGAL'= (-gawl'). A thin fabric of silk and hair interwoven, originally from Bengal.

=Ben'gal Light.= A firework used as signals. See FIRES (coloured).

=Ben'gal Stripes.= Cotton cloth, woven with coloured stripes, orig. from Bengal; gingham.

=BEN'JAMIN[dagger]*.= Benzoin.

=BEN'ZENE.= See BENZOL.

=BEN'ZINE= (-z[)i]n). Benzol.

=BEN'ZOATE= (-zo-[=a]te). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BEN'ZOÄS, L. A salt in which one atom of benzoic acid is replaced by a metal or other basic radical. The benzoates may, in general, be easily prepared by either neutralising the acid with the base, or by double decomposition. Most of them are more or less soluble in water, and crystallisable. Those of the alkalies and ammonia are very soluble, and rather difficult to crystallise. See BENZOIC ACID and the respective bases.

=BEN'ZOENE*.= See TULUOLE.

=BENZO'IC ACID= (-z[=o]'-[)i]k). HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} _Syn._ FLOWERS OF BENZOIN'; HY'DRATED BEN'ZOYL; ACIDUM BENZO'ICUM (B. P.); ACIDE BENZOÏQUE, FLEURS DE BENJOIN, &c., Fr.; BENZOESÄURE, &c., Ger. A substance which is commonly stated to be the characteristic constituent of the two balsams. Pure oil of bitter almonds suffers gradual conversion into this acid by exposure to the air.

_Prep._ The acid of commerce is principally obtained from gum-benzoin, either by sublimation (dry way), or by dissolving it out by means of an alkali, or an alkaline earth in the form of a salt (moist way); but chiefly by the first method.

1. By SUBLIMATION:--

_a._ Good benzoin, crushed small or in the state of coarse powder, is placed in a cylindrical iron pot with a flat bottom, and from 8 to 9 inches in diameter, so as to form a layer of from 1 to 2 inches deep. The open end of the pot is next covered with a sheet of soft and loose blotting-paper,[146] which is attached to the rim with paste. A cone, cap, or cylinder formed of strong thick paper (cartridge paper), open at its lower end, is then placed over the top of the pot, including the blotting-paper; and this is also attached with paste and string. The apparatus, thus prepared, is then placed on a sand bath,[147] and exposed for 4 to 6 hours to a gentle and uniform heat. It is next removed from the sand bath, and, when it has sufficiently cooled, inverted, and the string detached, when crystals of benzoic acid are found in the paper cone. If, owing to want of care in manipulating, the product is either coloured or empyreumatic, it must be enveloped in several folds of bibulous paper, then submitted to powerful pressure, and afterwards resublimed. The simple form of apparatus figured in the engraving answers well on the small scale, and is that recommended by Dr Mohr.

[Footnote 146: Felt--Liebig.]

[Footnote 147: On an iron plate on which sand has been spread--Ph. Bor.]

_b._ (Ph. D. 1850.) The subliming pot is ordered to be of sheet-iron. It is to be fitted into a circular hole in a sheet of pasteboard, and a collar of tow interposed between it and the flange, so as to produce a nearly air-tight junction. The paper receiver or cap is to be cylindrical, open at one end and about 18 inches high, with a diameter at least twice that of the pot; and it is to be secured in an inverted position on the pasteboard, and fastened to it by slips of paper and flour-paste. A couple of inches of the pot is to be passed through a corresponding hole in a plate of sheet-tin, which is to be kept from contact with the pasteboard by the interposition of a few corks; and a heat[148] only just sufficient to melt the benzoin is to be applied for at least six hours.

[Footnote 148: That of a gas-flame is recommended. A ring of very small gas-jets answers better.]