Chapter II: BLEACHING of =Linen=:--Linen may be bleached in a similar way to (18)

_Prop. and Uses._ Cod-liver oil has acquired much reputation for its remedial powers in pulmonary consumption, scrofulous and other glandular affections, chronic gout and rheumatism, certain skin diseases, and several other ailments. It is generally supposed that the iodine and bromine, which are present in minute quantities in this fish, are the substances to which it owes its efficacy. "Dr De Jongh refers its virtues to the presence of both iodine and the elements of the bile. Our own researches lead us to infer that one of its most active constituents is free phosphorus. Good cod-liver oil contains fully ·02 of this substance, as well as about ·09 of phosphoric acid. Now, the marked action of minute doses of phosphorus on the nervous, vascular, and secreting organs, is well known to every experienced surgeon. The difficulty, however, of bringing it into a form adapted for administration has hitherto prevented phosphorus being extensively employed as a therapeutic agent. This obstacle is removed by the employment of cod-liver oil. Nature has here provided a simple remedy, which the ingenuity of man has failed to produce artificially. This opinion is borne out by the facts, that cod-liver oil cures those forms of scrofula and other diseases which do not yield to iodine, and that those varieties of the oil are the most active which contain the most free phosphorus. We, therefore, think it reasonable to conclude, that the efficacy of cod-liver oil depends on the joint action of the minute quantities of iodine, phosphorus, and the elements of the bile which it contains, and not on any one separately; and that no substance, at present known, can be used as a substitute for it." (Cooley.)--_Dose_, 1 to 8 dr., in water, syrup, or orange juice; or made into an emulsion with 1 fl. oz. of peppermint water.

M. Duquesnel states that cod-liver oil flavoured with essence of eucalyptol, in the proportion of one part of the essence to a thousand, has neither the taste nor the odour of cod-liver oil. It is taken with facility, only leaving at the back of the mouth and on the tongue the taste of the essence. M. Duquesnel adds that the offensive eructations arising from cod-liver oil are completely corrected.

=Cod-liver Oil Jelly.= Take of cod-liver oil, 85 parts; isinglass, 3 parts; sugar, 8 parts; water, 4 parts. It forms a semi-transparent jelly of a yellowish-green colour, having a strong odour, but less strong taste of the oil. The advantages of this preparation are--its easy administration, complete retention, and assimilation by the weakest stomach. A teaspoonful is said to be equal to a tablespoonful of the ordinary oil. A lemon flavour may be imparted to it with advantage if desired.

=Cod-liver Oil and Lacto-Phosphate of Lime.= (Shinn.) Cod-liver oil, 1 pint; oil of bitter almonds, peppermint, and winter green, of each 10 drops; powder of gum Arabic 4 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.; solution of lacto-phosphate of lime (60 gr. to 1 fl. oz.), 6-1/2 fl. oz.; lime water, 6-1/2 fl. oz. Mix the gum and sugar in a capacious mortar, and make a smooth mucilage with the lime water and 3 oz. of the solution of lacto-phosphate of lime. Add the volatile oils to the cod-liver oil, and gradually triturate them with the mucilage, until a perfect emulsion is formed. Finally, add the rest of the solution of the lacto-phosphate of lime, and mix thoroughly. The solution of lacto-phosphate of lime is made by saturating a solution of lactic acid with freshly precipitated phosphate of lime.

=Cod-liver Oil with Iodide of Iron.= Triturate iodide of iron, with cod-liver oil, 4 gr. to the ounce, until dissolved. HORSLEY'S patent is as follows:--Dissolve 22 scruples of iodine in a gallon of cod-liver oil, at a temperature of 140° Fahr., in a water-bath. Add to the solution 8 scruples of iron (reduced by hydrogen), and heat to 180° Fahr., until the combination is complete.--_Dose_, 1 dr. to 1/2 oz.

=Cod-liver Oil, Phosphorated.= (Lancet.) Pure unoxidised phosphorus, 2 gr.; almond oil, 2 oz. Put into a bottle, stoppered, and immerse the same in a water-bath; apply heat until the temperature of the oil is about 180° Fahr., as directed by the B. P., in the preparation of _oleum phosphoratum_; shake up occasionally, and again put the bottle into the water if necessary, until a perfect solution is obtained; then add about 10 oz. of cod-liver oil, and again immerse in the water-bath; finally, make up the measure with cod-liver oil to 25 oz. One drachm so prepared will contain over the 1/100th of a grain of pure phosphorus.

=Cod-liver Oil, Emulsion of.= Cod-liver oil, 8 fl. oz.; tragacanth, 1 dr.; powdered white sugar, 4 dr.; oil of gaultheria, 9 drops; oil sassafras, 1 drop; oil bitter almonds, 10 drops, water, 8 oz. Dissolve the tragacanth and sugar in water, and strain. Add to this first the essential oils, and then incorporate the cod-liver oil.

=Cod-liver Oil and Hypophosphites, Emulsion of.= (Canadian 'Pharmaceutical Journal'). Powder of gum tragacanth, 1/2 oz.; glycerin, 3 oz.; water, 9 oz. Rub the tragacanth with the glycerin, and add the water gradually. To this mucilage add the following solution:--Hypophosphite of lime, 4-1/2 dr.; hypophosphite of soda, 2-1/4 dr.; hypophosphite of potash, 2-1/4 dr.; sugar, 3/4 lb.; boiling water, 12 oz. Make the admixture gradually with brisk trituration. To this medicated mucilage add the following:--Otto of almonds, bitter, 10 drops; otto of cinnamon, 5 drops; otto of canella, 5 drops; alcohol, 6 oz. The whole will now form a semi-transparent mucilaginous liquid of about 37 fl. oz. in bulk. To this add gradually an equal measure of cod-liver oil, and mix thoroughly. In practice it is advisable to work on small quantities, say half a pint of each in a No. 8 mortar. If care is taken the product will be very satisfactory.

=CODE'IA.= C_{18}H_{21}O_{3}. Aq. _Syn._ CODE'INE. An alkaloid discovered by Robiquet associated with morphia.

_Prep._ Dissolve commercial hydrochlorate of morphia in water, and precipitate the morphia with ammonia. Codeia is left in solution, and is obtained in octahedral crystals by spontaneous evaporation. It may be further purified by solution in ether. By the addition of a little water to the ethereal solution and spontaneous evaporation it may be obtained quite pure and in a crystalline state.

_Obs._ The morphia may be recovered by digesting the precipitate in weak solution of potassa.

_Prop., &c._ Freely soluble in alcohol and ether; soluble in 80 parts of cold and 17 parts of boiling water. Its solution in the latter, by slow evaporation, yields large, transparent octahedra. With the acids it forms crystallisable salts. These possess the singular property of producing a general and violent itching of the surface of the body when administered internally. The same symptoms frequently follow the exhibition of opium and hydrochlorate of morphia, and are referred to the presence of codeia. The commercial muriate of morphia frequently contains 3% to 4% of codeia.

_Tests._ It is distinguished from morphia by not becoming blue on the addition of perchloride of iron, nor turning red with nitric acid; and by not being precipitated by ammonia, when dissolved in hydrochloric acid and mixed with a large quantity of water. Unlike morphia, it is insoluble in weak solution of potash, and is soluble in ether. The salts of codeia are known by tincture of galls throwing down a copious precipitate from their solutions; this does not occur with the salts of morphia. It is distinguished from meconia by its aqueous solution showing an alkaline reaction with test-paper.

=COFFEE.= The seeds or berries of the _Coffea arabica_ (Linn.) or coffee plant; a shrub of the natural order Cinchonaceæ, sub-order Coffeæ, indigenous in the low mountainous districts of Arabia Felix, and largely cultivated in various other parts of the world. About 40 millions of pounds of coffee are annually consumed in this country, and the consumption for the whole world has been estimated at about 600 millions of pounds. The seeds are roasted and ground, and used in the form of a decoction or infusion. The term coffee is applied to the prepared beverage as well as to the seeds. The valuable properties of coffee are mainly due to the presence of the alkaloid CAFFEIA or CAFFEINE.

Payen gives the following as the composition of the coffee-berry:--

Water 12·000
Woody tissue 34·000
Fixed fatty matters 10 to 13·000
Gum, sugar, and vegetable acids 15·500
Nitrogenous matter allied to
legumin (vegetable casein) 13·000
Free caffein 0·800
Compound of caffein with potash 3.5 to 5·000
Solid fatty essence 0·002
Aromatic essential oil 0·001
Saline matters 6·697
-------
100·000

_Prep., &c._ The finest kind of coffee is that called mocha, from Aden, but that in common use is principally supplied from the British plantations in the West Indies. The selection being made, the berries are carefully roasted in revolving cylinders by a gradually applied heat, until the aroma is well developed and the toughness destroyed. Too much heat is avoided, as the volatile and aromatic properties of the coffee, and, consequently, the flavour, are thereby injured; whilst, on the other hand, if the berries are roasted too little, they produce a beverage with a raw, green taste, very liable to induce sickness and vomiting. When properly roasted, coffee has a lively chocolate-brown colour, and should not have lost more than 18% of its weight by the process. If the loss exceeds 20%, the flavour suffers in proportion. The roasted coffee should be placed in a very dry situation, and excluded from the air as soon as possible. It loses flavour by keeping, and also powerfully absorbs moisture from the atmosphere by reason of its hygrometric power.

_Qual., &c._ Coffee promotes digestion, and exhilarates the spirits, and when strong, generally occasions watchfulness, but in some phlegmatic constitutions induces sleep. Drunk in moderation, especially if combined with sugar and milk, it is perhaps the most wholesome beverage known. The various qualities that have been ascribed to it by some persons such as dispelling or causing flatulency, removing dizziness of the head, attenuating the blood, causing biliousness, &c., appear to be wholly imaginary. In a medical point of view it has been regarded as a cerebral stimulant and anti-soporific, and as a corrector of opium. As a medicine it should be strong, and is best taken only lukewarm.

_Adult., &c._ The principal substances used for the purposes of adulteration are caramel, roasted chicory, roasted locust beans, roasted corn, &c. Chicory being now charged with the same amount of duty as coffee, is not considered in a revenue point of view an adulteration; nevertheless, when we contrast coffee with chicory, we at once see the vast superiority of the former over the latter, thus:--

Coffee is the fruit of a tree, whilst chicory is the root of an herbaceous plant, and it is well known that more virtues exist in fruits and seeds than in roots.

Coffee contains three active principles, viz. an essential oil, caffeia, and tannic acid, and these exercise a powerful influence on the system, retarding the waste of the tissues of the body, exciting the brain to increased activity, and exhilarating without intoxicating. Chicory contains none of these constituents.

Coffee exerts on the system highly beneficial physiological effects; chicory possesses medicinal properties, which are not desirable in an article of food.

Chicory, therefore, is very objectionable, and when a dealer sells a mixture of coffee and chicory for pure coffee, as is almost invariably the case, he is guilty of selling an adulterated article, and ought to be punished accordingly.

The adulteration with caramel or chicory may readily be detected as follows:--

1. A spoonful of pure coffee placed gently on the surface of a glass of cold water will float for some time, and scarcely colour the liquid; if it contains caramel or chicory, it will rapidly absorb the water, and, sinking to the bottom of the glass, communicate a reddish-brown tint as it falls. Another method of applying this test is by expertly shaking a spoonful of the suspected coffee with a wine-glassful of cold water, and then placing the glass upon the table. If it is pure, it will rise to the surface, and scarcely colour the liquid; but if caramel or chicory is present, it will sink to the bottom, and the water will be tinged of a deep red as before.

2. The brown colour of decoction or infusion of roasted coffee becomes greenish when treated with a per-salt of iron; and a brownish-green, flocculent precipitate is formed. The colour of chicory is only deepened, but not otherwise altered, and no precipitate is formed, under the same treatment. A mixture of chicory and coffee retains a brownish-yellow colour after the precipitate has subsided, and the liquid appears brownish yellow by refracted light. The addition of a little weak ammonia water aids the subsidence of the precipitate.

3. Under the microscope (see _Chicory_) the presence of chicory may be readily detected by the size, form, and ready separation of the cells of the cellular tissue, and by the presence and abundance of the pitted tissue or dotted ducts, which are absent from coffee, and by the size of the spiral vessels, which are very small in coffee. The most characteristic structure, however, and that by which chicory can be easily identified, is the lactiferous tissue. Roasted corn, and other amylaceous substances, may also be detected, in the same way, by the peculiar size and character of their starch grains.

Under the microscope the berry is seen to consist of a hard, tough tissue, that resists even long soaking. The testa covering the berry is made of lengthened cells with oblique markings resting on a thin membrane, almost structureless. These oblique markings of the cells are so characteristic as to render the cells distinguishable from every other tissue. The substance of the berry consists of angular cells, each one of which contains minute drops of oil. This oil is in some measure driven off during the process of roasting, which, however, leaves the structure unimpaired where it is not charred.

Roasted corn, beans, &c., may be detected by the cold decoction striking a blue colour with tincture of iodine. Pure coffee is merely deepened a little in colour by this substance.

4. (A. H. Allen.) The amount of ash in genuine coffee does not exceed 4·5 per cent.; chicory yields 5 per cent. The silica in coffee ash never exceeds 1 per cent., while in chicory it varies from 10-36 per cent. The average soluble ash in coffee is 3·24, while in chicory it is 1·74 per cent. By determining the soluble ash S, the per-centage of pure coffee C may be calculated thus:--

(100 S - 174)
C = 2 ---------------
3

The density of coffee-infusion is determined by heating the powder with 10 times its weight of cold water, raising the liquid to the boiling point, filtering, and taking the gravity at 15·5° C. Taking the density of pure coffee-infusion at 1008·6, and that of chicory at 1020·6, the per-centage of pure coffee C in the sample may be calculated from the equation

100(1020 - D)
C = ------------
12

where D represents the density of the infused sample. The relative tinctorial power of an infusion of a sample of coffee is determined by boiling a given weight with 20 c. c. of water for a few minutes, filtering, and again boiling the residue until thoroughly exhausted. An equal weight of a standard mixture of equal weights of pure coffee and chicory is treated in a precisely similar manner. The standard solution is made up to 200 c. c., that of the sample to 100 c. c.; 10 c. c. of the latter are put into a narrow burette, and some of the standard into a test tube of exactly equal bore. If the tints are exactly the same, the sample consisted of pure coffee; if chicory is present, water must be added to the sample until the tints are the same. Each c. c. of water represents 5 per cent. of chicory. The presence of leguminous seeds or cereals may be detected by boiling the sample with animal charcoal and water, filtering, and testing for starch in the cold liquid with iodine. Neither coffee nor chicory contains starch.

_Obs._ A few years ago the attention of the scientific world was drawn to the value of roasted coffee leaves, as furnishing materials for a beverage unexcelled in excellence by the coffee berry itself. It appears that the leaves, prepared for use, may be purchased for 1-1/2d. per lb., or packed ready for export at 2d. per lb. "That this preparation contains a considerable amount of the nutritious principles of coffee is evident from the analysis; but as the leaves can only be collected in a good state at the expense of the coffee-bush, it is doubtful whether the coffees produced by the berries be not, after all, the cheapest, as it certainly is the best." (Jury Report, Exhibition, 1851.) Coffee for the table is best prepared with the aid of a French cafetière, or coffee biggin, furnished with a percolator or strainer, which will permit a moderately rapid filtration. To produce this beverage in perfection, it is necessary to employ the best materials in its preparation--fresh roasted and fresh ground. "At least 1 oz. of coffee should be used to make 3 common-sized coffee-cupfuls, with 1 teaspoonful of freshly roasted and ground chicory. If desired strong, the quantity of both should be doubled." (Cooley.) Many habitual coffee drinkers cannot tolerate the use of chicory, which is a doubtful improver of coffee. The prevailing fault of the coffee made in England is its want of strength and flavour. The coffee-pot should be heated previously to putting in the coffee, which may be done by means of a little boiling water. The common practice of boiling coffee is quite unnecessary, for all its flavour and aroma is readily extracted by boiling hot water. Indeed, all the "useful and agreeable matter in coffee is very soluble, it comes off with the first waters of infusion, and needs no boiling." (Ure.) Should prejudice, however, induce the housewife or cook to boil her coffee, it should be only just simmered for a minute, as long or violent boiling injures it considerably.

When coffee is prepared in a common pot, the latter being first made hot, the boiling water should be poured over the powder, and not, as is commonly the plan, put in first. It should then be kept stirred for 4 or 5 minutes, when a cup should be poured out and returned again, and this operation repeated 3 or 4 times, after which, if allowed to repose for a few minutes, it will generally become fine of itself. In all cases, where a percolator is not used, the liquor should be well stirred up several times before finally covering it up to settle for use.

Amongst the various descriptions of coffee pots in use we may mention those of French make, consisting of two cylindrical vessels, the upper having a metal strainer, on which the ground coffee is placed, and through which the clear infusion runs into the lower one; Loysell's--an apparatus making very good coffee, and as one of the latest, an ingenious and inexpensive coffee pot, known as the "Kaffee Kanne," devised by Mr Ash, of Oxford Street. Ash's "Kaffee Kanne" consists of an ordinary biggin, surrounded by a jacket containing boiling water. The coffee is made by percolation in the inner vessel, and being kept at the point of ebullition by the surrounding boiling water, yields a beverage of excellent flavour and aroma.

Coffee is sometimes clarified by adding a shred of isinglass, a small piece of clean eel- or sole-skin, or a spoonful of white of egg. An excellent plan, common in France, is to place the vessel containing the made coffee upon the hearth, and to sprinkle over its surface half a cupful of cold water, which from its greater gravity descends, and carries the 'foulness' with it. Another plan sometimes adopted is to wrap a cloth, previously dipped into cold water, round the coffee-pot. This method is commonly practised by the Arabians in the neighbourhood of Yemen and Moka, and rapidly clarifies the liquor, unless a very large quantity of chicory is present. It should be recollected that the use of isinglass, white of egg, and all like artificial finings, remove much of the astringency and vivacity of the liquor.

The French, who are remarkable for the superior quality of their coffee, generally allow an ounce to each large coffee-cupful of water, and they use the coffee both newly ground and freshly roasted. A shred of saffron, or a little vanilla, is frequently added, whilst the percolating coffee-pot is generally employed. When the Parisian uses a common coffee-pot he generally divides the water into 2 parts. The first portion he pours on boiling hot, and allows it to infuse for 4 or 5 minutes; he then pours this off as clear as possible, and boils the grounds for 2 or 3 minutes with the remaining half of the water. As soon as this has deposited the sediment it is decanted, and mixed with the infusion. The object of this process is to obtain the whole of the strength as well as the flavour. The infusion is thought to contain the latter, and the decoction the former; a plausible, but erroneous idea, since both of them were carried off by the first water.

A much better method, and one we can recommend from experience, is to divide the coffee into 2 parts. Boil the first portion in the coffee-pot for 4 or 5 minutes, then add the other portion, and allow it to infuse slowly for about 10 minutes, the coffee-pot lid being kept well closed. This gives a coffee possessing a flavour which even the French cannot excel.

=Coffee, Essence of.= A highly concentrated infusion of coffee, prepared by percolation with boiling water, gently and quickly evaporated to about 1/3rd or 1/4th of its bulk, and mixed with a thick aqueous extract of chicory and syrup of burnt sugar, so as to give the whole the consistence of treacle. The proportions of the dry ingredients should be--coffee, 4 parts; chicory, 2 parts; burnt sugar (caramel) 1 part. It should be kept in well-corked bottles in a cool place. This preparation is very convenient for making extemporaneous coffee; but the beverage so made, though superior to much of that sold at coffee-houses, is inferior in flavour, aroma, and piquancy, to that we are accustomed to drink at home. Much of the so-called 'Essence of Coffee' is simply treacle and burnt sugar, flavoured with coffee.

=Coffee, Searle's Patent.= This is prepared by mixing condensed milk with a very concentrated essence of coffee and evaporating at a low temperature (_in vacuo_, if possible), until the mixture acquires the consistence of a syrup (coffee syrup), paste (coffee paste), or candy (coffee candy). The last may be powdered (coffee powder, dry essence of coffee).

=Coffee, Substitutes for.= These are numerous, but are now seldom employed, owing to the cheapness of the genuine article, and the stringency of the revenue laws. Among the principal are the following:--

1. COFFEE, ACORN. From acorns deprived of their shells, husked, dried, and roasted.

2. COFFEE, BEAN. Horse-beans roasted along with a little honey or sugar.

3. COFFEE, BEET-ROOT. From the yellow beet-root, sliced, dried in a kiln or oven, and ground with a little coffee.

4. COFFEE, DANDELION. From dandelion roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground with a little caramel.

5. COFFEE, GERMAN. _Syn._ SUCCORY C., CHICORY C. From chicory or succory. Used both for foreign coffee, and to adulterate it.

_Obs._ All the above are roasted, before grinding them, with a little fat or lard. Those which are larger than coffee-berries are cut into small slices before being roasted. They possess none of the exhilarating properties or medicinal virtues of foreign coffee.

COINS. See MEDALS and ELECTROTYPE.

=COKE.= Charred or carbonised coal. The principle of its manufacture is similar to that of charcoal. There are three varieties of coke:--

1. KILN-MADE COKE; STIFLED COKE. Made by burning pit-coal in a pile, kiln, or stove. It has a dull-black colour, and produces an intense heat when used as fuel. By condensing the bituminous vapours which are given off during the process, about 3% of tar may be obtained from common coal, and from some strong coal, by careful treatment fully 10% of its weight. The screenings of dust coal, separated from the better kinds of bituminous coal, is the sort commonly used for making coke in ovens.

2. GAS COKE; DISTILLED COKE. The cinder left in the gas retorts. Grey; produces a weak heat, insufficient to smelt iron.

3. SHALE COKE; MINERAL CARBON. From bituminous shale, burnt in covered iron pots, in a similar way to that adopted for making bone-black; or in piles. Black and friable. Used to clarify liquids, but is vastly inferior to bone-black, and does not abstract the lime from syrups. See FUEL, PIT-COAL, &c.

=COLCHICIN'A.= _Syn._ COL'CHICINE. COLCHICIA. A peculiar principle discovered by Gieger and Hesse in the seeds of the _Colchicum autumnale_ or common meadow saffron. It also exists in the corms or bulbs.

_Prep._ Macerate the bruised seeds in boiling alcohol, add magnesia, to throw down the alkaloid, digest the precipitate in boiling alcohol, and filter. By cautious evaporation colchicine will be deposited, and maybe purified by re-solution and crystallisation in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter; soluble in water and alcohol; form salts with the acids. It is very poisonous. 1/10th of a grain, dissolved in spirit, killed a cat in 12 hours. It differs from veratria in being soluble in water and crystalline, and in the non-production of sneezing when cautiously applied to the nose. Strong oil of vitriol turns this alkaloid of a yellowish-brown; nitric acid turns it of a deep violet, passing into indigo-blue, green and yellow. It is not used in medicine.

=COL'CHICUM.= _Syn._ MEA'DOW SAF'FRON; COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE (Linn.), L. The recent and dried corms or bulbs (_colchici cormus_), as well as the seeds (_colchici semina_), are official in the British Pharmacop[oe]ia. The corms are ordered to be dug up in the month of July, or before the autumnal bud has projected. The dry coatings having been torn off, cut the corms transversely in thin slices, and dry, at first with a gentle heat, but afterwards slowly increased to 150° Fahr.

_Dose_ (of the corms), 2 to 8 or 9 gr.; (of the seeds), 2 to 7 gr., made into a pill or bolus with syrup or conserve; chiefly, as a specific in gout, to alleviate or check the paroxysm. This drug forms the base of almost all the advertised gout nostrums. It is, however, an active poison, and its administration requires care. "After all that has been said respecting colchicum in gout, and admitting that it rarely fails to allay pain and check a paroxysm, I would record my opinion that he who would wish to arrive at a good old age should eschew it as an _ordinary_ remedy, and consider that he is drawing on his constitution for a temporary relief, with a certainty of becoming prematurely bankrupt in his vital energies." (Collier.)

_Antidotes._ An emetic consisting of one scruple of sulphate of zinc dissolved in water, followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, then stimulants, and also charcoal.

=COL'COTHAR.= See OXIDES OF IRON.

=COLD.= _Syn._ FRI'GUS, L. The privation of heat. The term is also applied to the sensation and effects which this privation produces.

When the body of an animal is immersed in an atmosphere at a temperature below the healthy standard, a sensation of coldness is experienced, produced by the passage of the caloric or heat of the body into the colder medium. If this extraction of caloric exceeds the quantity produced by the vital system, the temperature of the body decreases, until it sinks below the point at which the functions of life can be performed. This declination of the heat of the body is gradual; the extreme sensation of coldness changes into a disinclination for voluntary motion; next comes on drowsiness, followed by numbness and insensibility. At this point if the sufferer is not rescued, and remedial measures had recourse to, death inevitably and rapidly ensues.

The prevention of the effects of cold consists in the use of ample food and clothing proportioned to the inclemency of the weather, the exposure to be endured, and the habits of the wearer. The circulation of the blood should be promoted by active exercise, and any disposition to sleep shaken off by increased bodily exertion. The principal endeavour should be to keep the extremities and chest warm, as, if this can be accomplished, no danger need be feared.

In cases of asphyxia produced by intense cold, the patient should be laid in a room remote from the fire, and bathed with cold salt-and-water, or water to which some brandy or vinegar has been added; after which the body should be wiped dry, and friction assiduously applied by the hands of the attendants (warmed); as many operating at once as can conveniently do so. Gentle stimulants should be administered by the mouth, and the bowels excited by some mild, stimulating clyster. The lungs should also be inflated, and an effort made to re-establish the respiration. As soon as symptoms of returning animation are evinced, and the breathing and circulation restored, the patient should be laid in a bed between blankets, and a little wine-and-water administered, and perspiration promoted by heaping an ample quantity of clothing on the bed. Should the patient have suffered from hunger as well as cold, the appetite may be appeased by the administration of a limited quantity of light food, taking especial care to avoid excess, or anything indigestible or exciting, &c. See ASPHYXIA, BRONCHITIS, CATARRH, &c.

=COLD CREAM.= A snow-white, bland ointment, about the consistence of good lard, and an admirable substitute for that excipient where expense is no object, especially for applications about the face. It is commonly sold as a lip-salve and as a healing application to abraded and chapped surfaces generally. The ordinary receipts are given under the head of COSMETIC CERATE (which _see_). The following produces a superior article.

_Prep._ (Dr L. Turnbull.) From white wax, 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 4 oz.; rose-water, 2 oz.; borax, 1/2 dr.; oil of roses, 5 drops. Melt, and dissolve the wax in the oil of almonds by a gentle heat; dissolve the borax in the rose-water, which is then to be warmed a little and added to the heated oil; lastly, add the oil of roses, stirred.

=COL'IC.= _Syn._ COL'ICA, L. The belly-ache or gripes. The name is popularly given to all severe griping abdominal pains, without reference to the cause. There are several varieties of this disease, as noticed below.

=Colic, Accident'al.= Produced by improper food, and poisons. The treatment may be similar to that recommended for bilious or flatulent colic.

=Colic, Bil'ious.= In this variety the pain is intermittent and transient, accompanied by constipation, nausea, and vomiting. The fæces, if any, are bilious, dark-coloured, and offensive. The common remedies are, a full dose of blue pill, calomel, colocynth, or aloes, followed by a sufficient quantity of Epsom salts or Glauber's salts. Warm fomentations are also serviceable.

=Colic, Flat'ulent.= Marked by constipation, and the irregular distension of the bowels by gas, accompanied by a rumbling noise, &c. It is commonly produced by the use of indigestible vegetables and slops. The remedies are, a full dose of tincture of rhubarb combined with a few drops of essence of peppermint. If this does not afford relief, an Abernethy pill may be taken, washed down with a glass of any cordial water, as peppermint, cinnamon, or caraway. When the pain is extreme, warm fomentations to the belly, or a carminative clyster, will generally give relief. The Editor has found castor oil and Collis Browne's chlorodyne of great benefit in this complaint.

=Colic, Paint'er's.= _Syn._ PLUMB'ER'S COLIC, DEVONSHIRE C., LEAD C.; COL'ICA PICTO'NUM, L. The dry belly-ache. It is marked by obstinate costiveness, acrid bilious vomitings, violent pains about the region of the navel, convulsive spasms in the intestines, and a tendency to paralysis in the extremities. It is most prevalent in the cider counties, and amongst persons exposed to the fumes of lead. The remedies are the same as for the spasmodic variety. Should these fail, after the bowels have been thoroughly evacuated, small doses of camphor and opium may be administered, and sulphuric beer or sweetened water very slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, had recourse to as a beverage. Mr Benson, the managing director of the British White-lead Works at Birmingham, says:--"Although during several weeks after the addition of the sulphuric acid to the treacle beer, drank at the works, little advantage seemed to be derived, yet the cases of lead colic became gradually less frequent, and since October of that year, or during a period of fifteen months, not a single case of lead colic has occurred amongst the people." ('Lancet.') See BEER, SULPHURIC ACID, and SULPHURIC ACID.

=Colic, Spasmod'ic.= Marked by a fluctuating pain about the navel, which goes away and returns by starts, often leaving the patient for some time. The belly is usually soft, and the intestines may often be felt in lumps, which move about under the hand, or are wholly absent for a time. It is unaccompanied by flatulency. The remedies are warm fomentations, warm clysters, and carminatives, accompanied by small doses of camphor and opium.

=Colic, Stercora'ceous.= Marked by severe griping pains and constipation of the bowels. The remedies are powerful cathartics, as full doses of calomel, aloes, colocynth, jalap, &c., followed by purgative salts, as sulphate of magnesia, or sulphate of soda.

=Colic in Horses.= First give the horse a sharp trot, and apply friction over the belly, and follow this up with a drench of warm gruel to which has been added a glass or two of whisky or gin. Should these fail to give relief, let 4 dr. of aloes be rubbed down in a pint of hot water, and when the mixture becomes cool enough, add from thirty to sixty drops of strong solution of ammonia. Where the spasms and distress continue severe, and with little intermission, the physic may be followed in an hour with 2 dr. of tincture of aconite, given with an ounce of spirit of chloroform, in a little water, and repeated every hour; soap and water clysters should be administered every half hour, and friction and hot fomentations applied to the abdomen.

=COLLO'DION.= _Syn._ COLLO'DIUM, L., B. P. A viscid fluid formed by dissolving pyroxylin (Schönbein's gun-cotton) in a mixture of ether and alcohol. In _surgery_ it is used in its natural state, and combined with certain elastic and medicinal substances. In _photography_ it is used in combination with agents that render it sensitive to the action of light.

=Collodion.= _Syn._ PLAIN COLLODION. The following are the best methods of preparing plain collodion for surgical purposes:--

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. U. S.) Nitrate of potassa, in powder, 10 oz.; sulphuric acid, 8-1/2 fl. oz.; triturate together in a wedgwood mortar until uniformly mixed; then add of fine carded cotton (free from impurities), 1/2 oz.; and by means of the pestle or a glass rod, saturate it thoroughly with the liquor for a period of about 3 or 4 minutes; next transfer the cotton to a vessel containing water, and wash it in successive portions of pure water, with agitation and pressure, until the washings cease to affect litmus paper or a solution of chloride of barium; it is then to be spread out and dried by a very gentle heat, and dissolved by agitation in a stoppered bottle with rectified sulphuric ether, 1 quart, to which rectified spirit (alcohol), 1 fl. oz., has been previously added.

2. (Mialhe.) Nitrate of potassa, 40 parts; concentrated sulphuric acid, 60 parts; carded cotton, 2 parts; proceed as last until the dry cotton is obtained, then take of the prepared cotton, 8 parts; rectified sulphuric ether, 125 parts; mix in a well-stoppered bottle, and agitate it for some minutes; then add gradually, rectified alcohol, 1 part; and continue to shake until the whole of the liquid acquires a syrupy consistency. It may be now passed through a cloth; but a better way to prevent loss is to let it repose for a few days, and then decant the clear portion.

3. (Lauras.) This process only differs from No. 2 in the following particulars:--The cotton is immersed for 12 minutes, then rinsed 2 or 3 times in cold water, and afterwards immersed in a solution of carbonate of potassa, 4 parts, and water, 200 parts. Lastly, it is plunged again into simple water, and dried at a temperature of 77° to 86° Fahr.

4. (B. P.) Pyroxylin, 1 part; rectified spirit, 12 parts; ether, 36 parts; mix the ether and spirit, and add the pyroxylin. Keep in a well-corked bottle.

5. (Parrish.) Thoroughly saturate clean carded cotton, 1/2 oz., with fuming nitric acid and sulphuric acid, of each 4 fl. oz., previously mixed and allowed to become cool; macerate for 12 hours; wash the cotton in a large quantity of water; then free it from the water by successive washings in alcohol, and dissolve in ether, 3 pints.

_Obs._ For success in the manufacture of collodion it is absolutely necessary to avoid the presence of water. The ordinary commercial oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1·84, may be used. Professor Procter, of Philadelphia, gives preference to the process with the mixed acids (No. 5), and directs that the cotton should be allowed to macerate for four days. In drying the cotton great care should be taken to prevent an explosion.

_Uses, &c._ In _surgery_ plain collodion is employed as a dressing for wounds, and as a protection to abraded surfaces. On drying, it unites the former closely, and preserves the latter from the action of the air. It is impervious to water, and being transparent, it admits of the progress of the wound being inspected when necessary. Such is its adhesive power, that a piece of cloth cemented with it to the dry palm of the hand will support a weight of 25 to 30 lbs. The parts to which it is applied should be freed from moisture. See COLLODIONS, COLOURED, ELASTIC, MEDICATED and VESICATING (_below_).

=Collodion, Blis'tering.= See VESICATING COLLODION.

=Collodion, Col'oured.= _Syn._ COLLODIUM TINCTUM, L. _Prep._ (Cutan. Hosp.) Collodion, 2 oz.; palm oil, 1 dr.; alkanet root, q. s. to colour (say 15 gr.); digest and decant the clear. Colour bears a greater resemblance to the skin than that of common collodion, whilst it is more flexible; but it is weaker than the latter.

=Collodion, Elas'tic.= _Prep._ 1. (Lauras.) Heat together Venice turpentine, 2 parts; castor oil, 2 parts; and white wax, 2 parts; add sulphuric ether, 6 parts; and mix all with the product of No. 3 (_above_), that is, to the collodion formed with 8 parts of prepared cotton, 125 ether, and 8 alcohol.

2. (C. S. Rand.) Dissolve prepared cotton (No. 5, _above_), 2 dr., in sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.; then add, Venice turpentine, 2 dr., and complete the solution by slight agitation.

_Obs._ The collodion made by either of the above processes, when applied to the skin, forms a transparent pellicle, more pliable and more difficult to remove than that of ordinary collodion.

=Collodion, Flexible.= COLLODION FLEXILE. (B. P.) Mix collodion (B. P.), 6 fl. oz., with Canada balsam, 120 gr.; and castor oil, 1 fl. dr., and keep in a well-corked bottle.

=Collodion, Hemostatic.= Collodion, 10 parts; carbolic acid, 1 part; tannic acid, 1/2 part; benzoic acid, 1/2 part; all by weight. To be applied with a pencil brush.

=Collodion, Iodised.= This may be made at one operation; it should be kept two days before being used, but is less reliable if kept for any length of time than the sensitised collodion described below. It is made as follows:--Place 16 grains of gun-cotton in a bottle, add 18 grains of iodide of cadmium in powder, 6 grains of bromide of cadmium in powder, and 1-1/2 oz. of spirits of wine (sp. gr. 0·805). Shake the bottle until the iodide and bromide are dissolved, then add 3 oz. of ether, sp. gr. 0·720, and shake until the cotton is dissolved. After settling for twenty-four hours, decant the clear portion into small well-stoppered bottles.

=Collodion, Med'icated.= It has been proposed to medicate collodion in several ways, but the practice has not found much favour with the medical profession. The following preparations have been described:--

COLLODION, ACONITE. From aconite root, by a similar formula to that of BELLADONNA C. (_below_).

COLLODION, BELLADONNA. _Prep._ Macerate select belladonna leaves, powdered, 8 oz., in ether, 12 fl. oz., with alcohol (95%), 4 fl. oz., for six hours. Pack in a percolator, and pour en alcohol till a pint of tincture is obtained; in this dissolve pyroxylin (gun-cotton), 1 dr., and Canada balsam, 1/2 oz. Used as a substitute for BELLADONNA PLASTER.

COLLODION, CANTHARIDIN. See COLLODION, VESICATING.

COLLODION, IODINE. _Prep._ Dissolve iodine and Canada balsam, of each 1/2 oz., in collodion, 1 pint. Used as a substitute for IODINE OINTMENT.

=Collodion, Morphia.= (L'Union Medicale.) Dissolve 1 part of hydrochlorate of morphia in 30 parts of flexible collodion, and apply with a camel-hair brush.

=Collodion, Photograph'ic.= 1. There are so many methods adopted for preparing photographic collodion, that a large volume might be filled with notices of them. We have retained Mr Hardwich's forms, which were formerly much esteemed by practical photographers, and appended to them modern formulæ which are now, we believe, in much greater demand, and for which we are indebted to Mr Ernest Spon's valuable book 'Workshop Receipts.'

2. Pyroxylin, and iodide of cadmium, or ammonium, of each 15 gr.; ether, 3-1/2 oz.; alcohol, 1-1/2 oz. Place the two first in a dry bottle, then pour on the spirits of wine, shake the mixture well, then add the ether, shake again and let it stand for 12 hours. Decant the clear portion into a wide-mouthed bottle, keep well stoppered, and in the dark. Avoid shaking the bottle when about to use the collodion, and never quite use all the bottle contains, as the sediment which will accumulate at the bottom would spoil the picture. The preparation of a sensitive collodion, whether positive or negative, includes three distinct operations, namely, the formation of the pyroxylin or gun-cotton, the conversion of this into plain collodion, and the final process of iodising the collodion.

=Collodion, Plain.= Mix in a bottle gun-cotton, 450 gr.; ether, 25 oz.; spirits of wine, 7 oz. Shake these well together, and leave to settle several days. Keep well corked.

=Collodion, Pos'itive.= (Hardwich.) To form the PYROXYLIN:--Take sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1·845, at 60° Fahr., 12 fl. oz.; nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·45, at 60°, 12 fl. oz.; water, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and allow the temperature to fall to 140°; then immerse cotton, 300 grains. (If the cotton is found to gelatinise or dissolve in the acid mixture, the quantity of water is too great, and may be reduced to 3 fl. oz.) The cotton should be well pulled out in pieces, weighing about 30 grains each; and should be left in the acid for about 8 minutes, the vessel being covered over. It is taken out with a glass spatula, squeezed to remove acid, washed for at least 24 hours by a stream of water, then squeezed in a cloth, and pulled out to dry. To form the PLAIN COLLODION:--Shake up the dry pyroxylin, 48 grains, with alcohol, sp. gr. ·805, 1-1/2 fl. oz., and then add ether, sp. gr. ·725, 4-1/2 fl. oz. The solution should be allowed to rest for a week or ten days, when the clear fluid should be decanted from the sediment. To prepare the IODISING SOLUTION:--Take of iodide of ammonium, 1-1/2 dr.; iodide of cadmium, 1-1/2 dr.; bromide of ammonium, 40 grains; powder, and dissolve in alcohol, sp. gr. ·805 to ·816, 10 fl. oz. The collodion is iodised by adding the solution to it in the proportion of 1 part solution to 3 parts collodion. The iodised collodion should be kept for at least six weeks before using. If required for immediate use, add a few drops of an alcoholic solution of iodine, formed by dissolving 5 grains of iodine in 1 fl. oz. of alcohol.

_Obs._ Mr Hardwich recommends that the cotton, before being converted into pyroxylin, should be cleansed by boiling for two hours in a solution of caustic potassa (2 oz. to the gallon), and by being afterwards repeatedly washed and dried. The purest nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·45, should be employed, but the ordinary commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is sufficiently pure for use. To purify the ETHER and to get rid of a certain ozonised principle which would decompose the iodising solution, Mr Hardwich recommends the following process:--Take the best washed ether of commerce and agitate it thoroughly with a small portion of dilute sulphuric acid, and then introduce it into a retort, and distil over one third. The alcohol used is of the strength of that sold for absolute alcohol; it should be pure.

=Collodion, Neg'ative.= (Hardwich.) To form the PYROXYLIN:--Take of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1·845, at 60°, 18 fl. oz.; nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·475, at 60°, 6 fl. oz.; water, 5-1/4 fl. oz.; cotton, 300 grains. Mix, and allow the temperature to fall to 150° Fahr. The weight of the pyroxylin ought to be 375 grains. To form the PLAIN COLLODION:--Take alcohol, sp. gr. ·806, 1/2 gallon; ether, sp. gr. ·725, 1 gall.; pyroxylin, 1900 grains. Saturate the pyroxylin with the alcohol, then pour in half a gallon of the ether, agitate for 3 or 4 minutes, and repeat the process in adding the remainder. Decant the clear liquid from the sediment after a week or ten days' rest. The following forms for IODISING SOLUTIONS are recommended:--_a._ (Potassium Iodiser.) Iodide of potassium, 135 grains; alcohol, sp. gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Powder and dissolve in the alcohol, previously heated to 140°.--_b._ (Cadmium Iodiser.) Iodide of cadmium, 170 grains; alcohol, sp. gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Dissolve in the cold, and filter.--_c._ (Bromo-iodiser.) Bromide of ammonium, 40 grains; iodide of ammonium, 90 grains; iodide of cadmium, 90 grains; alcohol, sp. gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Pulverise and dissolve in the cold. To sensitise the collodion, add to three parts one part of either _a_, _b_, or _c_.

_Obs._ Most of the practical directions given under the head of POSITIVE COLLODION apply equally to NEGATIVE COLLODION. Nothing but patient and intelligent practice will ever lead to success in preparing collodion for photographic purposes. Although formulæ of undoubted excellence may be used, it continually happens that the results are entirely nugatory from some trifling cause. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=Collodion, Sensitised.= Add to 1 oz. of the plain collodion 6 drams of spirits of wine; 1-3/4 oz. of ether; and 3 drams of iodide and bromide solution (see _below_). Shake the bottle well; the mixture is then ready, but is improved by being kept four or five hours before using. In hot weather a little more alcohol and less ether; in very cold weather more ether and less alcohol must be used. As sensitised collodion does not keep well, it is better not to mix the plain collodion and the iodide and bromide solution until shortly before required for use.

=Iodide and Bromide Solution.= Iodide of cadmium 154 grains; bromide of cadmium 54 grains; spirits of wine, 3-1/2 ounces. Pound the iodide and bromide very fine in a mortar, adding the spirit gradually; when the iodide and bromide are dissolved, pass the solution through a filter paper into a bottle. Must be kept in a closely-stoppered bottle.

=Collodion, Styptic.= _Syn._ STYPTIC COLLOID. (Dr Richardson.) To a saturated solution of tannic acid in alcohol and ether, in equal parts, add as much pyroxylin as the liquid will dissolve.

=Collodion, Ves'icating.= _Syn._ BLIS'TERING COLLODION, CANTHAR'IDIN C.; COLLO'DIUM VES'ICANS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Tichborne.) Coarsely powdered cantharides, 6 oz., are placed loosely in a displacement apparatus (provided with a tap to regulate the flow), and treated with ether from methylated spirit, 13 fl. oz., and glacial acetic acid, 2 fl. oz., previously mixed together. After the fluid has passed through, it will be found that the _débris_ has retained by absorption 7 fl. oz., which must be displaced by the gradual addition of methylated spirits of wine, 7 fl. oz. If properly managed, there is not the least danger of the admixture of the spirits with the percolated menstruum, as the animal substance of the flies swells considerably under the prolonged influence of the spirits of wine, so that the same bulk will be insufficient to quite displace the ether. The ethereal solution should be made to measure exactly 15 fl. oz. with a little spirit, and may then be converted into a collodion by the addition of pyroxylin, 1/2 oz.

_Obs._ The glacial acid plays a double part in this preparation. It dissolves the cantharidin, and at the same time gives to the collodion film the essential property of porosity. Ordinary collodion is useless as an excipient, for it produces a tough and contractile film, which really screens the skin from the action of the greater part of the blistering material.

2. (Ilisch.) Cantharidin, 15 gr.; pyroxylin, 20 gr.; rectified ether, 1-1/2 oz.; acetic ether, 1/2 oz.; dissolve.

3. ([OE]ttinger.) Ether of cantharides and collodion, equal parts.

_Use._ Vesicating collodion is used as an irritant. No. 1 was introduced in 1862, and has many advantages over the other two. Mr Tichborne thus described the most effectual method of using it in the 'Pharm. Journ,':--"The part upon which the blister is to be raised should be painted with the vesicant to the desired extent, bearing in mind that the blister produced always extends to about one tenth of an inch beyond the margin of the space covered. Care should be taken to give a coating of considerable thickness, and to ensure this result the brush should be passed over and over again, until about 1/2 dr. has been used to the square inch, or less when operating upon a tender epidermis. It is desirable to place over the intended blister a piece of oil silk, or, what is still better, a piece of sheet gutta percha, somewhat larger than the surface painted, as this will stop the exhalations of the skin, and so render it moist and permeable. In ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour if the cuticle is hard, the collodion should be wiped off with a little cotton-wool moistened with ether, when the blister will almost instantly rise."

=COL'LOID.= See DIALYSIS.

=COLLYR'IUM.= [L.] In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, a topical remedy for diseases of the eye. Formerly the term collyrium was applied to any medicament employed to restrain defluxions.

=Collyr'ium, Dry.= _Syn._ EYE POWDER; COLLYR'IUM SIC'CUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dupuytren.) White sugar, 1 dr.; red oxide of mercury, 10 gr.; oxide of zinc, 20 gr.; mix.

2. (Lagneau.) Sugar candy, 2 parts; nitrate of potassa, 1 part.

3. (Falconer.) Chloride of barium, 1 gr.; sugar candy, 1 dr.

4. (Radius.) Calomel and white sugar, of each 1/2 dr.; opium, 10 gr.

5. (Recamier.) Oxide of zinc and sugar candy, equal parts.

6. (Velpeau.) Trisnitrate of bismuth and sugar candy, equal parts.

7. (Wiseman.) Acetate of soda, 10 gr.; powdered opium, 1 gr.; sugar candy, 1/2 dr.

_Obs._ It is absolutely necessary that the ingredients in the above preparations should be reduced to an impalpable powder by careful trituration in a wedgwood mortar. For use, a small pinch is placed in a quill or straw, and blown into the eye previously opened with the fingers. On the whole, they may be regarded as unnecessary preparations, and are unsafe, except in skilful hands.

=Collyrium, Liq'uid.= See WATERS (Eye).

=Collyrium, Unct'uous.= See OINTMENTS (Eye).

=COL'OCYNTH= (s[)i]nth). _Syn._ COLOCYNTH PULP., COLOCYNTHIDIS PULPA, B. P. BIT'TER AP'PLE, BITTER GOURD, BITTER CU'CUMBER, PEELED COLOCYNTH; COLOQUINT'IDA, COLOCYNTH'IS (B. P.), L. The decorticated fruit or pulp of the _Citrellus Colocynthis_ (Schrad.--Ph. L.), or _Cucumis Colocynthis_ (Linn.--Ph. E. & D.). It is an acrid, drastic purge and hydragogue, and cannot be given alone with safety; but, in combination with other substances, it forms some of our most useful cathartic medicines.

=COLOCYNTH'IN.= _Syn._ COLOCYNTH'IUM, L. The bitter, purgative principle of colocynth.

=COL'OPHENE.= Formed by distilling oil of turpentine with concentrated sulphuric acid. A colourless, viscid, oily liquid; with a high boiling-point; and exhibiting a bluish tint by reflected light.

=COL'OPHONY.= See RESIN.

=COLORADO BEETLE.= _Syn._ _Doryphera decemlineata._ The Colorado potato beetle belongs to the family _Chrysomelidæ_, and is a native of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It measures nearly half an inch in length, and has a tawny or yellowish cream-coloured body, darkly spotted; with wing cases which are marked with ten black longitudinal stripes. It has been gradually migrating eastward toward the more cultivated lands of the Northern states, until it has reached the Atlantic coast. It is now found over all the central and northern parts of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, as well as throughout Canada, on the potato crops of all of which regions it has committed incalculable ravages. The leaves and stalks are the parts of the potato plant principally attacked; the depredators being, for the most part, the larvæ, of which three broods are said to be produced annually.