Chapter C: W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the (7)

_Obs._ This method does not answer well with spiritous liquor above 'proof,' owing to the variations of their boiling point being so slight as not to be easily observed with accuracy; but with liquors under 'proof,' and particularly with wines, beer, and other fermented liquors, due care being observed, it gives results closely approximating to those obtained by distillation, and sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes. In testing strong alcoholic solutions it is, therefore, proper to dilute them with twice their bulk of water; and commercial spirits, with an equal bulk of water; the results obtained being doubled or tripled as the case may be.

_d._ From the EXPANSION of the LIQUID when heated: Silbermann's DILATATOMETER. The expansion of alcohol between 0° and 212° Fahr. is triple that of water; and between 77° and 122° Fahr. it is much greater. Between -14° and -98° Fahr. the rate of expansion is about the ·00047th part in volume for every degree of Fahrenheit's scale. The measurement of this expansion has been proposed as a new and ready method of alcoholometry, adapted to nearly all spirituous and fermented liquors. Silbermann's instrument, which is based on it (see _engr._), simply consists of a flat brass or ivory plate (_A_), on which are fixed a mercurial thermometer (_D_) graduated from 22° to 50° Cent. (= 77° to 122° Fahr.); and the DILATATOMETER (_B_), which is a glass pipette open at both ends. A valve of cork, or vulcanised india rubber, closes the tapering end (_c_); this valve is attached to a movable rod (_C_) which is fastened to the supporting-plate, and connected with a spring (_f_) and a handle (_g_) bearing a four-threaded screw, by which the lower orifice of the pipette can be opened or closed at will. In use, the pipette is filled with the liquor under examination, to a little above the zero point (0) on the scale. This is effected by suction, by means of a little piston of leather (_i_), which fits tightly in the long and wider limb of the pipette; the valve (_d_) being previously opened by turning the knob (_h_). The proper quantity of liquor being introduced, and the lower end closed, the piston is moved up and down two or three times, for the purpose of drawing the air-bubbles and absorbed air out of the liquid, the presence of which would vitiate the results of the trial. To allow the piston to be withdrawn without any shock, or the danger of dividing the column abruptly, the rod attached to it is made hollow throughout. In using it the operator applies the ball of his forefinger to the top of the piston-rod (_E_), in order to create a vacuum as he raises it; and then withdraws it, to readmit the air when he thrusts it down or removes it from the tube. The excess of liquid (if any) in the pipette is then run off until its upper surface is exactly level with the zero (0) of the scale, at 25° C., to which it is raised by immersion in a water bath of that temperature, as observed by the thermometer; which is done by very cautiously turning the rod which depresses the valve. The whole apparatus is now again immersed in the water bath; and, held by the upper portion of the plate, kept in gentle motion with the hand, until the temperature rises to exactly 50° C., when the coefficient of expansion is obtained, and hence also the proportion of alcohol--the scale of the instrument being so graduated, from actual experiments previously made upon mixtures of known composition, as to give, at once, the per-centage of alcohol by VOLUME (nearly).[14]

[Footnote 14: 'Comptes Rendus,' xvii, 418.]

_e._ From the TENSION of the VAPOUR:--Geissler's ALCOHOLOMETER. This method, for which we are indebted to M. Geissler, of Bonn, depends on the measurement of the tension or elastic force of the vapour of the liquid, as indicated by the height to which it raises a small column of mercury. The spirit, wine, or other liquor, of which it is desired to ascertain the strength, is put into the little flask (_a_), which, when completely filled, is screwed on to the curved glass-tube which contains the mercurial column (which is inverted for the purpose), and is closed by the stop-cock (_b_). The instrument (see _engr._) is then placed erect, and the flask and lower part of the tube immersed in a water bath, as in the previous method. The number, on the graduated scale of the instrument corresponding to the height of the mercury, at the boiling point of the liquor under examination, gives the per-centage of alcohol by VOLUME (nearly).

This method furnishes approximative results with great facility and expedition; and, with proper care, these do not vary more than 1/3 to 1/2 of 1%, from those obtained by distillation. We find, that by having the diameter of the part of the tube at which the surface of the mercury is acted on by the vapour a little larger than that of the longer limb, and by previously abstracting the air from the sample, as in Silbermann's method, or even by agitation and exposure in an open vessel, the two may be made to correspond almost exactly.

_f._ From the DIFFERENCE between the sp. gr. BEFORE and AFTER ebullitiom:--Taberié's method and [OE]NOMETER. The sp. gr. of the sample is first accurately determined by any of the usual methods. It is next carefully evaporated, in an open vessel, to one half its volume. The residuum, when cold, is made up with pure water to exactly its original measure at its original temperature, and the sp. gr. again ascertained. The difference between the two being due to the spirit originally present, furnishes the means of calculating a new sp. gr., from which the per-centage richness of the sample may be obtained by mere inspection of the Tables. The observed sp. gr. is the true one, whenever the liquor, after ebullition and restoration to its original volume, has the same sp. gr. as water (_i. e._, 1·000), at 60° Fahr. Taberié employs a peculiar instrument, which he calls an [oe]nometer; but its use is not essential to his method of alcoholometry. The results are, of course, only approximative, though sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Prof. Mulder, however, says that he prefers it to any of the previous methods; and that the results, with care, are almost as accurate as those obtained by distillation.

_g._ By means of CARBONATE OF POTASH:--

_g. a._ (Brande's Method.) The liquor for trial is poured into a long, narrow glass tube (graduated centesimally), until the vessel is half-filled, and, after the solution of about 12% or 15% of a strong solution of subacetate of lead, or a little finely powdered litharge, is agitated until the colour is entirely, or nearly removed. Anhydrous carbonate of potash, in powder, is next added, until it sinks undissolved, even after prolonged agitation of the liquid. The whole is now allowed to repose for a short time, when the alcohol is seen floating on the top of the aqueous portion of the liquid in a well-marked stratum. Its quantity, read off by means of the graduations of the tube, and doubled, gives the per-centage richness of the sample in alcohol, by volume.

This process answers well with cordials, wines, and the stronger ales; but with very weak liquors it is not to be relied on. The whole operation may be performed in two to five minutes, and (with these exceptions) furnishes very reliable approximative results. In most cases the decolouring part of the process may be omitted. The alcohol thus separated has a sp. gr. of from ·8061 to ·8118, and contains 3% or 4% of water; but for ordinary purposes it may be regarded as pure alcohol.

4. Alcoholometry of MINUTE QUANTITIES of liquid. When only a few drops, or a quantity too small for the application of the preceding methods, can be obtained, an organic analysis may be had recourse to, and the quantity of absolute alcohol calculated from that of the resulting carbonic anhydride and water; care being previously taken to free the sample from other volatile bodies, if it contains any of them.

_Gen. commentary._ The duties on spirits in England are charged on the number of proof gallons they contain, which is ascertained by gauging or weighing the spirit, and then trying its strength by Sykes' hydrometer. The per-centage of proof spirit multiplied by the number of gallons gives the net amount of proof spirit to be charged.

'PROOF STRENGTH' is an arbitrary standard, adopted for the purpose of facilitating calculations, for which it is well suited; although pure alcohol would, for this purpose, be more simple. As defined by Act of Parliament, 58 Geo. III, c. 28, "proof spirit" is such "as shall, at the temperature of 51° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, weigh exactly twelve thirteenth parts of an equal measure of distilled water."

Taking, therefore, water at 51° Fahr. as unity, the sp. gr. of "proof spirit" at 51° Fahr. is 12/13 of 1·000 or ·92308. When such spirit is raised to the temperature of 60° Fahr., its density is ·91984.

Spirit at "proof" contains very nearly equal weights of absolute alcohol and water; the exact proportions according to recent experiments are:--

---------------------------------------------------------------------
| By VOLUME. | |
By WEIGHT. |---------------------------------------| Sp. gr. at |
| Bulk before | Bulk after admixture| 60° Fahr. |
| admixture. | and condensation. | |
----------------+-----------------+----------------------------------|
Alcohol. Water.| Alcohol. Water.| |
100·00 + 103·08 | 100·00 + 81·80 | 175·23 } ·91984 |
49·24 + 50·76 | 57·06 + 46·68 | 100·00 } |
---------------------------------------------------------------------

The standard alcohol of the Revenue authorities, and that on which Gilpin's Tables are founded, is a spirit of the sp. gr. ·825 at 60° Fahr., which is said to contain, by weight, 89% of pure alcohol of ·796; and 92·6% of alcohol, by volume, which corresponds to about 62·5 o. p.

It is of great importance to the spirit dealer to be able to estimate correctly the number of 'proof gallons' in any quantity of his commodities, or in the whole or any portion of his stock, as disagreeable errors frequently result from ignorance on this point. Calculations of this kind are extremely simple. Thus, when we find, by the hydrometer, that a given sample of spirit is 10 per cent. over-proof, it means, that 100 gallons of such spirit contain as much alcohol as 110 gallons of proof spirit.

In over-proof spirit, the per-centage o. p. always represents the quantity of water which the given spirit requires to reduce it to proof. By adding this per-centage over-proof to 100, we obtain a number which, multiplied by any number of gallons, and divided by 100, gives the exact number of proof gallons which is contained in any quantity of the spirit referred to. Thus:--A puncheon of rum gauged at 91 galls., and shown by the hydrometer to be 21 o. p., contains--

21 o. p. of sample added to 100 121
No. of gallons of rum 91
------
11011

No. of gal. of proof-spirit = 11011 / 100 = 110·11

In like manner when a spirit is said to be 11 u. p., or under-proof, it means that 100 gal. of such spirit contains 11 gal. of water, and 89 gal. of 'proof spirit.' By deducting the per-centage under-proof from 100, we not only obtain the number of proof gal. contained in 100 gal. of such spirit, but, as in the last case, a factor which multiplied by any number of gal., and divided by 100, gives the exact number of 'proof gallons' contained in any quantity of the given strength. Thus:--An ullage brandy piece containing 45 gal. of spirit at 10 u. p., would have the proof value of--

Per cent. u. p. of sample 10, }
subtracted from 100 } 90
No. of gall 45
---
4050

Quantity of proof spirit = 4050 / 100 = 40·50

Or exactly 40-1/2 gallons.

The strength of absolute alcohol (sp. gr. ·7938) is estimated at 75-1/4% over-proof. It therefore contains 175-1/4% of 'proof spirit,' whilst proof spirit (sp. gr. ·91984) contains 57·06% of 'absolute alcohol,' both being by measure or volume. Thus--

(meas. of alc. × 175-1/4) / 100 = equiv. meas. of pf. spt.

And--

(meas. of pf. spt. × 57·06) / 100 = equiv. meas. of abs. alc.

From which we derive the 'constant multipliers' 1·7525 (or roughly 1-3/4), and ·5706, applicable to any number of volumes or gallons. For--

meas. of alc. × 1·7525 = equiv. meas. of pf. spt.

and--

meas. of pt. spt. × ·5706 = equiv. meas. of alc.

To ascertain what quantity of a spirit at any given strength is equiv. to or contains 100 lbs. of absolute alcohol, we have only to divide the constant number 2207·7 by the proof value per cent. of such spirit.[15] Thus--for a spirit 12 u. p.--this would be

[Footnote 15: This number is obtained thus:--

100 /·79381 = 12·6 (nearly),

12·6 × 175·25 = 2207·7.

]

100 - 12 = 88% of proof spirit;

and--

2207·7 / 88 = 25·1 gal. (nearly).

That is, 25-1/10 gal. of such spirit would contain 100 lbs. of absolute alcohol.

By removing the decimal point one place to the _right_, we have the equiv. measure of 1000 lbs. By removing it one, two, or three places to the _left_, we have it respectively for 10 lbs., 1 lb., and 1/10 lb.; from which the equiv. for all other weights may be easily obtained.

By reversing the above operation, the measure of alcohol corresponding to any given weight of spirit, at any strength, may also be easily found.

The weight of 1 gal. of absolute alcohol being 7·938 lbs.; that of 1 gal. of proof spirit, 9·2 lbs,; and that of the 'alcohol' in 1 gal. of proof spirit, 4·53 lbs.; the weight of any number of gallons or volumes of either, and their equivalents, may be easily found. Thus:--

gallons of alc. × 7·938 = lbs. weight of alc.
" pf. sp. × 9·2 = lbs. w. of pf. spt.

and--

gallons of alc. × 16·121 = lbs. weight of pf. spt.
" pf. spt. × 4·53 = content in lbs. weight of alc.

In these cases a knowledge of the first four rules of decimal fractions is necessary, or, at least, advantageous; as the Excise officers carry their calculations to two figures of decimals, or 1/100ths. Their plan is to reject the third decimal figure when less than 5; but to carry 1 to the next figure on the left hand, when it exceeds 5. Thus, 5·432 is set down as only 5·43; but 5·437 is written 5·44. In the delicate chemical processes of the laboratory, even greater accuracy is observed.

Formerly, spirit was said to be 1 to 3, 1 to 4, &c., over-proof, by which it was meant that 1 gal. of water added to 3 or 4 gals. of such spirit would reduce it to 'proof.' On the other hand, 1 in 5, or 1 in 8, under-proof, meant that the 5 or 8 gals., as the case might be, contained 1 gal. of water, and the remainder represented the quantity of 'proof spirit.' This method of calculation has now long given way to the 'centigrade system,' which not only admits of greater accuracy, but is quite as simple. It should be adopted by every spirit-dealer in England, from being that which is employed by the Revenue officers, whose 'surveys' it is absolutely necessary that the trader should understand, in order that his own estimation of his stock and his business calculations should correspond with theirs.

Several other methods of alcoholometry, besides those already noticed, have been adopted at various times, but the majority of them possess so little accuracy as to be quite inapplicable to the purposes of trade, and of the laboratory. Thus, the strength was at one time estimated by what was called the 'proof.' A little of the spirit was poured upon a small quantity of gunpowder, contained in a spoon or saucer, so as just to moisten it, and was then inflamed. If at the end of the combustion the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was held to be 'above proof,' if it only languidly fizzed away, or slowly burnt, the spirit was said to be 'proof,' but if the gunpowder failed to ignite, the spirit was esteemed 'below proof.' Hence arose the terms 'proof' and 'proof spirit,' which have since been adopted by Act of Parliament. Another method was that of dropping oil into the spirit; if the oil floated, the spirit was considered to be 'under proof,' if it sunk, it was rated as 'proof' or 'over-proof.' The 'gunpowder test' is quite fallacious; for, if a certain quantity of a spirit is capable of firing the gunpowder, a little excess of a spirit 20% or 25% stronger will often fail to do so, so much water being formed as to prevent the ignition. The 'PREUVE D'HOLLAND' test, of the French, or the 'BEAD,' is still frequently employed by persons unacquainted with the use of the hydrometer. It consists in shaking the spirit in a phial, and observing the size, number, and duration of the bubbles or beads, as they are called. The larger and more numerous these are, and the more rapidly they break and disappear, the stronger the spirit is presumed to be. This method is unreliable, as the presence of sugar or acid, even in minute quantities, will sometimes give to a weak sample the appearance of one many degrees stronger. LOVI'S BEADS are also often employed to ascertain approximately the strength of spirit, when a hydrometer is not at hand.

The insufficiency of most of the methods of alcoholometry here referred to, throws us back on the Revenue System (Sykes' hydrometer), or on the specific gravity for unsweetened spirits. For sweetened spirits, as cordials, wines, beers, &c., there are none of the tests which give such accurate results as the distillation test, previously described as the Revenue Method.

The spirituous liquors of commerce being sold by measure, and not by weight, the methods of alcoholometry which give the results, per cent., by volume, are those we have chiefly explained. In the laboratory, the method by weight is that most generally employed in delicate processes and in analyses. By weight, the per-centage of alcohol remains the same for all temperatures, for the same sample; whilst by volume, the per-centage varies with the temperature of the liquid. This variation explains the cause of many of the sudden apparent decreases and increases, which occur in large stocks of spirits. Persons purchasing spirits during very warm weather, and paying for them according to their apparent quantity and strength, lose considerably by selling the same spirit when the weather becomes colder, without being conscious of such loss from the hydrometer. The reason of this is obvious, for, whilst the relative proportions of the alcohol to the water continue the same, the sp. gr. and the volume alter with the temperature; the latter being increased by warmth, and decreased by cold, in exact opposition to the former. Accuracy requires, in all cases, that a spirituous liquor should be tested for its strength at the temperature at which it was measured; and measured at the same temperature at which its strength was determined.

A consideration of these facts has led some of the great houses to introduce the system of weighing their spirits, instead of measuring them, the weight of an imperial gallon at 60° Fahr. being taken as the standard gallon. This is the method adopted by the Inland Revenue, at all distilleries, for assessing the duty, and will be readily understood by the following example:--

Cwts. qrs. lbs.

Gross weight of full cask = 13 2 27
Tare = 2 2 5
------------
Net weight of spirit = 11 0 22

or 1254 lbs. Let us suppose the hydrometer indication to be 43·0, the weight per imperial gallon would be 8·903 lbs. (see Table VI), and 1254 ÷ 8·903 = 140 gallons.

TABLE VI.--_Table for determining the Weight per Gallon
of Spirits by Sykes' Hydrometer._

A = Indication on Sykes' Hydrometer.
B = Weight per Gallon.

A B A B A B A B A B
0 8·145 8 8·509 6 8·878 4 9·264 2 9·667
2 8·157 21 8·512 8 8·881 6 9·267 4 9·671
4 8·161 2 8·516 42 8·885 8 9·271 6 9·674
6 8·164 4 8·519 2 8·889 63 9·275 8 9·678
8 8·168 6 8·523 4 8·892 2 9·279 84 9·682
1 8·171 8 8·526 6 8·896 4 9·283 2 9·686
2 8·174 22 8·530 8 8·899 6 9·286 4 9·690
4 8·178 2 8·533 43 8·903 8 9·290 6 9·694
6 8·181 4 8·537 2 8·907 64 9·294 8 9·698
8 8·185 6 8·540 4 8·911 2 9·298 85 9·702
2 8·188 8 8·544 6 8·914 4 9·302 2 9·706
2 8·191 23 8·547 8 8·918 6 9·305 4 9·710
4 8·195 2 8·551 44 8·922 8 9·309 6 9·714
6 8·198 4 8·554 2 8·926 65 9·313 8 9·718
8 8·202 6 8·558 4 8·929 2 9·317 86 9·722
3 8·205 8 8·561 6 8·933 4 9·321 2 9·726
2 8·208 24 8·565 8 8·936 6 9·324 4 9·730
4 8·212 2 8·568 45 8·940 8 9·328 6 9·733
6 8·215 4 8·572 2 8·944 66 9·332 8 9·737
8 8·219 6 8·575 4 8·947 2 9·336 87 9·741
4 8·222 8 8·579 6 8·951 4 9·340 2 9·745
2 8·225 25 8·582 8 8·954 6 9·344 4 9·749
4 8·229 2 8·586 46 8·958 8 9·348 6 9·753
6 8·232 4 8·589 2 8·962 67 9·352 8 9·757
8 8·236 6 8·593 4 8·965 2 9·356 88 9·761
5 8·239 8 8·596 6 8·969 4 9·360 2 9·765
2 8·242 26 8·600 8 8·972 6 9·363 4 9·769
4 8·245 2 8·603 47 8·976 8 9·367 6 9·773
6 8·249 4 8·607 2 8·980 68 9·371 8 9·777
8 8·252 6 8·610 4 8·984 2 9·375 89 9·781
6 8·255 8 8·614 6 8·987 4 9·379 2 9·785
2 8·258 27 8·617 8 8·991 6 9·382 4 9·789
4 8·262 2 8·620 48 8·995 8 9·386 6 9·792
6 8·265 4 8·624 2 8·999 69 9·390 8 9·796
8 8·269 6 8·628 4 9·002 2 9·394 90 9·800
7 8·272 8 8·631 6 9·006 4 9·398 2 9·804
2 8·275 28 8·635 8 9·009 6 9·401 4 9·808
4 8·279 2 8·639 49 9·013 8 9·405 6 9·812
6 8·282 4 8·642 2 9·017 70 9·409 8 9·816
8 8·286 6 8·646 4 9·021 2 9·413 91 9·820
8 8·289 8 8·649 6 9·024 4 9·417 2 9·824
2 8·292 29 8·653 8 9·028 6 9·420 4 9·828
4 8·296 2 8·656 50 9·032 8 9·424 6 9·832
6 8·299 4 8·660 2 9·036 71 9·428 8 9·836
8 8·303 6 8·663 4 9·039 2 9·432 92 9·840
9 8·306 8 8·667 6 9·043 4 9·436 2 9·844
2 8·309 30 8·670 8 9·046 6 9·440 4 9·848
4 8·313 2 8·674 51 9·050 8 9·444 6 9·852
6 8·316 4 8·677 2 9·054 72 9·448 8 9·856
8 8·320 6 8·681 4 9·058 2 9·452 93 9·860
10 8·323 8 8·684 6 9·061 4 9·456 2 9·864
2 8·326 31 8·688 8 9·065 6 9·459 4 9·868
4 8·330 2 8·692 52 9·069 8 9·463 6 9·872
6 8·333 4 8·695 2 9·073 73 9·467 8 9·876
8 8·337 6 8·699 4 9·076 2 9·471 94 9·880
11 8·340 8 8·702 6 9·080 4 9·475 2 9·884
2 8·343 32 8·706 8 9·083 6 9·479 4 9·888
4 8·347 2 8·709 53 9·087 8 9·483 6 9·892
6 8·350 4 8·713 2 9·091 74 9·487 8 9·896
8 8·354 6 8·716 4 9·095 2 9·491 95 9·900
12 8·357 8 8·720 6 9·098 4 9·495 2 9·904
2 8·361 33 8·723 8 9·102 6 9·498 4 9·908
4 8·364 2 8·727 54 9·106 8 9·502 6 9·913
6 8·368 4 8·730 2 9·110 75 9·506 8 9·917
8 8·371 6 8·734 4 9·114 2 9·510 96 9·921
13 8·375 8 8·737 6 9·117 4 9·514 2 9·925
2 8·378 34 8·741 8 9·121 6 9·517 4 9·929
4 8·382 2 8·745 55 9·125 8 9·521 6 9·934
6 8·385 4 8·748 2 9·129 76 9·525 8 9·938
8 8·389 6 8·752 4 9·132 2 9·529 97 9·942
14 8·392 8 8·755 6 9·136 4 9·533 2 9·946
2 8·395 35 8·759 8 9·139 6 9·537 4 9·950
4 8·399 2 8·763 56 9·143 8 9·541 6 9·955
6 8·402 4 8·766 2 9·147 77 9·545 8 9·959
8 8·406 6 8·770 4 9·151 2 9·549 98 9·963
15 8·409 8 8·773 6 9·154 4 9·553 2 9·967
2 8·412 36 8·777 8 9·158 6 9·557 4 9·972
4 8·416 2 8·781 57 9·162 8 9·561 6 9·976
6 8·419 4 8·784 2 9·166 78 9·565 8 9·981
8 8·423 6 8·788 4 9·170 2 9·569 99 9·985
16 8·426 8 8·791 6 9·173 4 9·573 2 9·989
2 8·429 37 8·795 8 9·177 6 9·576 4 9·994
4 8·433 2 8·799 58 9·181 8 9·580 6 9·998
6 8·436 4 8·802 2 9·185 79 9·584 8 10·003
8 8·440 6 8·806 4 9·189 2 9·588 100 10·007
17 8·443 8 8·809 6 9·192 4 9·592
2 8·446 38 8·813 8 9·196 6 9·596
4 8·450 2 8·817 59 9·200 8 9·600
6 8·453 4 8·820 2 9·204 80 9·604
8 8·457 6 8·824 4 9·207 2 9·608
18 8·460 8 8·827 6 9·211 4 9·612
2 8·464 39 8·831 8 9·214 6 9·615
4 8·467 2 8·835 60 9·218 8 9·619
6 8·471 4 8·838 2 9·222 81 9·623
8 8·474 6 8·842 4 9·226 2 9·627
19 8·478 8 8·845 6 9·229 4 9·631
2 8·481 40 8·849 8 9·233 6 9·635
4 8·485 2 8·853 61 9·237 8 9·639
6 8·488 4 8·856 2 9·241 82 9·643
8 8·492 6 8·860 4 9·245 2 9·647
20 8·495 8 8·863 6 9·248 4 9·651
2 8·498 41 8·867 8 9·252 6 9·655
4 8·502 2 8·871 62 9·256 8 9·659
6 8·505 4 8·874 2 9·260 83 9·663

[asterism] For further information in connection with _Alchoholometry_ see ALCOHOL, BEER, BREWING, DISTILLATION, EBULLIOSCOPE, HYDROMETER, HYDROMETRY, LIQUEURS, MALT-LIQUORS, ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, SACCHARINE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SPIRIT, SUGAR, SYRUPS, TINCTURES, WINE, WORT, &c. &c.

=ALCOHOL; EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM.= Without entering into the controversy as to whether the moderate consumption of alcohol, or its total disuse, is the more conducive to personal health and comfort--whether, as Dr Anstie and others have asserted it acts, when prudently taken, as a food--or whether, as other medical authorities contend, even its moderate use is a disturbing factor in the human economy--there need be no qualification of the assertion, that when the drinking of spirituous liquids of any kind is indulged in to excess, the habit, if persisted in, must sooner or later terminate in impaired health, serious disease, and premature death.

A powerful array of facts could be brought in support of this statement. For instance, in NELSON'S statistics we find it mentioned that--

A temperate person's | An intemperate person's
chance of living is-- | chance of living is--
|
At 20 = 44·2 years. | At 20 = 15·6 years.
" 30 = 36·5 " | " 30 = 13·8 "
" 40 = 28·8 " | " 40 = 11·6 "
" 50 = 21·25 " | " 50 = 10·8 "
" 60 = 14·285 " | " 60 = 8·9 "

The average duration of life after the commencement of habits of intemperance is--

Among mechanics, working and labouring men 18 years.
" traders, dealers, and merchants 17 "
" professional men and gentlemen 15 "
" females 14 "

Again, Dr Dickinson, writing "on the morbid effects of alcohol in persons who trade in liquor," gave the results of an examination of 149 traders in liquor, as compared with 149 persons of various trades. The general results were diseases of the liver much more common in those who dealt in alcoholic drinks. In the lungs tubercle affected sixty-one persons of the alcoholic, forty-four of the non-alcoholic.

Tubercle in the brain, liver, kidneys, spleen, bowels, mesenteric glands, and peritoneum were twice as common in the alcoholic as in the non-alcoholic. The verdict, therefore, is unavoidable that alcohol (in excess) engenders tubercle in the brain, inflammations, atrophy, hæmorrhages; in the heart and vessels atheroma, hypertrophy, and other affections, were all more common in the alcoholic than in the non-alcoholic series. The evidence in kidney disease did not appear so conclusive, but some forms of kidney disease appear to be increased. The author sums up thus:--"Alcohol causes fatty infiltration and fibroid encroachment; it engenders tubercle, encourages suppuration, and retards healing; it produces untimely atheroma, invites hæmorrhage, and anticipates age. The most constant fatty change, replacement by oil of the material of epithelial cells and muscular fibres, though probably nearly universal, is most noticeable in the liver, the heart, and the kidney."

Alcohol also seems to be the cause of special diseases, besides those more common and generally known ones, delirium tremens, alcoholism, &c. Of these we may mention one recorded by M. GALEZOWSKI, a peculiar affection of the eyes, which the doctor found very prevalent during the siege of Paris in 1870-1. In the five months of the siege fifty patients were affected by it, whilst during the twelve months preceding the siege only nineteen were to be found. Dr GALOWSKI ascribed the malady to the habit of taking alcoholic drinks in the morning fasting. A peculiar kind of palsy has also been referred to alcoholic poisoning.

The following table, compiled by Dr Joseph Williams, lends support to the fact that an indulgence in alcohol is either the cause of insanity, or that it tends to its increase:

Proportion
Total caused by
admission. intemperance.

Charenton 855 134
Bicêtre and Salpêtrière 2012 414
Bordeaux 156 20
Turin, 1830-31 158 17
" 1831-36 390 76
Gard 209 4
United States 551 146
Palermo 189 9
Caen 60 16
Dundee 14 4
M. Parchappe 167 46
M. Batten 288 54
---- ---
5019 940

Commenting on these figures, Mr Walter Blyth remarks, "There may be another explanation of the fact that many mad people have been great drinkers. A large proportion of those subject to insanity are driven by their morbid minds to drink; so that it may be that insanity causes drink, and not drink causes insanity."

Many medical writers who are no advocates for the total abandonment of alcohol limit its consumption, in healthy people, to one or two fluid ounces a day, in the form of wine, beer, or spirits and water; two fluid ounces is, we believe, the quantity apportioned daily to every able-bodied seaman in the Royal Navy. Any slight habitual departure from this standard--even when the evidences of excess are not perceptible to others--all authority, historical, pathological, and physiological (unless it be given as a medicine), shows to be injurious. The researches of Anstie, Parkes, and Count Wollowicz, appear to prove that any quantity of alcohol exceeding an ounce and a half taken by an adult showed itself in the urine, a circumstance which these writers look upon as tending to show that the system has taken more alcohol than can be used in the body itself. In slight doses the action of alcohol is to produce a sedative effect upon the nerves, to redden slightly the lining membrane of the stomach, and to stimulate the secretion of the gastric juice.

Thus, in small doses alcohol may, and doubtless does, promote appetite. In excess, however, all these effects are turned to evil, and then ensue an inflammatory condition of the stomach, compression of the gland ducts from thickening of the tissue around them, excessive mucous secretion, and great loss of appetite. When carried into the circulation it greatly increases the force of the heart's action, and at the same time paralyses, as it were, the restraining nervous supply to the arteries and small vessels, so that they can no longer oppose themselves to the blood-current, but dilate. This action in a small degree, occurring in persons of a weak and languid circulation, is no doubt beneficial; on the other hand, when in excess, it is most dangerous, and is a cause of the greater part of the diseases of the heart and great vessels.

"There appears to be a slight fall of temperature with moderate doses of alcohol, a very decided fall with excessive doses; the muscular and nervous systems are transitorily stimulated, and may do more work when small doses are given in cases of fatigue, but in other cases there is a marked torpor of the nervous and a want of co-ordination of the muscular system."--BLYTH.

Notwithstanding the researches of Percy, Strauch, Masing, Lallemand, Duroy, Parkes, Dupré, Anstie, Thudichum, and others, there is still a considerable divergence of opinion as to how alcohol is eliminated from the body. By some of the authorities just named it is affirmed to be eliminated as aldehyd, by others as carbonic acid; as to the latter, the experiments of Dr E. Smith show that the carbonic acid is decreased when brandy and gin are drunk, and increased by rum.

The only probable supposition, which facts support, tends to show that the alcohol is turned into acetic acid in the body, some of which unites with potash and other bases, and some is destroyed. All are pretty well agreed that in the form of spirits alcohol as a food is valueless, but that in the form of beer and wine it is possessed of a slight dietetic power, naturally varying with the amount and nature of the different substances held in solution in these beverages.

The imports of spirits into this country, in the seven years from 1850 to 1857, amounted to 70,740,980 gallons; whilst the imports in the seven years following, viz. from 1857 to 1864, were 78,016,071 gallons, showing an increase of 7,305,091 gallons. The population has, however, increased in the time, and a deduction on that account, as well as correction on one or two other heads, are required; still, that there is an increase is indisputable.

As respects France, a considerable increase in the consumption of spirits has taken place of late years, as the following table by M. Husson will illustrate:

_The Mean Consumption of Spirits for each Inhabitant._

Litres. Litres.

From 1825 to 1830 8·96 yearly. ·024 daily.
" 1831 " 1835 8·74 " ·023 "
" 1836 " 1840 10·15 " ·026 "
" 1841 " 1845 11·14 " ·031 "
" 1846 " 1850 11·03 " ·030 "
" 1851 " 1854 14·25 " ·039 "

In the United States, during the period from 1807 to 1828, the average was 27 litres for every inhabitant, which is even greater than the highest of the two sets of figures just quoted.

The demoralisation of the French army during the late Franco-Prussian war has been also unanimously ascribed to the excessive consumption of spirituous liquids.

The following results of an inquiry instituted in 1870 by the Massachusetts Board of Health into the comparative sobriety of different nations are gathered from an able paper which appeared in the 'Medical Times and Gazette' of April 15th, 1872, by Dr Druitt, in which he dissects and summarises the results in question. Dr Druitt writes:

"Highest in the scale of temperance come the Turks and Arabs; next the Iberians, Levantines, Greeks, and Latin races; lower down the Japanese, Scandinavians, Belgians, and the Irish Celt; lowest of all the so-called Anglo-Saxon of either continent."

Professor Levi contributes to our knowledge on this subject by giving the following statistics:--In 1860 the committals for drunkenness in England and Wales were 88,000, and in 1870 134,000, an increase of 50 per cent.

In Manchester the increase from 1860 to 1870 was 375 per cent., or computed according to the increase of population 35·3 per cent. In London drunkenness is in the proportion of 5·43 per 1000, in Leeds 7·40, in Manchester 31·13, and in Liverpool 42·82. It must, however, be remembered that these figures are based on mere committals, which greatly depend on the activity of the police, and the noisy or quiet character of the drunkard.

We quote the following from Dr Blyth's work on 'Hygiene,' without, however, attempting either to endorse or controvert what he says on the subject.

"_Whether is Alcohol necessary or not._ All experience, both at home and abroad, shows by facts that cannot be disputed that a person can do quite as hard work without alcohol as with it; and probably as the limits between moderation and excess are easily passed, and as the generality of mankind, even without intending it, err on the latter side, the result is that a comparison between total abstainers and even temperate men generally terminates in favour of the former. It would appear that total abstainers live longer, are better citizens, and can do more work than the rest of mankind. The figures of the "United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident Institution" go far to prove the above. This insurance society is divided into two sections. One section consists of abstainers, the other of persons selected as not known to be intemperate. The claims for five years anticipated in the temperance section were £100,446, but the actual claims were only £72,676. In the general section of the anticipated claims were £196,352; the actual claims no less than £330,297. In war the march of 2000 miles in his War of Independence by Cornwallis and his troops (1783), the Maroon war of Jamaica, the 400 miles' march of an English army across the Desert from Komer, on the Red Sea, a march of 1000 miles in the Kaffir war, experiences at sieges, in action, in hot, temperate, and cold climates, where abstinence was either forced through circumstances or followed, shows to every unprejudiced mind that soldiers endure more fatigue, are healthier, and fight better, without stimulants than with them; and this fact is endorsed by every commander of the present day.

The excess and abuse of spirits, as before remarked, lost the French their military prestige in the Franco-German war. In very hot and very cold climates the Indian observers and the Arctic explorers all unite in condemning its (that is, the use of alcohol) use in the slightest excess, or even in moderate doses. It does not warm the body in cold climates, and the reaction that follows the exciting of the circulation is followed by a dangerous depression; whilst in hot it combines with the climate, and quickly produces disease."

=ALCOHOLIC DRINKS, EFFECTS OF.= In addition to the serious injury to health caused by an excessive or imprudent indulgence in spirituous stimulants (see previous article), even a moderate and not injudicious use of them may often be attended with very disagreeable consequences--a more or less mild or modified form of poisoning, in fact--if the beverages themselves are, as very frequently happens, contaminated, either accidentally or intentionally, with certain objectionable ingredients. These ingredients are described under the articles BEER, WINES, and the various SPIRITS, such as GIN, BRANDY, ABSINTHE, &c. Of spirit drinking it may be observed, that this dangerous practice is intensified by what is to be feared is the too prevalent custom of taking them undiluted, or "neat," as it is termed. There is no doubt that they constitute the very worst form of alcoholic drinks, and shorten the lives of those who indulge in them to excess more summarily than any other intoxicating potion. The greatest and most ineradicable drunkards are almost always found to be spirit drinkers.

Liebig remarked that less bread was consumed in families where beer was drunk, and there seems to be little doubt that the different species of beer, including porter and ale, when pure and free from adulteration, act, although in a small degree, as food. Probably there are some who will agree with, whilst others will dissent from, Benjamin Franklin, who said "there was more sustenance in a penny loaf than in a gallon of beer." The starchy extractive matters of the beer no doubt perform the same function in the animal economy that sugar does. It is well known that those who drink freely of beer mostly become corpulent, as witness the portly forms of draymen. The hop contained in the beer has doubtless tonic and stomachic qualities. We can speak with less certainty about the free acids contained in malt fluids. It is very certain that some people cannot drink a glass of beer without experiencing rheumatic pains in the joints, which effect is generally ascribed to the acidity of the beer; but which is really supposed to be due to the decreased elimination of urea and pulmonary carbonic acid from the system caused by the alcohol of the beer.

The heavy low-priced beers occasion drunkenness of a peculiarly violent and savage kind, a fact which strongly favours the inference that this form of intoxication is due to some toxic agent, used as an adulterant. Of wines, the clarets and subacid wines are undoubtedly antiscorbutic in properties, and light wines as beverages are preferable to the stronger. Port, sherry, beer, stout, and ale are almost universally condemned in cases where there is a tendency to gout. The light clarets and Rhine wines are far more desirable beverages when this is the case, and the German wines are said to be valuable drinks in many lithic affections. It seems probable that the ethers and the vegetable salts, together with the sugar contained in wines, perform the most important part in the human economy.

It has been proposed to introduce the red subacid wines as drinks for our sailors, because of their antiscorbutic qualities. Some of the alcoholic drinks prepared in India frequently cause temporary madness.

=ALCOHOLISM.= ALCOHOL; EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM.

=AL'COHOLS.= In _chemistry_, a term applied to compounds possessing a composition, formulæ, and chemical properties similar to those of ordinary alcohol. They form a series presenting an unmistakable symmetry, and differ from one another by well-marked gradations, as shown below:--

Methyl-alcohol (_wood spirit_). CH_{4}O
Ethyl-alcohol (_ordinary alcohol_) C_{2}H_{6}O
Amyl-alcohol (_füsel-oil_) C_{5}H_{12}O
Capryl-alcohol C_{8}H_{18}O
Cetyl-alcohol C_{16}H_{34}O
&c., &c.

=Alcohols.= In _commerce_, pure spirits of a greater strength than about 58 o. p. (sp. gr. 8335), or containing more than about 85% by WEIGHT, or 90% by VOLUME, of pure alcohol, are commonly so called.

=Alcohols.= In _perfumery_, rectified spirit of wine, or commercial alcohol, holding essential oils or other odorous matters in solution.

=Alcohols.= In _Fr. pharmacy_, alcoholic tinctures and essences.

=ALCOOLATIFS= (alcoölatifs). [F.] _Syn_. ALCOHOLATI'VA, L. In _Fr. pharmacy_, alcoholic solutions of liniments, embrocations, &c., whether made by distillation, maceration, or solution.

=ALCOOLATS= (alcoölats). [Fr.] In _Fr. pharmacy_, spirits; applied by Béral, Henry and Guibourt, and others, to medicated distilled spirits.

=ALCOOLATURES= (alcoölatures). [Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOHOLATU''RA, L. In. _Fr. pharmacy_, alcoholic tinctures, elixirs, &c. M. Béral confines the term to vegetable juices preserved by alcohol.

=ALCOOLES= (alcooölés). [Fr.] Tinctures; the 'teintures alcoholiques' of the Fr. Codex.

=ALCOOLIQUES= (alcoöliques). [Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOHOL'ICA, L. In _Fr. pharmacy_, alcoholic or spirituous solutions. (Béral.)

=AL'CORNINE= (-n[)i]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOR'NOCINE (-s[)i]n); ALCOR'NEUM, ALCORNI'NA, L. A crystallisable substance, apparently intermediate between fat and wax, discovered by Biltz, in alcornoco bark.

=ALCORNO'CO.= _Syn._ A.-BARK; ALCORNOQUE, Fr.; ALKORNOC, A.-RIND, Ger. The bark of an unknown tree of South America. It is astringent and bitter, and has been highly extolled as a specific in phthisis; but appears to possess little medicinal virtue. The bark of the young branches of the cork tree (_quercus suber_), used in tanning, is also sometimes called alcornoco-bark; but possesses none of the characters of the former article.

=AL'DECAY.= The galls on the leaves of _myrobalanus chebula_ (Gaertn.), a forest-tree of Bengal. Equal to the best oak-galls.

=AL'DEHYD= (-h[=i]d). [_al_-(cohol)-_dehyd_ (rogenatus).] C_{2}H_{4}O. Syn. HYDRATED OXIDE OF ACETYLE; HYDRATE OF OTHYLE*; HYDROXIDE OF O.* Literally, dehydrogenated alcohol. In _chemistry_, a peculiar ethereal liquid, first obtained in a pure form by Liebig, from alcohol. It is produced under various circumstances, particularly during the destructive distillation of certain organic matters, and in several processes of oxidation. The following are the most convenient methods of preparing it:--

_Prep._ 1. (Liebig.) Sulphuric acid, 3 parts; is diluted with water, 2 parts; and as soon as the mixture has cooled, alcohol of 80%, 2 parts, is added; and, subsequently, peroxide of manganese (in fine powder), 3 parts. The whole, after agitation, is then distilled at a very gentle heat, from a spacious retort into a receiver surrounded with ice, the connection between the two being perfectly air-tight. The process is continued until frothing commences, or the distillate becomes acid which generally occurs when about one third (3 parts) has passed over. The distillate is next agitated in a retort, with about its own weight of fused chloride of calcium, in powder; after which about one half only is drawn over at a very gentle heat (85° to 90° Fahr.), by means of a water bath. This rectification is repeated in a precisely similar way. The last distillate is ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD only slightly contaminated with foreign matters.

2. (Liebig.) Aldehyd-ammonia, 2 parts, is dissolved in an equal weight of distilled water; and, after being placed in a retort, sulphuric acid, 2 or 3 parts, previously diluted with rather more than its own weight of distilled water, and allowed to cool, is added. The whole is now distilled, by means of a water bath, into a receiver surrounded with ice, or (preferably) a freezing-mixture, the temperature of the bath at first being very low, and the operation being stopped as soon, or rather before the water begins to boil. The distillate is then placed in a retort connected with a well-cooled receiver, as before; and after all the joints are made perfectly tight, powdered fused chloride of calcium, in weight equal to that of the liquid in the retort, is added through the tubulature. The heat produced by the hydration of the chloride causes the distillation to commence, after which it is carried on, by means of a water bath, at a temperature ranging from 80° to 82° Fahr. This rectification being very carefully repeated, the last distillate is PURE ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD.

_Prop., &c._ Limpid, colourless, ethereal, neutral, inflammable; mixes in all proportions with alcohol, ether, and water; odour peculiar, penetrating, and, when strong, exceedingly suffocating, the vapour, in quantity, producing spasmodic contraction of the thorax; boils at 72° Fahr. (70°--Ure, 5th ed.); sp. gr. ·790 at 60°, and ·800 at 32° Fahr.; sp. gr. of vapour, 1·532; by exposure to air it is gradually converted into acetic acid, and speedily so under the influence of platinum-black; heated with caustic potash, a brown substance resembling resin (ALDEHYD-RESIN) is formed; gently heated with protoxide of silver, or its solutions, metallic silver is deposited on the inner surface of the vessel, in a uniform and brilliant film, whilst ALDEHYDATE OF SILVER remains in solution; heated with hydrocyanic acid it yields ALANINE. By age, even in close vessels, it passes into one or more isomeric compounds (ELALDEHYDE; METALDEHYDE), with change of properties. Aldehyde for experiments should, therefore, be always recently prepared; and it must be kept in a well-stopped bottle, in a very cold place, and preferably in ice.

_Obs._ Aldehyd is important for its assumed position in the acetyl-series, and the part which it plays in the process of acetification, &c. The word is now also commonly employed, by chemists, as a generic term for any organic substance which, by assimilating two atoms of hydrogen, yields, or would yield, a compound having the composition or properties of an alcohol; or which, by taking up one atom of oxygen, yields an acid. Many of the essential oils (as those of almonds, cinnamon, and cumin) are composed principally of bodies which may thus be called aldehyds. One of the most valuable properties of these substances, is their strong tendency to combine with the bisulphites of ammonium, potassium, and sodium; and by which they may be separated from complex mixtures.

=AL'DEHYD-AMMO'NIA= (-h[)i]d-). An ammonia-compound of aldehyd, discovered by Döbereiner and Liebig.

_Prep._ (Liebig.) Aldehyd (of process No. 1, above) is mixed with an equal volume of ether,[16] in a flask surrounded with ice, or (what is better) a freezing-mixture; and is then saturated with dry gaseous ammonia. The crystals which soon form, after being washed with ether, and dried by means of bibulous paper and a short exposure to the air, are pure aldehyd ammonia.

[Footnote 16: Some authorities recommend the use of twice this quantity of ether.]

_Prop., &c._ It smells like a mixture of turpentine and ammonia; melts at 165° to 170°; volatilises, unchanged, at 212° Fahr.; decomposed by exposure to the air; very soluble in water; soluble in alcohol, and more or less so in most other menstrua, except ether; acids decompose it. With sulphuretted hydrogen it forms thialdine.--_Use._ Chiefly to make pure aldehyd (which _see_).

=AL'DER= (awl'-). _Syn._ AL'DER-TREE; AL'NUS ([)a]l-), L.; A. GLUTINO'SA (Gaertn.); BETU'LA ALNUS, Linn.; AUNE, AULNE, Fr.; ERLE, Ger. A well-known English tree, chiefly growing in moist grounds near rivers. Its wood is used for hurdles, for various articles of turnery and furniture, and when converted into charcoal, for making gunpowder; it possesses considerable durability under water; but is otherwise of little value. Bark and leaves very astringent, and reputed vulnerary; decoction used as a gargle in sore throat, and, in double the dose of cinchona, as a febrifuge in agues; bark and sap used in dyeing and tanning. The following belong to different nat. orders and genera to the preceding:--

=Alder, Black.= _Syn._ WIN'TER-BERRY; PRI'NOS VERTICILLA'TUS, Linn. A tree growing in the United States of America. Bark febrifuge, tonic, and astringent; berries tonic and emetic. (Bigelow.) It has been much recommended in dropsies, diarrh[oe]a, intermittents, &c. _Dose_ (of the dried bark), 1/2 to 1 dr., 3 or 4 times a day.

=Alder-tree, Black.= _Syn._ BERRY-BEARING ALDER-TREE; RHAM'NUS FRAN'GULA, Linn. A large shrub found in the woods and thickets of England, &c. Wood, BLACK DOG'WOOD; bark, bitter, emetic, purgative; used to dye yellow; root-bark, a drastic purgative; berries, purgative, emetic; unripe berries yield SAP-GREEN; charcoal of the wood esteemed the best for gunpowder.

=ALE.= _Syn._ BARLEY WINE*; AILE, Fr.; WEISS-BIER, Ger.; AEL, EALE, Sax.; CEREVIS'IA ALBA, C. LUPULA'TA, A'LA*, AL'LA*, L. Pale-coloured beer, prepared from lightly dried malt, by the ordinary process of brewing. The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties, which are determined by the wants of the consumer, and the particular market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough fermentation, contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly 'hopped,' or 'bittered,' the further to promote their preservation during transit and change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are less attenuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more nutritious, though less intoxicating, than those previously referred to.

In brewing the finer kinds of ale, pale malt and the best East Kent hops of the current season's growth, are always employed; and when it is desired to produce a liquor possessing little colour, very great attention is paid to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted with more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and in warm weather, when a slight colour is not objectionable, one fifth, or even one fourth of 'amber malt' may be advantageously employed. From 4-1/2 lbs. to 6 lbs. of hops is the quantity commonly used to the quarter of malt, for 'ordinary ales,' and 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. for 'keeping ales.' The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the intended quality and description of the brewing, and the period that will be allowed for its maturation.

The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8% of 'absolute alcohol,' ordinary strong ale, 4-1/2 to 6%; mild ale, 3 to 4%; and table ale, 1% to 1-1/2%; (each by volume); together with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline matter. For the adulterants of ale, see PORTER. See BEER, BREWING, FERMENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, &c.

=Ale, Dev'onshire White.= A liquor once generally drunk, and still in demand, in the neighbourhood of Kingsbridge and Modbury, Devon.

_Prep._ Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale) sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 lbs. of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse strainer, and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely bunged up for 'draught,' or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles, which are then well corked and wired.