Chapter LXXXVIII: Section 63: of this latter act reads: 'For all purposes (3)

8. The earliest authentic records of Lusitanian transatlantic
expeditions begin only with Gaspar Corte-Real, who made three,
and not two voyages only; all to the same regions, as follows:
The first voyage of that navigator was undertaken previous to
May, 1500, in the direction of Greenland and Newfoundland, and
proved an absolute failure. The second voyage lasted from the
early part of the summer of 1500 until the autumn of that
year, and embraced the east coast of Newfoundland, from its
northernmost point down to Cape Race. The third expedition set
out from Lisbon early In the spring of 1501. It was composed
of three vessels. One of these returned to port On the 8th or
9th of October, the second on the 11th following. As to the
third, which was under the Immediate command of Gaspar
Corte-Real, it was ice-bound or shipwrecked, we do not know
when nor where, but probably in Hudson Bay, during the winter
of 1501-1502. The country visited during the first part of the
expedition seems to have been the northern extremity of
Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador.

9. The expedition of Miguel Corte-Real in search of his
brother, sailed May 10, 1502, and was also lost. …

10. Portugal continued to send ships to the fishing banks; and
the region south of Newfoundland was explored, particularly by
João Alvares Fagundes before 1521. …

11. The assertion that already in the time of Christopher
Columbus navigators and geographers believed in the existence
of a continent interposed between the West Indies and Asia,
and which was not Cathay, stands uncontroverted either by
contemporary authorities, or by the early Spanish charts. Nay,
it is corroborated by that class of proofs.

12. The absolute insularity of Cuba was an acknowledged fact
years before the periplus made by Sebastian de Ocampo, in
1508.

13. The mainland of the New World was believed to be a
continent distinct from Cathay and from India the moment
navigators commenced to search after a strait leading from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Asiatic seas.

14. The idea that America was a mere prolongation of Asia
ceased therefore to be entertained almost immediately after
the discovery of its east coast; by John Cabot in 1497; by
Americus Vespuccius, before 1501; by Gaspar Corte-Real, before
1502.

15. Christopher Columbus himself soon ceased to think that he
had discovered Cathay, or the Asiatic coast.

16. So early as October, 1501, the notion prevailed in Europe
that from Circulus articus to Pollus Antarticus, the newly
discovered land formed a single coast line belonging to a
separate continent."

_H. Harrisse,
Discovery of North America,
part 1, book 8, chapter 5._

AMERICA:
The alleged first voyage of Vespucius.

In the first volume of this work (page 52) the argument in
support of the disputed claim for Amerigo Vespucci, or
Vespucius, that he made a voyage in 1497-8 during which he
coasted the American continent from Honduras to Cape Hatteras,
is given in an excerpt from Dr. Fiske's "Discovery of
America." The following, from a paper by Mr. Clements R.
Markham, read before the Royal Geographical Society in June,
1892, presents, in part, the counter argument: "Vespucci's
account of his alleged first voyage is briefly as follows. He
says that he went to Spain to engage in mercantile pursuits,
but that after some years he resolved to see the world and its
marvels. King Ferdinand having ordered four ships to go forth
and make discoveries to the westward, Vespucci was chosen by
His Highness to go in the fleet, to assist in the work of
discovery. They sailed from Cadiz on May 10th, 1497, and
reached Grand Canary, which, he says, is in 27° 30' North, and
280 leagues from Lisbon.
{3679}
There they remained eight days, and then sailed for
thirty-seven (twenty-seven, Latin version) days on a W. S. W.
course ('Ponente pigliando una quarta di libeccio'), reaching
land when they were nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary.
For they found, by their instruments, that they were in 16°
North latitude and 75° West longitude. Vespucci then gives a
long account of the natives. After some days they came to a
village built over the water, like Venice, about forty-four
houses resting on very thick poles. Sailing along the land for
80 leagues, they came to another people, speaking a different
language, where Vespucci saw an iguana being roasted, which he
describes. He made an excursion inland for 18 leagues, and
found the country very populous. This place was on the Tropic
of Cancer, where the latitude is 23° North. The province is
called 'Parias' (Latin version), 'Lariab' (Italian version).
Thence they sailed, always in sight of the land, on a
Northwest course ('verso el maestrale') for 870 leagues,
having intercourse with many tribes, and finding some gold.
When they had been absent thirteen months the ships begun to
leak, and required caulking, so they entered the best harbour
in the world, where there were many friendly people. Here they
refitted, and remained for thirty-seven days. They then sailed
eastward for seven days, and carne to some islands 100 leagues
off the mainland, inhabited by fierce people called 'Iti.'
They had encounters with the natives, when one of their men
was killed and twenty-two were wounded. They then sailed for
Spain with 222 slaves, arriving at Cadiz on October 15th,
1498, where they sold their slaves, and were well received.
This is the story of Vespucci. It has been considered to be a
fabrication from that time to this, for the following reasons.
Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant,
from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1498, as is
shown by the official records, examined by Muñoz, of expenses
incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeditions.
Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order
of King Ferdinand in 1497; and there is no allusion to any
such expedition in any contemporary record. The internal
evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger.
Vespucci says that he sailed West South West for nearly 1,000
leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the
Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than 900 leagues West
South West from Grand Canary. It would never have taken him
near the land at 16° North. Even with a course direct for that
point, instead of a West North West course, and disregarding
intervening land, the distance he gives would leave him 930
miles short of the alleged position. No actual navigator would
have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead
reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and invented the latitude at
random. It is useless for the defenders of Vespucci to refer
to the faulty reckonings of those days, and to pilots thinking
they were near the Canaries when they were off the Azores.
This is a different matter. It is the case of a man alleging
that he has fixed his position by observations, and giving a
dead reckoning nearly a thousand miles out, in the belief that
it would bring him to the same point. It is fudging, but the
fudging of a man ignorant of a pilot's business. His statement
that he went Northwest for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a
position in latitude 23° North, is still more preposterous.
Such a course and distance would have taken him right across
the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief
incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1499.
There is the village built on piles called Little Venice.
There is the best harbour in the world, which was the Gulf of
Cariaco, where Ojeda refitted. There was the encounter with
natives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded.
These numbers are convincing evidence. … Vespucci does not
mention the commanders of the expedition, nor any Spanish name
whatever, and only gives two names of places, namely, 'Parias'
or 'Lariab,' and 'Iti,' both imaginary. Humboldt was aware of
the proofs that Vespucci could not have been absent from Spain
in 1497-98, and that the incidents of his alleged first voyage
belonged to that of Ojeda; but he was reluctant to believe in
actual fraud. He therefore suggested that there were misprints
with regard to the dates; that the first voyage of Vespucci
was that of Ojeda; and that the Florentine merchant returned
home from Española in time to join the voyage of Pinzon in
1500, which was the second voyage. But no one was allowed to
land from Ojeda's ships at Española, and the dates are too
detailed, and occur too clearly in both versions, to admit of
the wholesale alterations demanded by this theory. The Baron
Varnhagen, in his defences of Vespucci, published in 1865 at
Lima, and in 1869 at Vienna, takes a bolder course. He adopts
the whole of the statements of Vespucci as perfectly true,
including the dates; but his defence does not amount to much.
He was evidently unaware of the extent of the error in
Vespucci's reckoning, and did not realise the inevitable
inference. He got over the Little Venice difficulty by
suggesting that there were many other villages built on piles,
and that there might have been one on the coast of Tabasco.
That is true. There was also the old Quebec hotel in
Portsmouth Harbour; but this is not the point, and he failed
to see where the difficulty lies. The Little Venice was a
discovery in Ojeda's voyage when Vespucci was present. Its
recurrence here, and its omission in the version of Ojeda's
voyage by Vespucci, are the suspicious points which Varnhagen
fails to explain away. Of the words 'Parias' and 'Lariab' in
the two versions, Varnhagen prefers the latter. It is quite
impossible to tell which form, or whether either, was in the
original manuscript. Although there is no such place as
'Lariab,' yet a Mexican author, named Orozco, said that some
of the names of places near Tampico, where the Huasteca
language is spoken, ended in 'ab.' This is a point, so far as
it goes—which is not very far. Even the voyage of 870 leagues
Northwest from latitude 23°, does not daunt the Baron. He
ignores Vespucci's course, and takes him a marvellous voyage
round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the peninsula of
Florida, to Cape Hatteras, where he certainly does not find
the best harbour in the world. Thence Vespucci is taken to
Bermuda, identified as 'Iti,' and so home. It is well known
that Bermuda was uninhabited before its settlement by
Europeans, and that there were no signs of previous
inhabitants; while the 'Iti' of Vespucci was densely peopled
with fierce savages. But this is ignored by Varnhagen.
{3680}
It would certainly have been a most extraordinary voyage, and
it is still more extraordinary, that though the secret must
have been known to many people at the time, it should have
been inviolably kept without any object in such secrecy, and
that the discoveries should have appeared on no map and in no
narrative. Yet Vespucci's story, though a bold flight, bears
no comparison with the grandeur of Varnhagen's conception of
it."

_C. R. Markham,
Fourth Centenary of his Discovery,
note 2 (Royal Geographical Society,
Proceedings, 1892, September)._

AMERICA:
Monetary effects of the discovery of America.

See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES (page 2208).

----------AMERICA: End--------

AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy.
Hiawatha the founder.

See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (page 1802).

AMERICAN COLONIAL TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

AMERICAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2017, and after).

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

AMHERST COLLEGE, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

AMPERE'S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISCOVERIES.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

[Transcriber's note: For a detailed look at electrical
theory of 1892.]

_T. O'Conor Sloane,
The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._

AMSTERDAM, The founding of the Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2208).

ANÆSTHETICS, The discovery of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2143).

ANARCHISM AND NIHILISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894;
and 1860-1870 (pages 2941 and 2948).

ANDORRA.

"The pastoral and picturesque valley of Andorra, a jumble of
hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyrenean spurs, extends
about 7 L. long by 6 broad, and is bounded by the French and
Spanish ridges, by Puigcerdá to the South and East, by the
Comté de Foix (départ. de l'Ariège) to the North, and by the
Corregimiento of Talaru to the West. Watered by the Balira [or
Valira], Ordino, and Os, it is one of the wildest districts of
the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which is floated
down the Balira and Segre to Tortosa. The name Andorra is
derived from the Arabic Aldarra, 'a place thick with trees,'
among which is found the Cabra Montaraz, with bears, boars,
and wolves."

_R. Ford,
Handbook for Travellers in Spain,
part 1, section 6._

"The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a
defeat of the Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire,
but in reality up to the French Revolution the valley enjoyed
no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the Counts of
Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra
should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts
of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the
customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished
the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state.
The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in
accordance with old feudal customs, which are not at all
reconcilable with the principles of modern republics. The land
belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and
younger brothers become the servants of the head of the
family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of
their working for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842.
The 'liberty' of these mountaineers consists merely in
exemption from the Spanish conscription and impunity in
smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have recently
established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business
consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a
woollen factory. The republic of Andorra recognises two
suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel, who receives an annual
tribute of £25, and the French Government, to whom double that
sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts,
the commandant of Séo de Urgel exercising the functions of
viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint the
bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal,
alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two
'rahonadores,' or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the
Cortes. Each parish is governed by a consul, a vice-consul,
and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A
General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the
parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra. But in
spite of these fictions Andorra is an integral part of Spain,
and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of
this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the
Andorrans are Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to
grow comparatively rich."

_E. Reclus,
The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, Spain,
section 6._

ANN ARBOR, University at.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 732).

ANNAM.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

ANSELM: Dispute with William Rufus.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135 (page 796).

ANTIOCH, The early Christian Church in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 435).

ANTIOCH COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 744).

ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT, The.

See JEWS: 19TH CENTURY (page 1931).

APOSTLES, Missionary labors of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 433).

ARABS:
Ancient and Mediæval Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.

ARABS:
Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).

----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: Start--------

ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
A Chronological Record.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1500-1502.
Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the
entrance of Hudson Strait by the Cortereals.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1553.
Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of
a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on
the White Sea, and opened trade with Russia, while Willoughby
perished with all his crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1556.
Exploring voyage of Stephen Burroughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1576-1578.
Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance
to Davis Strait, discovering the bay which bears his name, and
which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay; afterwards
entering Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1580.
Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jackman, passing Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1585-1587.
Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a
northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between
Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it
to the 72nd degree north latitude.

{3681}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595.
Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barentz) to the
northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya
Zem]ya, but making no progress beyond it.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1596-1597.
Third voyage of Barentz, when he discovered and coasted
Spitzbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his
ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in
undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1602.
Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George
Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company,
resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to
Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1607.
Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of
London, attaining the northern coast of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1608.
Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1610.
Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the
northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through
the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has
been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a
mutinous crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1612-1614.
Exploration of Hudson Bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and
Baffin, practically discovering its true character and shaking
the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1614.
Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland
coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot,
making its way to latitude 80°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain
Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin Bay, Smith
Sound, Jones Sound, and Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1619-1620.
Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seck the
northwest passage; wintering in Hudson Bay, and losing there
all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the
voyage home.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1632.
Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1670.
Grant and charter to the Hudson Bay Company, by King Charles
II. of England, conferring on the Company possession and
government of the whole watershed of the Bay, and naming the
country Prince Rupert Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the
northeastern passage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1728.
Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamtschatka by the
Russian Captain Vitus Behring, and discovery of the Strait
which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1741.
Exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captain
Middleton.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1743.
Offer of £20,000 by the British Parliament for the discovery
of a northwest passage to the Pacific.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1746.
Further exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by
Captains Moor and Smith.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1753-1754.
Attempted exploration of Hudson Bay by the colonial Captain
Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the
exertions of Dr. Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1765.
Russian expedition of Captain Tchitschakoff, attempting to
reach the Pacific from Archangel.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1768-1769.
Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant
Rosmyssloff.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1769-1770.
Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson Bay
Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine
River and down the river to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1773.
Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the
North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of
Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1779.
Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Behring
Strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789.
Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest
Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the
Polar Sea, which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806.
Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and
longitude 19° east.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and
into Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the
northern part of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820.
First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound,
and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822.
Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr.
Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from
Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of
Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to
Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824.
Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824.
Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and
Anjou.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823.
Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox
Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern
outlet of the Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824.
Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant
Lutke.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822.
Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of
Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823.
Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander
Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825.
Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster
Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was
wrecked.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827.
Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada
to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River
and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson
by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to
Coppermine River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826.
Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward
along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827.
Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North
Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north
latitude.

{3682}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833.
Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth,
to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the
position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not
far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years.
Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to
Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835.
Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to
the river which he discovered and which bears his name,
flowing to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837.
Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels
in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839.
Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson
Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as
Boothia.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845.
Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir
John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror,
which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen
afterward.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848.
Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the
Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and
his crews.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849.
Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and
westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John
Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851.
Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under
Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait
and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate
of the Franklin party.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850.
Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search
for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships,
the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell
and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant
De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice
in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted
helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named,
then southward and westward until the next June, when they
escaped in Baffin Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British
Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington
Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and
Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852.
Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through
Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait,
sending sledge parties to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854.
Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through
Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince
Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville
Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the
existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the
navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of
£10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the
expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851.
Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to
descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of
Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the
coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King
William's Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852.
Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under
Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent
Inlet and the surrounding region.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854.
Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the
British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains
McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command.
Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to
Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett
experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where
they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from
their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet
except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into
Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States
Government and presented to Queen Victoria.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854.
Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and
Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos
in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John
Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850
they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling
southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw
dead bodies and graves on the mainland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855.
Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight
northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel,
nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was
locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring
of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by
an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American
Government had sent to their relief.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers
commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel
Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down
the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking
traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859.
Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August,
1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200
miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in
Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence
Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge
journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not
only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that
they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound,
September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of
the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of
April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land,
and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or
Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the
way.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861.
Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the
Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with
sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.

{3683}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862.
Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry,
and discovery of relics of Frobisher.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869.
Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side
of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin
expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long
and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson
Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868.
Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld,
attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east
longitude.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869.
Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870.
German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of
which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and
drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on
the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast
of Greenland to latitude 77°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872.
Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S.
Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay,
through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and
Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the
widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall,
thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously
been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81°
38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward
the following August. During a storm, when the ship was
threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew
and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with
them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing
vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to
run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made
their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships
which took them on board.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874.
Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and
Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the
result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown
Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not
visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers
were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make
their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were
picked up.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875.
Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest
passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel
Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876.
English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the
Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in
Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while
exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the
northwest coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878.
Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific
exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands,
Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878.
Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77°
40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of
the Norwegian schooner Nordland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879.
Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted
northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by
the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on
the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to
Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian
and Siberian shores.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883.
Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem
Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879.
Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in
the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the
Kara Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880.
Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William
Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of
the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the
Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882.
Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of
the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United
States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through
Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until
she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly
two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew
escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the
occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of
the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer
Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain
speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long,
landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its
occupants perished of starvation and cold.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer
Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel
Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and
searching for two missing whaling ships.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his
yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration
of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in
the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in
boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing
explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through
Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the
Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via
Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the
Jeannette.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884.
International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic
stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic
observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point
Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth
of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in
Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of
the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by
Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in
Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound,
under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery
Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude
ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and
failing to receive expected supplies, which had been
intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in
number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the
way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of
starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain
Schley, United States Navy.

{3684}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883.
Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant
Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological
Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64°
45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together
and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71°
North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which
succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship
finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo,
Norway, in October of that year.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point
Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making
important explorations in the interior, but failing to find
the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical
studies had led him to expect.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885.
East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant
Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45'
North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and
natural history.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884.
Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in
the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886.
Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer
R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical
knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the
interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain
methods and details of equipment."

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888.
Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the
icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the
western.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and
Baron Klinkowström.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya
tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic
Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a
party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing
headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison
Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to
the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and
northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast
southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary
have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder,
wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which
boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the
Sound surveyed and mapped.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893.
Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the
movement of the great glaciers.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last
records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in
Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of
Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from
Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to
enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across
the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or
nearly, in its course.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian
Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a
geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of
the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of
McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following
March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but
compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the
distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought
back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but
Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to
continue explorations.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of
the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth
of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist,
purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance
thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only
400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice.
The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end
of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at
Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North
Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England,
July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr.
Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its
plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from
which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895.
Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz
Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the
east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by
landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.

----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End--------

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.

See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).

ARMENIA, Atrocities in.

See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).

ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.

See EUROPE (page 990, and after).

ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).

{3685}

ASCLEPIADÆ, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).

ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).

ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).

ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).

ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

ASSYRIAN MONEY AND BANKING.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

ATHENS: Outline sketch of ancient history.

See EUROPE (pages 992-996).

ATLANTIC CABLE, The laying of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1854-1866 (page 776).

ATTAINDER. BILL OF ATTAINDER.

"An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or public
dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is
the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the
disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can
only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder,
or of pains and penalties, inflicts the consequences of a
penal sentence on any state criminal. … By the instrumentality
of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally
imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure,
either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common
law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in
such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward
IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute condemning
Clarence to death. This convenient method of getting rid of
disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of
Henry VIII. The bills of pains and penalties were hurried
through the parliament, and the parties accused were not even
put upon their trial. Thus were the illustrious Sir Thomas
More and Bishop Fisher, for misprision of treason, without
regular trial, without examination of witnesses, or hearing
the accused in their self-defence, legally consigned to the
scaffold. Anne Boleyn was formally tried for high treason by
the house of peers; but the head of Catharine Howard was
disposed of by a simple bill of attainder. This was the first
case in which the offence charged was created by the very bill
against which the pretended criminal was held to have
offended. Under Philip and Mary the benefit of clergy was, by
means of a bill, withheld from a certain Rufford. What had
been an instrument of kingly despotism, under Tudor sway, was
converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine
against the crown. The points of indictment against Strafford
were so weak that the lords were for acquitting him.
Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder
in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym
and Hampden, did not support this measure; but yet it passed
through the commons with only 59 dissentient voices. After the
35 peers opposed to the trial of Strafford had withdrawn, the
terror-stricken lords accepted the bill by 26 against 19
votes. … This parliamentary administration of justice has by
no means been relinquished. A bill of attainder may refer
simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts
which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an
impeachment applies to some violation of recognized legal
principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the
commons to the house of lords."

_E. Fischel,
The English Constitution,
book 7, chapter 9._

"By the 33 & 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for
treason or felony have been abolished."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
chapter 10 (2d edition, page 393), foot-note._

----------AUSTRIA: Start--------

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1273-1349.
The House of Hapsburgh in the earlier period of its fortunes.

"It was just now [1273] that the German monarchy received once
more a real king [in the person of Rudolph of Hapsburgh]. It
is evident that Ottocar's remarkable rise into power was due
essentially to the previous excessive weakness of German
kingship. He had acquired Austria and Styria by doubtful right
according to German notions, Carinthia and Carniola without
any acquiescence at all on the part of the empire. … In the
election of Rudolph he was not willing to take part and
afterwards he refused him recognition. No wonder that from the
very beginning the German princes felt the necessity of
driving him from his usurped position. … For the German cause
it was the greatest gain that through Ottocar's fall (1278)
room was won on the Middle Danube for a national rule: the
House of Austria was enabled there to found that power which
played so great a part in the world's history. The victory on
the marchfeld was a victory of the renewed imperial might over
a recalcitrant vassal whose power had extended the due measure
of that of a prince of the realm. Looked at in this light the
fall of Ottocar reminds one of the fall of Henry the Lion a
hundred years before; the gain for Rudolph, however, was still
greater and more essential than it had been at that former
time for Frederick I. His position was for the first time now
actually assured; for if the battle had resulted unfavorably
it is doubtful if he could have continued to command
obedience. Besides this the possibility presented itself now
of using the position of ruler, conferred on him personally,
to the lasting advantage of his house; at the same time he
could only go to work in the matter very slowly and
cautiously. … At his departure from these parts in 1281 he
conferred the regency in Austria proper and in the other lands
to his own son Albrecht. The latter appears already as a
matured man with a certain talent for ruling. He overthrew all
those who opposed them but, having done this, he bore no
malice and cherished no hostility. No one could be in doubt
but that for Albrecht, and for his house altogether, the king
thought to found there a separate territorial principality. To
begin with, the fiefs which the dukes of Austria had held of
the neighboring bishoprics, especially the Bavarian ones, were
conferred by Rudolph on his sons, other privileges in
compensation being granted to the bishoprics. The consent of
the electors, according to the new order of things, was
necessary in such a case, and the king next sought to gain
them over. … On December 27, 1282, he invested his sons
Albrecht and Rudolph in common with Austria, Styria, Carniola
and the Windischmark. …
{3686}
At the request of the Estates of those lands, who wished
neither a joint rule nor a separation from each other, Rudolph
in 1283 invested his son Albrecht alone with those four
provinces. To the younger Rudolph the promise of another
appanage or at least of a compensation was held out—a fatal
matter! For the son of this Rudolph was John the Parricide. It
was an event of the greatest import that in these
south-eastern marks of the empire the Babenbergers were
replaced by the Hapsburghs. The latter now, in consequence of
their all-decisive victory, turned their attention at the same
time to Bohemia and Hungary. Although neither in the one land
nor the other did they now actually attain their goal, yet
their efforts in this direction deserve our close attention as
being the first tokens of a policy that was most strongly to
affect the world's history. … One sees, even in these
unsuccessful attempts, the bold dynastic ambition of King
Rudolph; the kingdom of Arles, also, he had had in view for
one of his sons. The acquisition of Austria alone, indeed,
marks an epoch in itself; all the more so as only through this
did he gain the prestige which he needed to enable him to do
justice to his task as king of Germany. If this task be
regarded as having consisted chiefly in restoring and
maintaining the public peace after thirty years of utter
confusion, then, indeed, he showed himself completely equal to
it. … In short, through valor and steadfastness he strongly,
in internal matters, upheld the power of the empire.
Rebellions, indeed, were not wanting; now the archbishop of
Cologne, now the duke of Savoy revolted; now Bern or Colmar,
now the counts in Suabia and Burgundy. He overcame and humbled
them all. … He was a very tall, thin man, pale of countenance
and with very little hair on his small head; in all things
moderate and of a genial nature as was shown by his offering
to become the guest of artisans and by his darning his own
doublet. … When giving Austria to his son Albrecht who was to
try and establish here a dynastic power (Hausmacht), Rudolph
had really intended to give the German crown to his younger
son, Rudolph, and he might have put this through had not this
son died before himself. In May 1291 the king then held a diet
at Frankfort for the purpose of inducing the electors now to
give their vote to his son Albrecht. This he was unable to
bring about and with his hopes unrealized he died on the 15th
of July 1291. … After long preliminary negotiations between
the separate electors … the election took place on May 5th,
1292. Albrecht had not yet abandoned hope and had appeared in
the vicinity. … The electors laid down the principle that it
was not right for the son to directly follow the father on the
throne of the empire. … They chose again a simple count,
Adolphus of Nassau. … The less Adolphus fulfilled the
expectations of his electors … the more did he lose his
authority. … In short it appears that Adolphus's whole
attitude, his league with England, his conception of the
rights of the empire, the way he insulted ecclesiastical and
secular princes, his policy with regard to the majority of the
cities, caused a general ferment. … It was at a great assembly
of princes in Prague, where Mainz, Bohemia, Brandenburg and
Saxony met together that Albrecht's influence began to gain
the upper hand. Albrecht promised, in case he should become
king, to give to King Wenzel the conquests made by Adolphus in
Meissen. Albrecht and all his friends then girded themselves
up to conquer the empire. In April 1298 we find him in Alsace
opposing Adolphus who, however, still had the upper hand. The
archbishop of Mainz then summoned the electors to Mainz for
June 15 to consult about the disturbances in the empire. …
They determined now to depose the king whom they had elected.
This was done in the Thiergarten near Mainz on June 23, 1298.
… The battle for the possession of the empire took place on
July 2nd at Göllheim, where a stone cross still marks the
spot. … The kings wore the same coat-of-arms—yellow with a
black eagle—and bore the same banner. According to one
account, for which Albert of Strassburg is voucher, they came
into hand to hand conflict with each other. Adolphus cried
out: 'Here you will relinquish the Empire!' Albrecht answered
'The decision lies in the hand of God.' The one-eyed Albrecht
struck the surer blow, hitting his antagonist directly over
the eye. The blood ran down Adolphus s face; he fell and died.
Albrecht would never acknowledge that he had been the slayer
of the Lord's anointed. Be that as it may he won the crown for
himself on the battle-field. … Albrecht is altogether a
striking figure in German history. Everywhere, in the lowest
plains of Switzerland or in the highest mountains of
Switzerland he is busy in founding his dynastic power. Under
him the House of Austria made a vigorous beginning in the
matter of establishing a great and extensive authority in all
parts of the empire. … It was fatal for him that the harsh
want of consideration which forms the chief feature of his
sway as a statesman should have raised up a murderer against
him in his own immediate vicinity—in the person of his own
nephew."

_L. Ranke,
Weltgeschichte
(translated from the German),
volume 8, pages 566-601._

See, also, AUSTRIA (pages 199-201).

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1648-1715.
Relations with Germany and France.
See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1715.

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790.
Joseph II., the enthroned Philosopher.