Chapter LI: Book II (3)

While, therefore, (according to Peripatetics as well as Stoics) the love of self and of preserving one's own vitality and activity is the primary element, intuitive and connate, to which all rational preference (_officium_) was at first referred, they thought it not the less true that in process of time, by experience, association, and reflection, there grows up in the mind a grand acquired sentiment or notion, a new and later light, which extinguishes and puts out of sight the early beginning. It was important to distinguish the feeble and obscure elements from the powerful and brilliant after-growth; which indeed was fully realized only in chosen minds, and in them hardly before old age. This idea, when once formed in the mind, was The Good--the only thing worthy of desire for its own sake. The Stoics called it the only good, being sufficient in itself for happiness; other things being not good, nor necessary to happiness, but simply preferable or advantageous when they could be had: the Peripatetics recognized it as the first and greatest good, but said also that it was not sufficient in itself; there were two other inferior varieties of good, of which something must be had as complementary (what the Stoics called _præposita_ or _sumenda_).[1] Thus the Stoics said about the origin of the Idea of Bonum or Honestum, much the same as what Aristotle says about ethical Virtue. It is not implanted in us by nature; but we have at birth certain initial tendencies and capacities, which, if aided by association and training, enable us (and that not in all cases) to acquire it.

[Footnote 1: Aristotle and the Peripatetics held that there were _tria genera bonorum_: (1) Those of the mind (_mens sana_); (2) Those of the body; and (3) External advantages. The Stoics altered this theory by saying that only the first of the three was _bonum_; the others were merely _præposita_ or _sumenda_. The opponents of the Stoics contended that this was an alteration in words rather than in substance.

The earlier Stoics laid it down that there were no graduating marks below the level of wisdom: all shortcomings were on a par. Good was a point, Evil was a point; there were gradations in the _præposita_ or _sumenda_ (none of which were good), and in the _rejecta_ or _rejicienda_ (none of which were evil), but there was no more or less good.]

A distinction was made by Epictetus and other Stoics between things in our power and things not in our power. In our power are our opinions and notions about objects, and all our affections, desires, and aversions: not in our power are our bodies, wealth, honour, rank, authority, &c., and their opposites; though, in regard to these last, it is in our power to _think_ of them as unimportant. With this distinction we may connect the arguments between the Stoics and their opponents as to what is now called the Freedom of the Will. But we must first begin by distinguishing the two questions. By things in our power, the Stoics meant things that we could do or acquire if we willed: by things not in our power, they meant things that we could not do or acquire if we willed. In both cases, the volition was assumed as a fact: the question what determined it, or whether it was non-determined, _i. e._, self-determining, was not raised in the antithesis. But it was raised in other discussions between the Stoic theorist Chrysippus, and various opponents. These opponents denied that volition was determined by motives, and cited the cases of equal conflicting motives (what is known as the Ass of Buridan) as proving that the soul includes in itself, and exerts, a special supervenient power of deciding action in one way or the other--a power not determined by any causal antecedent, but self-originating, and belonging to the class of agency that Aristotle recognizes under the denomination of automatic, spontaneous (or essentially irregular and unpredictable). Chrysippus replied by denying not only the reality of this supervenient force said to be inherent in the soul, but also the reality of all that Aristotle called automatic or spontaneous agency generally. Chrysippus said that every movement was determined by antecedent motives; that in cases of equal conflict the exact equality did not long continue, because some new but slight motive slipped in unperceived and turned the scale on one side or the other.[2] Here, we see, the question now known as the Freedom of the Will is discussed, and Chrysippus declares against freedom, affirming that volition is always determined by motives.

[Footnote 2: See Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis, xxiii. p. 1045.]

But we also see that, while declaring this opinion, Chrysippus does not employ the terms Necessity or Freedom of the Will; neither did his opponents, so far as we can see: they had a different and less misleading phrase. By freedom, Chrysippus and the Stoics meant the freedom of doing what a man willed, if he willed it. A man is free as to the thing that is in his power, when he wills it: he is not free as to what is not in his power, under the same supposition. The Stoics laid great stress on this distinction. They pointed out how much it is really in a man's power to transform or discipline his own mind--in the way of controlling or suppressing some emotions, generating or encouraging others, forming new intellectual associations, &c.; how much a man could do in these ways, if he willed it, and if he went through the lessons, habits of conduct, and **meditations, suitable to produce such an effect. The Stoics strove to create in a man's mind the volitions appropriate for such mental discipline, by depicting the beneficial consequences resulting from it, and the misfortune and shame inevitable, if the mind were not so disciplined. Their purpose was to strengthen the governing reason of his mind, and to enthrone it as a fixed habit and character, which would control by counter suggestions the impulse arising at each special moment--particularly all disturbing terrors or allurements. This, in their view, is a free mind; not one wherein volition is independent of all motive, but one wherein the susceptibility to different motives is tempered by an ascendant reason, so as to give predominance to the better motive against the worse. One of the strongest motives that they endeavoured to enforce, was the prudence and dignity of bringing our volitions into harmony with the schemes of Providence; which (they said) were always arranged with a view to the happiness of the Kosmos on the whole. The bad man, whose volitions conflict with these schemes, is always baulked of his expectations, and brought at last against his will to see things carried by an over-ruling force, with aggravated pain and humiliation to himself: while the good man, who resigns himself to them from the first, always escapes with less pain, and often without any at all. As a portion of their view concerning Providence it may here be mentioned that the earlier Stoics, Zeno and Chrysippus, entertained high reverence for the divination, prophecy, and omens that were generally current in the ancient world. They considered that these were the methods whereby the gods were graciously pleased to make known beforehand revelations of their foreordained purposes. Herein lay one among the marked points of contrast between Stoics and Epikureans.

We have thus seen that in regard to the doctrine called in modern times the Freedom of the Will (_i.e._, that volitions are self-originating and unpredictable), the Stoic theorists not only denied it, but framed all their Ethics upon the assumption of the contrary. This same assumption of the contrary, indeed, was made also by Sokrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Epikurus; in short, by all the ethical teachers of antiquity. All of them believed that volitions depended on causes; that, under the ordinary conditions of men's minds, the causes that volitions generally depended upon are often misleading and sometimes ruinous; but that, by proper stimulation from without and meditation within, the rational causes of volition might be made to overrule the impulsive. Plato, Aristotle, Epikurus, not less than the Stoics, wished to create new fixed habits and a new type of character. They differed, indeed, on the question what the proper type of character was; but each of them aimed at the same general end--a new type of character, regulating the grades of susceptibility to different motives. And the purpose of all and each of these moralists precludes the theory of free-will, _i.e._, the theory that our volitions are self-originating and unpredictable.

While the Epikureans declined, as much as possible, interference in public affairs, the Stoic philosophers urged men to the duties of active citizenship.[3] Chrysippus even said that the life of philosophical contemplation (such as Aristotle preferred and accounted godlike) was to be placed on the same level with the life of pleasure; though Plutarch observes that neither Chrysippus nor Zeno ever meddled personally with any public duty: both of them passed their lives in lecturing and writing. The truth is that both of them were foreigners residing at Athens, and at a time when Athens was dependent on foreign princes. Accordingly, neither Zeno nor Chrysippus had any sphere of political action open to them: they were, in this respect, like Epictetus afterwards, but in a position quite different from Seneca, the preceptor of Nero, who might hope to influence the great imperial power of Rome, and from Marcus Antoninus, who held that imperial power in his own hands.

[Footnote 3: Tacitus says of the Stoics (Ann. xiv. 57): 'Stoicorum secta, quæ turbidos et negotiorum appetentes facit.']

Marcus Antoninus--not only a powerful emperor, but also the most gentle and amiable man of his day--talks of active beneficence both as a duty and a satisfaction. But in the creed of the Stoics generally, active beneficence did not occupy a prominent place. They adopted the four Cardinal Virtues--Wisdom, or the Knowledge of Good and Evil, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance--as part of their plan of the virtuous life, the life according to Nature. Justice, as the social virtue, was placed above all the rest. But the Stoics were not strenuous in requiring more than Justice, for the benefit of others beside the agent. They even reckoned compassion for the sufferings of others as a weakness, analogous to envy for the good fortune of others.

The Stoic recognised the gods (or Universal Nature, equivalent expressions in his creed) as managing the affairs of the world, with a view to producing as much happiness as was attainable on the whole. Towards this end the gods did not want any positive assistance from him; but it was his duty and his strongest interest, to resign himself to their plans, and to abstain from all conduct tending to frustrate them. Such refractory tendencies were perpetually suggested to him by the unreasonable appetites, emotions, fears, antipathies, &c., of daily life; all claiming satisfaction at the expense of future mischief to himself and others. To countervail these misleading forces by means of a fixed rational character built up through meditation and philosophical teaching, was the grand purpose of the Stoic ethical creed. The emotional or appetitive self was to be starved or curbed, and retained only as an appendage to the rational self; an idea proclaimed before in general terms by Plato, but carried out into a system by the Stoics, though to a great extent also by the Epikureans.

The Stoic was taught to reflect how much that appears to be desirable, terror-striking, provocative, &c., is not really so, but is made to appear so by false and curable associations. And, while he thus discouraged those self-regarding emotions that placed him in hostility with others, he learnt to respect the self of another man as well as his own. Epictetus advises to deal mildly with a man that hurts us either by word or deed; and advises it upon the following very remarkable ground:--"Recollect that in what he says or does, he follows his own sense of propriety, not yours. He must do what appears to him right, not what appears to you: if he judges wrongly, it is he that is hurt, for he is the person deceived. Always repeat to yourself, in such a case: The man has acted on his own opinion."

The reason here given by Epictetus is an instance, memorable in ethical theory, of respect for individual dissenting conviction, even in an extreme case; and it must be taken in conjunction with his other doctrine, that damage thus done to us unjustly is really little or no damage, except so far as we ourselves give pungency to it by our irrational susceptibilities and associations. We see that the Stoic submerges, as much as he can, the pre-eminence of his own individual self, and contemplates himself from the point of view of another, as only one among many. But he does not erect the happiness of others into a direct object of his own positive pursuit, beyond the reciprocities of family, citizenship, and common humanity. The Stoic theorists agreed with Epikurus in inculcating the reciprocities of Justice between all fellow-citizens; and they even went farther than he did, by extending the sphere of such duties beyond the limits of city, so as to comprehend all mankind. But as to the reciprocities of individual Friendship, Epikurus went beyond the Stoics in the amount of self-sacrifice and devotion that he enjoined for the benefit of a friend.

INDEX.

A.

Abduction (_Apagoge_), 202.

Abstract, and Concrete, appellatives not used by Aristotle, 64.

Abstraction, belongs to the Noëtic function, 486, 487, 492.

_Absurdum_, _Reductio ad_, _see_ _Reductio_.

Accentuation, Fallacy of 385; rare, 408.

_Accidens_, Ens _per_ &c., _see_ Accident, Ens.

_Accidentis Fallacia_, 386; not understood among Aristotle's scientific contemporaries, 390; how to solve, 410.

Accident, Ens by, 60, 424, 561, 593; modern definition of 62; an individual, allowed by Aristotle, 63; no science of, 98; one of the Predicables, 276; thesis of, easiest to defend, hardest to upset, 284, 353; thirty-seven dialectical _Loci_ bearing on, 285 seq.; why no science of, 425, 593, 594; one, cannot be accident of another, 586; opposed to the constant and the usual, 594; Chance, principle or cause of, 594; _see_ Concomitants.

Action (_Agere_), Category, 65, 73.

Actuality, as opposed to Potentiality, 128, 456, 615 seq.

_Adoxa_, opposed to _Endoxa_, 269.

Æon, of the Heaven, 636.

Æther, derivation of the name, 632.

Affirmation, conjunction of predicate with subject, 111; constituents of, 118; [Greek: e)k metathe/seôs] (Theophrastus), 122, 169.

Akroamatic books, opposed to Exoteric, 50.

Alcuin, followed Aristotle on Universals, 563.

Alexander of Macedon, taught by Aristotle from boyhood, 5; came to the throne, and went on his first Persian expedition, 6; his action towards Athens, 8; correspondent, protector, patron, of Aristotle at Athens, 7, 8; later change in his character and alienation from Aristotle, 9; his order for the recall of exiles throughout Greece, 10; his death, 7, 12.

Alexandrine, _literati_, their knowledge of Aristotle, 34, 38, 40, 42.

_Aliquid_, _Ad_, _see_ Relation; _Hoc_, or the definite individual, _see_ Essence.

Alkmæon, his view of the soul, 449.

Ammonius, put Relation above all the Categories, 84; his opinion on last paragraph of De Interpretatione, 134.

Amphiboly, Fallacy of, 385; how to solve, 407.

Amyntas, king of Macedon, 2.

Analytica, referred to in Topica, 56; presuppose contents of Categoriæ and De Interpretatione, 56; terminology of, differs from that of De Interpretatione, 141; purpose of, 141.

Analytica Priora, different sections of Book I., 157, 163; relation of the two books of, 171.

Analytica Posteriora, applies Syllogism to Demonstration, 142, 207; relation of, to the Metaphysica, 422.

Anaxagoras, doctrine of, inconsistent with Maxim of Contradiction, 429, 592; disregarded data of experience, 436; his view of the soul, 449; Maxim of Excluded Middle defended by Aristotle specially against, 581; made intelligence dependent on sense, 588; doctrine of, makes all propositions false, 592; must yet admit an infinite number of true propositions, 592; meant by his Unum--Ens Potentiâ, and thus got partial hold of the idea of Matter, 620; in his doctrine of the Noûs, makes Actuality prior to Potentiality, 623; declares Good to be the principle as Movent, 628; called fire Æther, 632; his reason for the stationariness of the Earth, 649.

Anaximander, his reason for stationariness of the Earth, 650.

Anaximenes, his reason for stationariness of the Earth, 649.

Andronikus of Rhodes, source of our Aristotle, 35; sorted and corrected the Aristotelian MSS. at Rome, 37, 39; Peripatetic Scholarch, 39; difficulties of his task--the result appreciated, 43; placed theological treatises first, 55; put Relation above all the Categories, 84.

Animâ, Treatise de, referred to in the De Interpretatione, 109.

Anonymus, his catalogue of Aristotle's works, compared with that of Diogenes and with the extant works, 29 seq.

Antipater, friend and correspondent of Aristotle, 7, 8; victor in the Lamian war, occupied Athens, 12; letter to, from Aristotle at Chalkis, 16; letter of, in praise of Aristotle, 16; executor under Aristotle's Will, 17.

_Antiphasis_, pair of contradictory opposites, 111; rule of, as regards truth and falsity, 112, 113; made up of one affirmation and one negation corresponding, 113; does not hold for events particular and future, because of irregularity in the Kosmos, 113 seq.; quaternions exhibiting each two related cases of, 118 seq., 170; forms of, in Modals, 127; involves determination of quantity, 135; not understood before Aristotle, 136; the two members of, can neither be both true nor both false, argued at length by Aristotle in Metaph**. [Greek: G]., ii. 586-92.

Antisthenes, declared contradiction impossible, 136, 137; allowed definition only of compounds, 611.

Antonius, Marcus, authority for Stoical creed, 654; on active beneficence, 662.

_Apagoge_ (Abduction), 202.

Apellikon, of Teos, a Peripatetic, bought Aristotle's MSS., &c., from heirs of Neleus, 36; exposed them at Athens and had copies taken, 36; wrote a biography of Aristotle, 37; library of, composite, 43.

_Aplanês_, exterior sphere of the Kosmos, 114, 623.

[Greek: A)po/phansis], Enunciation, name for Proposition in De Interpretatione, 141.

Appetite, the direct producing cause of movement in animals, 492.

Archytas, made _Habere_ fifth Category, 80.

Arguments, how to find, for different theses, 157.

Arimnestus, brother of Aristotle, 19.

Aristippus, anticipated Epikurus, 654.

Aristomenes, friend of Aristotle, 17.

Aristophanes, of Byzantium, arranged dialogues of Plato, 34; on the style of Epikurus, 658.

'_Aristoteles Pseudepigraphus_,' work by V. Rose, 32.

Aristotle, birth and parentage, 1, 2; opportunities for physiological study, 2; an orphan in youth, became ward of Proxenus, 8; discrepant accounts as to his early life, 3; medical practice, 3; under Plato at Athens, 4; went to Atarneus, on Plato's death, 4; married Pythias, 5; driven out to Mitylene, 5; invited by Philip of Macedon to become tutor to Alexander, 5; life in Macedon, 5; re-founded Stageira, 6; taught in the Nymphæum of Mieza, 6; returned to Athens, and set up his school in the Lykeium, 7; lecturing and writing, 7, 25; correspondence, 7; relation to Athenian polities, 8; protected and patronized at Athens by Alexander and Antipater, 8; in spite of estrangement between him and Alexander, regarded always as unfriendly to Athenian liberty, 9, 10; his relation to Nikanor, bearer of Alexander's rescript to the Greek cities, 11; indicted for impiety in his doctrines and his commemoration of the eunuch Hermeias, 12, 13; retired to Chalkis, 14; died there, before he could return to Athens, 15; wrote a defence against the charge of impiety, 15; his judgment on Athens and Athenians, 16; his person, habits, manners, &c., 16; his second wife, son, and daughter, 17; last testament, 17-19; his character as therein exhibited, 19; reproaches against, 20; his opposition to Plato misrepresented by **Platonists, 20, 21; a student and teacher of rhetoric, 22; attacked Isokrates, 24; assailed by three sets of enemies, 26; difficulty in determining the Canon of his works as compared with Plato's, 27; extant works ascribed to, 27; ancient authorities for his works, 28; catalogue and extent of his works, according to Diogenes, 29; according to Anonymus, 29; the catalogues compared with each other, and with list of his extant works, 29, 30; ancient encomiums on his style, 30; his principal works unknown to Cicero and others, 31, 40; dialogues and other works of, lost to us, 31; works in the catalogue are declared by V. Rose not to belong to, 32; different opinion of E. Heitz, 32; allowance to be made for diversity of style, subject, &c., in the works of, 33; works in the catalogue to be held as really composed by, 34; extant works of, whence derived, 35; fate of his library and MSS. on his death, till brought to Rome and cared for by Andronikus, 35 seq.; through Andronikus, became known as we know him, 40; not thus known to the Alexandrine librarians, 42; so-called Exoteric works of, 44; his own use of the phrase "exoteric discourses," 46 seq.; had not two doctrines--the Exoteric and Esoteric, 52; the order of his extant works uncertain, 54; his merit in noting equivocation of terms, 57; not free from fascination by particular numbers, 74; first made logical analysis of Ens, 97; first to treat Logic scientifically, 130; what he did for theory of Proposition, 136, 139; claimed the theory of Syllogism as his own work, 140, 153, 259, 420; his expository manner, novel and peculiar, 141; specialized the meaning of Syllogism, 143; first to ask if a proposition could be converted, 144; first used letters as symbols in exposition, 148; proceeded upon, but modified, Platonic antithesis of Science and Opinion, 207, 264; specially claimed to be original in his theory of Dialectic, 262, 418; attended to current opinion, drew up list of proverbs, 272, 440; started in his philosophy from the common habit of speech, 434, 440; continued the work of Sokrates, 439, 441; devised a First Philosophy conformable to the habits of common speech, starting from the definite individual or _Hoc Aliquid_, 445; psychology of, must be compared with that of his predecessors, 446; rejected all previous theories on Soul, 452; advance made in the Ontology of, 561; his view of pleasure, 660; ethical purpose of, 662.

Arithmetic, _præcognita_ required in, 212; abstracted from material conditions, 234; simpler, and therefore more accurate, than geometry, 234.

Art, Generation from, 598, 620.

Asklepiads, traditional training of, 2.

Association of Ideas, principles of, 477; Aristotle's account of, perplexed by his sharp distinction of Memory and Reminiscence, 478.

Astronomy, the mathematical science most akin to First Philosophy, 626.

Atarneus, Aristotle there, 4.

Attalid kings of Pergamus, Aristotle's library at Skepsis buried, to be kept hidden from, 36.

Axioms, assumed in Demonstration, 212, 215, 220; a part of Demonstration, 219; not always formally enunciated, 221; those common to all sciences, scrutinized by Dialectic, 221, 575; and by First Philosophy, 221, 425, 575, 584; the common, not alone sufficient for Demonstration in the special sciences, 236; use of the word before, and by, Aristotle, 566, 575, 584.

B.

Bees, partake in Noûs, 483, 576.

Belief, at variance with Knowledge, 182; founded on evidence either syllogistic or inductive, 187.

Berlin edition of Aristotle, 27, 30.

Bernays, his view of "exoteric discourses," 49, 52.

Body, animate and inanimate, 456; Matter with Aristotle may be, but is not necessarily, 456; thorough-going implication of Soul with, in animated subject, 458 seq.; has three and only three dimensions, 630; no infinite, 633.

Boëthius, translated Aristotle's Categoriæ and defended its position, 563.

Boêthus the Sidonian, student of Aristotle, 38; his recommendation as to order of studying the works, 55.

Bonitz, his view of the canon of the Metaphysica, 583.

Brain, specially connected with the olfactory organ, 470; function of the, 480.

Brandis, refers catalogue of Diogenes to Alexandrine _literati_, 34, 40; his view of the canon of the Metaphysica, 583.

Bryson, his quadrature of the circle, 381.

C.

Canon, Aristotelian, _see_ Aristotle.

Categoriæ, the treatise, not mentioned in Analytica or Topica, 56; subject of, how related to that of De Interpretatione, 57, 59, 108, 109; deals with Ens in a sense that blends Logic and Ontology, 62, 108; difference of Aristotle's procedure in, compared with Physica and Metaphysica, 65, 103; probably an early composition, 80; remained known, when other works of Aristotle were unknown or neglected, 563.

Categories, Ten, assumed in Analytica and Topica, 56; led up to by a distinction of Entia (Enunciata), 59; blending together Logic and Ontology, 62; Ens according to the, 61, 425, 594 seq. (Metaph. Z., [Greek: Ê].); enumerated, 65; all embodied in First or Complete Ens, 66, 595; each a Summum Genus, and some wider still, 66; not all mutually exclusive, 66, 73, 81, 89; may be exemplified, not defined, 66; how arrived at, 66, 76 seq.; joined by later logicians with the Predicables, 73; stress laid by Aristotle upon the first four, 74; why Ten in number--might have been more, 74 seq.; obtained by logical, not metaphysical, analysis, 76; heads of information or answers respecting an individual, 77; inference **as to true character of, from case of _Habere_ and _Jacere_, 79; all, even **the first, involve Relativity, 80 seq.; Mr. J. S. Mill on, 90 n.; capital distinction between the first and all the rest, 91 seq., 563, 594; Trendelenburg's view of their origin, 99, likely and plausible, 99; compared with Categories of the Stoics, 100, 563, of Plotinus, 102, 563, of Galen, 103.

Cause, Knowledge of, distinguished from knowledge of Fact, 223; knowledge of, the perfection of cognition, 224, 235; one of the four heads of Investigation, 238; nature of the question as to, 239, 608; substantially the same enquiry with _Cur_, _Quid_, and the Middle Term, 240, 246; four varieties of, 245, 611, 621; relation among the varieties of, 246; how far reciprocal with the _causatum_, 247, 254; has an effect only one? 254; the General Notion viewed by Aristotle as a, 422.

Chance, source of irregularity in the Kosmos, 114, 206; affects the rule of Antiphasis, 115; Aristotle's doctrine of, challenged, 116; objective correlate to the Problematical Proposition, 133, 205; principle or cause of Accidents, 594; Generations and Constructions proceeding from, 598, 620.

Change, four varieties of, 609.

Chrysippus, on the determination of will by motives, 661; his reverence for divination, &c., 662; a foreigner at Athens, without a sphere of political action, 662.

Cicero, his encomium on Aristotle's style, 30, 41; how far he knew Aristotle's works, 30, 31, 33, 40, 50; his use of the word "exoteric," 44, 51.

Claudian, referred to, 13.

Coelo, Treatise de, connected with what other works, 54, 653.

Colour, object of vision, action of, 466; varieties of, proceeding all from white and black, 467.

Common Sense, or Opinion, opposed to Science in Plato and Aristotle, 207; Sir W. Hamilton on, 565; legitimate meaning of, 567; authoritative character of, in one place allowed by Aristotle, 569; Aristotle's conception of, as devoid of scientific authority, 573, 574.

Compound, The ([Greek: to\ su/nolon]), of Form and Matter, or the Individual, 445, 456, 599 seq.

Concealment, how to be practised by dialectical questioner, 356.

Conclusion, of Syllogism, indicates Figure, 152, 164, 167; when more than one, 171; true, from false premisses, 172 use to demonstrate premisses, 173; reversed to refute premisses, 174; kinds of, in Demonstration, compared, 231.

Concomitants, non-essential, no demonstration of, 219; no definition of, 220; near to Non-Entia, 561; little more than a name, 593; _see_ Accident.

Concrete, and Abstract, appellatives not used by Aristotle, 65; the, as compound of Form and Matter, 456 seq.; _see_ Compound.

Conjunction, Fallacy of, 385; how to solve, 408.

_Consequentis Fallacia_, 388; not understood before Aristotle, 390; how to solve, 412.

Construction, kind of Generation, 598.

Contradiction, Maxim or Axiom of, depends upon knowledge of quantity and quality of propositions, 137, 441; not self-evident, 144; among the _præcognita_ of Demonstration, 212, 427; not formally enunciated in any special science, 221; discussion of, belongs to First Philosophy, 422, 425, why, 426, 579; enunciated, as highest and firmest of all principles, 425, 585; controverted by Aristotle's predecessors, Herakleitus, Anaxagoras, &c., 427, 429, 441; Aristotle's indirect proof of, 427 seq., 585 seq.; applied in the Sokratic Elenchus, 441; remarks on Aristotle's defence of, 442; can be supported only by an induction of particular instances, 443; enunciated both as a logical and as an ontological formula, 579; defended by Aristotle specially against Herakleitus, 579.

Contradictory Opposites, pair of, make Antiphasis, 111; distinguished from Contrary Opposites, 111, 124, 134; rule of, as to truth and falsity, 112; related pairs of, set forth in quaternions, 118 seq., 170; distinction of from Contrary, fundamental in Logic, 137; _see_ _Antiphasis_.

_Contrariorum_, _Petitio_, in Dialectic, 372.

Contrary Opposites (terms), 104; Opposites (propositions), distinguished from Contradictory, 111, 124, 134; rule of as to truth and falsity, 112.

Conversion (1) of Propositions, import of, 144; rules for, with Aristotle's defective proof thereof, 144 seq.; can be proved only by Induction, 146, 147; (2) of Syllogism, 174.

Copula, _Est_ as, 127, 591.

Courage, definition of, 525.

D.

Debate, four species of, 377.

Definition, among the _præcognita_ assumed in Demonstration, 212, 214, 220, 221; propositions declaring, attained only in First figure, 224; of Essence that depends on extraneous cause, 240-44; of Essence without such middle Term, 245; three varieties of, 245; how to frame a, 249; as sought through logical Division, 250; to exclude equivocation, 251; one of the Predicates, according to Aristotle, 276; thesis of, easiest to attack, hardest to defend, 285, 353; dialectical Loci bearing on, 329 seq.; how open to attack or defence, 330; defects in the setting out of, 330; faults in the substance of, 332-48; the genuine and perfect, 333; general rule for dialectically testing, 349; is primarily of Essences, of the other Categories not directly, 597; none, of particular Concretes, 602, 606; is of the Universal or Form, 603; whence the unity of the, 604, 612; none, of eternal Essences, 607; analogy of, to Number, 611.

Delboeuf, Prof., on indemonstrable truths, 229 n.

Demades, with Phokion at the head of the Athenian administration under Alexander, 12.

Demochares, nephew of Demosthenes, accuser of Aristotle, 14.

Demokritus, disregarded experience, 436; his view of the soul, 449; made intelligence dependent on sense, which is ever varying, 588; recognized one primordial body with three differences--figure, position, arrangement, 609; got partial hold of the idea of Ens Potentiâ or Matter, 620; atomic doctrine of, 634; his reason for the stationariness of the Earth, 649; how followed by Epikurus, 656-58.

Demonstrative Science, _see_ Demonstration.

Demonstration, ultimately reducible to two first modes of First figure, 155; circular, 173, 215; subject of Analyt. Post. 207; how opposed to Dialectic, 209, 573; is teaching from _præcognita_ assumed, 211, 214; undemonstrable principles of, 215; two doctrines of, opposed by Aristotle, 215, 228; necessary premisses of, 216; conclusion of, must be necessary, 218; none, of nonessential concomitants, 219; the parts of, 219; premisses of, must be essential and appropriate, 220; requires admission of universal predicates, 221; premisses for, obtained only from Induction, 226, 258, 260, 576; implies some truths primary or ultimate, 227, 230; the unit in, 231; of the Universal better than of the Particular, 231; Affirmative better than Negative, 233; Direct better than Indirect, 234; is of the necessary or customary, not of the fortuitous, 235, 606; none, through sensible perception, 235; in default of direct observation, 230; relation of, to Definition, 240; _principia_ of, not innate, 256; _principia_ of, how developed upon sensible perception, 256, 575.

Demophilus, joined in indicting Aristotle for impiety, 12.

Demosthenes, reproached for conversing with the bearer of Alexander's rescript to the Greek cities, 11; suicide of, 12.

Desire, _see_ Appetite.

Dexippus, vindicated Aristotle's Categories,103, 563.

Dialectic, how related to Science or Philosophy, 47, 210, 272, 273; form of putting questions in, 125, 275; theses in, variously liable to attack and defence, 156, 285, 352; as conceived by Plato, 208, 263; by Aristotle placed with Rhetoric in the region of Opinion, 208, 266, 573; opposed to Demonstrative Science and Necessary Truth, 209, 573; concerned about the Common Axioms of all Science, 221, 272, 574, 584; Aristotle claims to be specially original in his theory of, 262, 418; as conceived and practised by Sokrates, 263, 436; opposed by Aristotle to Didactic, 264, 377; province of, 266, 573; essentially contentious, 266, 378, 397; uses of, 271, 574; propositions, how classified in, 276; procedure of, in contrast with that of Philosophy, 353, 584; conditions and aims of the practice of, 354, 361, 378; to be practised as a partnership for common intellectual profit, 355, 367; part of the questioner in, 355 seq.; part of the respondent in, 361 seq.; respondent at fault in, 366; questioner at fault in, 367; four kinds of false argument in, 370; outfit for practice of, 372; one of four species of debate, 377; when and why called eristic or sophistic by Aristotle, 379; Aristotle's distinction of Sophistic from, contested, 382, 393 seq.

Dialogues of Aristotle lost, 30, 32, 49.

Diaphanous, action of the, in vision, 466.

_Dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter_,_Fallacia a_, 386; how to solve, 412.

Didactic, confounded by Plato with Dialectic, 264; distinguished from Dialectic by Aristotle, 264, 377; species of Debate, 377; scope and conditions. Of, 377; _see_ also Demonstration.

Differences, study of, an organon of debate, 280.

Differentia, not _in_, but _predicated of_, a Subject, 68; ranked with Genus in Aristotle's list of Predicables, 276; discriminated from Genus, 313; definition of Species through Genus and, 333, 601; is Form in the definition, 604; logically prior to the Species, 607.

Diogenes of Apollonia, his view of the soul, 449.

Diogenes Laertius, his catalogue of Aristotle's works, 28, compared with that of Anonymus, 29; ignorant of the principal works of Aristotle known to us, 31; catalogue of, probably of Alexandrine origin, 34, 41.

Dionysius, younger of Syracuse, visited by Plato, 4; corresponded with Plato, 7.

Dionysodorus, the Sophist, 383.

Dioteles, friend of Aristotle, 17.

[Greek: Dio/ti, To/], the _Why_, knowledge of, 223, one of the four heads of Investigation, 238; in search for a middle term, 239; relation of, to the question _Quid_, 239; _see_ Cause.

Disjunction, Fallacy of, 385; how to solve, 408.

Division Logical, weakness of, 163, 242; use of, to obtain a definition, 250.

E.

Ear, structure of the, 468.

Earth, opinions as to positions of, 648; opinions as to its state of motion or rest, figure, &c., 649 seq.; at rest in the centre of the Kosmos, 652; necessarily spherical, 652. 653; size of, 653.

Eclipse, lunar, illustration of Causation from, 254, 611.

Education of the citizen, 543.

Efficient Cause, 245.

Elenchus, of Sokrates, 263, 437; in general, 376; the Sophistical, 376, 404 directions for solving the Sophistical, 404.

Emotions, not systematically treated by Aristotle as part of Psychology, but in Ethics and Rhetoric, 492.

Empedokles, his disregard of experience, 436; his view of the soul, 449; criticized by Aristotle, 451; made intelligence dependent on sense, 588; got partial hold of the idea of Ens Potentiâ or Matter, 620; his principle of Friendship, 623, 628; held the Kosmos to be generated and destroyed alternately, 637; held the Heaven to be kept in its place by extreme velocity of rotation, 639, 650.

End, _see_ Final Cause.

_Endoxa_, premisses of Dialectic, 269; not equivalent to the Probable, 270; collections to be made of, 275, as an _organon_ of debate, 278.

Energy, _see_ Entelechy.

Ens, four kinds of, viewed with reference to Proposition, and as introductory to the Categories, 59; _quatenus_ Ens, subject of First Philosophy, 59, 422, 583; a homonymous, equivocal, or multivocal word, 60, 424, 594; not a _Summum Genus_, but a _Summum Analogon_, 60, 584; four main aspects of, in Ontology, 60, 424; (1) _Per Accidens_, 593; (2) in the sense of Truth, 108, 594, 618; (3) Potential and Actual, 614-18 (Metaph. [Greek: Th]); (4) according to the Categories, 594 seq. (Metaph. Z, [Greek: Ê]; relation among the various aspects of, 61, 424; aspects (1) and (2) lightly treated in Metaphysica, belonging more to Logic, 61; in aspect (4) Logic and Ontology blended, 62; in the fullest sense, 66, 67, 96; first analyzed in its logical aspect by Aristotle, 97; as conceived in earliest Greek thought, 97, 436; Plato's doctrine of, 552 seq.; Aristotle's doctrine of, 561.

_Enstasis_ (Objection), 202.

Entelechy, Soul the first, of a natural organized body, 458; _see_ Actuality.

Enthymeme, The, 202.

Enunciative speech, 109; _see_ Proposition.

Epictetus, authority for Stoical creed, 654; his distinction of things in, and not in, our power, 661; his respect for dissenting conviction, 663.

Epikurus, doctrine of, imperfectly reported, 654; his standard of Virtue and Vice, 654; ethical theory of, anticipated, 654; subordinated bodily pain and pleasure to mental, 654; fragment of his last letter, 654; his views on Death and the Gods, 655, 657; founded Justice and Friendship upon Reciprocity, 655; specially inculcated Friendship, 656; duration and character of his sect, 656; his theory misnamed, and hence misunderstood, 656; modified atomic theory of Demokritus with an ethical purpose, 657; his writings, 657, 658; provided by atomic deflection (not for Freedom of Will but) for the unpredictable phenomena of nature, 658; his view of the nature of Truth, 658; disregarded logical theory, 658.

Equivocation, of terms, 57; detection of, an organon of debate, 279; Fallacy of, 385; how to solve Fallacy of, 407; perhaps most frequent of all fallacies, 414.

Eric, of Auxerre, followed Aristotle on Universals, 563.

Eristic, given as one of the four Species of Debate, 377; really a variety or aspect of Dialectic, 377, 379.

Error, liabilities to, in (the form of) Syllogism, 176; in the matter of premisses, 181; particular, within knowledge of the universal, 183; three modes of, 184, modes of, in regard to propositions as Immediate or Mediate, 225.

Esoteric doctrine, as opposed to Exoteric, 52.

Essence (Substance), degrees of, 63, 561; first and fundamental Category, 65, 67; First, or Hoc Aliquid, subject, never predicate, 67, 18, 561; Second, _predicated of_, not _in_, First, 68; Third, 68; has itself no contrary, but receives alternately contrary accidents, 69, 83; relativity of, as a subject for predicates, 83, 91 seq.; First, shades through Second into quality, 91; priority of, as subject over predicate, logical, not real, 93; treated in Metaphys. Z, 595 seq.

Essence (Quiddity), propositions declaring, attained only in First figure of Syllogism, 224; one of the four _quæsita_ in Science, 238; nature of the question as to, 239; how related to the question _Cur_, 240; in all cases undemonstrable, but declared through syllogism, where it has an extraneous cause, 244; variously given in the Definition, 245; a variety of Cause (Formal) 245, 611; treated in Metaphys. Z, 595 seq.

Essential predication, how distinguished by Aristotle from Non-Essential, 65.

_Est_, double meaning of, 126.

Ethics, Aristotle's treatise on, analyzed, 495 seq.; uncertainty and obscurity of the subject, 497; Ethical science the supreme good of the individual citizen, 500; fundamental defect in Aristotle's theory, 514, 519; first principles how acquired in, 578.

Eubulides, wrote in reproach of Aristotle, 20.

'Eudêmus,' Dialogue of Aristotle's, 52.

Eudêmus, disciple of Aristotle, knew logical works of his now lost, 56; wrote on logic, 56; followed Aristotle in treating Modals, 144; his proof of the convertibility of Universal Negative, 146; on the negative function of Dialectic, 284.

Eudoxus, anticipated ethical theory of Epikurus, 654.

Eumêlus, asserted that Aristotle took poison, 15.

Eurymedon, the Hierophant, indicted Aristotle for impiety, 12.

Euthydemus, the Sophist, 383.

Example, the Syllogism from, 191; Induction an exaltation of, 197; results in Experience, 198.

Excluded Middle, Maxim of, not self-evident, 144; among the _præcognita_ of Demonstration, 212; supplement or correlative of Maxim of Contradiction, 426; enunciated both as a logical, and as an ontological, formula, 579; vindicated by Aristotle specially against Anaxagoras, 581, 590 seq.

Existence, one of the four heads of Investigation, 238.

Exoteric, the works so called, how understood by Cicero, 44; how by the critics, 45; "discourse," meaning of in Aristotle himself, 46 seq.; opposed to Akroamatic, 50; doctrine, as opposed to Esoteric, 52.

[Greek: E)xôterikoi\ lo/goi], allusions to, in Aristotle, 46 seq.

Experience, inference from Example results in, 198; place of, in Mr. J. S. Mill's theory of Ratiocination, 199; basis of science, 199; is of particular facts, 576.

_Expetenda_, dialectical _Loci_ bearing on, 296 seq.

Eye, structure of the, 466.

F.

Fact, knowledge of, distinguished from knowledge of Cause, 223, 235; one of the four heads of Investigation, 238; nature of question as to, 239; assumed in question as to Cause, 239, 608.

Fallacies, subject of Sophistici Elenchi, 377; incidental to the human **intellect, often hard to detect, not mere traps, 383, 395, 404; operated through language, 384; classified, 385; (1) _Dictionis_ or _In Dictione_, 385; (2) _Extra Dictionem_ 385 seq.; may all be brought to _Ignoratio Elenchi_, 390; current among Aristotle's contemporaries, 391; _In Dictione_, how to solve, 409 seq. _Extra Dictionem_, how to solve, 410 seq.

Falsehood, Non-Ens in the sense of, 60; &c.; _see_ Truth and Ens.

Favorinus, 35.

_Figura Dictionis_, Fallacy of, 385; how to solve, 408.

Figure of Syllogism, 148; First, 148; alternative ways of enunciating, 148; Modes of, 149; valid modes of First, 149; invalid modes of First, how set forth by Aristotle, 150; Second and its modes, 151; Third and its modes, 152; superiority of First, 152, 153, 224; indicated by the Conclusion, 153, 164, 167; all Demonstration ultimately reducible to two first modes of First, 154; Reduction of Second and Third, 168; in Second and Third, conclusion possible from contradictory premisses, 175; knowledge of Cause, also propositions declaring Essence and Definition, attained in the first, 224.

Final Cause, 246, 611.

Forchhammer, his view of "exoteric discourse," 49.

Form, joint-factor with Matter, a variety of Cause, 245, 611; in the intellectual generation of the Individual, 445, 598 seq.; and Matter, distinction of, a capital feature in Aristotle's First Philosophy, 454, 594 seq. (from Metaph. Book Z onwards); relation of, to Matter, 455; as the Actual, 455, 616; the Soul is, 457, 460; the Celestial Body, the region of, 480.

_Fugienda_, dialectical _Loci_ bearing on, 296 seq.

G.

Galen, his list of Categories, 103.

Gellius, A., his distinction of Exoteric and Akroamatic books, 50.

Generable, the senses of, 637.

Generation, the doctrine of, 598 seq., 620.

Generatione et Corruptione, Treatise de, connected with what other works, 54, 653 n.

Genus, is Second Essence, 63; or more strictly Third Essence, 67; in a Demonstration, 219; division of a, 250; one of the Predicables, 276, 284; dialectical _Loci_ bearing on, 302 seq.; not often made subject of debate, but important for Definition, 302; distinguished from Differentia, 312; perfect definition through, and Differentiæ, 333; easier to attack than to defend, 352; is Matter in a definition, 604; logically prior to the Species, 607.

Geometry, use of diagrams in, 167, 618; _præcognita_ required in, 212.

Gorgias, style of, 22.

Gryllion, sculptor named in Aristotle's will, 19.

Gymnastics, as part of education, 544.

H.

_Habere_, Category, 66, 73; sometimes dropt by Aristotle, 74, 80; entitled with the others to a place, 78; refers primarily to a Man, 79; is also understood more widely by Aristotle, 79, 103; exclusively so by some Aristotelians, 80; ranked fifth by Archytas, 80.

_Habitus_ and _Privatio_, case of _Opposita_, 104, 105.

Hamilton, Sir W., on Modals in Logic, 130, 200; wavers in his use of the term Common Sense, 565; points on which he misrepresents Aristotle, 565, 566; real question between, and the Inductive School, 567; the passages upon the strength of which he numbers Aristotle among the champions of authoritative Common Sense, examined _seriatim_, 568 seq.

Happiness, Aristotle's definition of, examined, 501 seq.; happiness of the individual and of society distinct, 517.

Hearing, operated through a medium, 167.

Heart, organ of Sensation generally, 464, 472, 474, specially of Touch, 472.

Heaven (Kosmos), always in action, 617; uppermost place in, assigned to the Gods, 632; revolving in a circle, cannot be infinite, 633; no body outside of, 634, 636; there cannot be more than one, 634; different senses of, 636; ungenerated and indestructible, 637-39; directions in the, 640; whence the number of revolutions in, 641; necessarily spherical, 611, 645; motion of, uniform, 642.

Heavy, distinguished from Light, 631.

Heitz, Emil, takes ground against V. Rose on the catalogue of Diogenes, 32; refers it to Alexandrine _literati_, 34, 40.

Herakleitus, philosophy of, inconsistent with the Maxim of Contradiction, 427, 429, 592; disregarded data of experience, 436, 444; position of, inexpugnable by general argument, 443; his view of the soul, 449; his view of the world of sense and particulars, 551; not a dialectician, 551; Maxim of Contradiction defended by Aristotle specially against, 579; the doctrine of, makes all propositions true, 592; must yet admit an infinite number of false propositions, 592; held the Kosmos to be generated and destroyed alternately, 636.

Hermeias, despot of Atarneus and Assos, friend of Aristotle, 4; commemorated after death by Aristotle in a hymn and epigram, 5, 12, 13.

Hermippus, drew up catalogue of pupils of Isokrates, 21; probable author of the catalogue in Diogenes, 34, 35.

Herpyllis, second wife of Aristotle, 17, 18.

Hipparchus, friend of Aristotle, 17.

Hippokrates, his quadrature of the circle, 381.

Hobbes, his definition of Accident, 62.

Homer, made intelligence dependent on sense, 588.

_Homo Mensura_, doctrine of Protagoras, held by Aristotle to be at variance with Maxim of Contradiction, 430 seq., 580, 587 seq.

Homonymous things, 57.

Homonymy (Equivocation), Fallacy of, 385; how to solve, 407.

Hypereides, executed, 12.

Hypothesis, Syllogisms from, 160, 168; as a principle of Demonstration, 215, 221.

I.

Iamblichus, defended Aristotle's Categories, 563.

Ideas, Platonic Theory of, not required for Demonstration, 221; as set forth by Plato himself, 553; psychological ground for, 554; objections urged against, in Sophistes and Parmenides, 556 seq.; objections urged by Aristotle against, 558; allusions to in books of the Metaphysica, 595, 598, 600, 603, 606, 607, 612, 617, 619, 620.

_Idem_, three senses of, 277, 350; a topic in First Philosophy, 584.

Identity, Maxim of, among the _præcognita_ of Demonstration, 212.

Idomeneus, letter to, from Epikurus, 654.

_Ignoratio Elenchi_, Fallacy of, 387; all fallacies may be brought to, 390; how to solve, 412.

Immortality, not of the individual, 462, 489, 490.

Immoveable, essence, subject of Ontology, also of Mathematics, 423, 593, 619; Prime Movent, 624.

_Impossibile_, _Reductio ad_, _see_ _Reductio_.

Impossible, The, senses of, 638; differs from the False, 638.

Induction, sole proof of the rules for converting propositions, 146, 147; everything believed through Syllogism or upon, 187, 194, 226; the Syllogism from or out of, 187 seq.; the opposite of genuine Syllogism, 190; plainer and clearer to us, than Syllogism, 191; Aristotle's attempt to reduce, to syllogistic form, 192, 193; wanting in the first requisite of Syllogism--necessity of sequence, 193, 197; presupposed in Syllogism, 194; the antithesis of, to Syllogism, obscured by Aristotle's treatment, 198, 199; as part of the whole process of Scientific Inference, 199, 201; true character of, apprehended by Aristotle, but not followed out, 199, 200; Logic of, neglected by the expositors after Aristotle till modern times, 200; requisites to a Logic of, 201; supplies the premisses of Demonstration, starting from particulars of sense, 226, 258, 259, 562, 576; repeated and uncontradicted, gives maximum of certainty, 260; process of, culminates in the infallible Noûs, 259-61; procedure by way of, in Dialectic, 358; most suitable to a young beginner in Dialectic, 374.

Inductive School, exact question between the, and Sir W. Hamilton, 567.

Infinite, the, exists only potentially, not actually except in a certain way for our cognition, 615; no body is, 632 seq.

Intellect, _see_ Noûs.

_Intellectus Agens_, relation of, to the _Patiens_, 488, 489; eternal and immortal, but not in the individual, 488, 489.

_Intellectus Patiens_, relation to the _Agens_, 488, 489; belongs to and perishes with the individual, 488, 489.

Interpretatione, Treatise de, not named, but its contents presupposed, in Analytica and Topica, 56; subject of, how related to subject of Categoriæ, 57, 59, 108, 109; last section of, out of connection, 134; contains first positive theory of Proposition, 136; summary of, 139.

Interrogation in Dialectic and in Science, 222.

Irregularity, principle of, in the Kosmos, _see_ Chance.

Isokrates, corresponded with Nikokles, 7, 23; his rhetorical school, 21; his style of composition and teaching, 22; attacked by Aristotle, 24; defended by Kephisodorus, 24.

J.

_Jacere_, Category, 66, 73; sometimes dropt by Aristotle, 74, 80; entitled with the others to a place, 78; refers primarily to a Man, 79.

Justice, definition of, 531; view of the Pythagoreans respecting, 533.

K.

Kallimachus of Alexandria, drew up tables of authors and their works, 34.

Kallisthenes, recommended by Aristotle to Alexander, 9.

Kallistratus, his skolion on Harmodius and Aristogeiton, 13.

Kassander, pupil of Aristotle, 9.

Kephisodorus, defended Isokrates against Aristotle, 24, 272 n.

Knowledge, of the Universal with error in particulars, 182; three modes of, 184; two grades of--Absolute, Qualified, 212; of Fact, of Cause, 223; proper, is of the Universal, 235; versus Opinion, 236, 573.

Kosmos, principles of regularity and irregularity in, 114; _see_ Heaven.

Kratylus refrained from predication, and pointed only with the finger, 429 n., 580, 590.

L.

La Mennais, on Common Sense, 567.

Lamian War, 12.

Language, significant by convention only, 109; as subservient to the growth of intellect, 484, 576.

Leukippus, affirmed motion to be eternal, 623; atomic doctrine of, 634.

Life, defined, 453; _see_ Soul.

Light, distinguished from Heavy, 631.

Light, takes no time to travel, 466.

_Loci_, in Dialectic, nature of, 283; distribution of, according to the four Predicables, 284; bearing on Accident, 285 seq.; bearing on _Expetenda_ and _Fugienda_ as cases of Accident, 296 seq.; bearing on Genus, 302 seq.; bearing on Proprium, 313 seq.; bearing on Definition, 329 seq.; belonging to Sophistic, 382, 403.

Locomotion, Animal, produced by Noûs and Appetite, 493.

Logic, importance of Aristotle's distinction of the Equivocal in, 57; deals with Ens in what senses, 61; blended with Ontology in the Categories, 62; connection of, with Psychology, 110; deals with speech as Enunciative, 111; first presented scientifically by Aristotle, 130; properly includes discussion of Modals, 130 seq.; distinction of Contradictory and Contrary fundamental in, 136; use of examples in, 167; Aristotle's one-sided treatment of, in subordinating Induction, 200; as combining Induction and Deduction, 201; Mr. J. S. Mill's system of, in relation to Aristotle's, 201; Aristotle's claim to originality in respect of, 420; line between, and Ontology, not clearly marked by Aristotle, 422; Sokrates first broke ground for, 426; subjective point of view chiefly taken by Aristotle in, 578.

Lucian, uses word "esoteric," 52.

Lucretius, only extant Epikurean writer, 654.

M.

Madvig, his view of "exoteric discourse," 49.

Mathematics, theoretical science, subject of, 423, 593.

Matter, a variety of Cause, 246, 611; joint-factor with Form in the intellectual generation of the Individual, 445, 598 seq.; and Form, distinction, of, a capital feature in Aristotle's First Philosophy, 454, 595 seq. (from Metaph. Book Z onwards); relation of, to Form, 455, 456; as the Potential, 455, 615 seq.; various grades of, 456.

Mechanics, place of, in Aristotle's philosophy, 54.

Megarics, allowed no power not in actual exercise, 614.

Memory, Tract on, and Reminiscence, 475; nature of, as distinguished from Phantasy, 475; distinguished from Reminiscence, 476; phenomena of, 477.

Menedêmus, disallowed negative propositions, 136.

Meno, Platonic, question as to possibility of learning in, 212.

Menoekeus, letter to, from Epikurus, 654.

Mentor, Persian general, drove Aristotle from Mitylene, 5.

Metaphysics, in modern sense, covers Aristotle's Physica and Metaphysica, 422.

Metaphysica, name not used by Aristotle, 54, 59; relation of the, to the Physica, 54, 422; characteristic distinction of the, 422.

Meteorologica, connected with what other works, 54.

Metrodorus, third husband of Aristotle's daughter, 20.

Middle term in Syllogism, literal signification of, 148; how to find a, 157 seq.; the _Why_ of the conclusion in Demonstration, 219; power of swiftly divining a, 237; fourfold question as to, in Science, 239; as Cause, 246.

Mieza, school of Aristotle there, 6.

Mill, Mr. J. S., on the Ten Categories, 90 n.; his system of Logic, in relation to Aristotle's, 198-201; on indemonstrable truths, 229 n.

Milton, his description of Realism, 552.

Mitylene, Aristotle spent some time there, 4.

Modal Propositions, form of Antiphasis in, 127; excluded by Hamilton and others from Logic, 130; place of, in Formal Logic vindicated, 131; Aristotle's treatment of, not satisfactory, 133, 138; doctrine of, related to Aristotle's Ontology and Physics, 133; disadvantageously mixed up with the Assertory, 138, 143, 154; in Syllogism, 204.

Modes of Figure, 149; _see_ Figure.

Moon, spherical, 646; motions of, 647.

Motion, Zeno's argument against, paradoxical, 365; the kinds of local, 593.

_Motus_, under _Opposita_, 104.

Movent, The Immovable Prime, 624 seq.

Music, necessary part of education, 545.

Myrmex, slave or pupil of Aristotle, 19.

N.

Nature, sum of the constant tendencies and sequences within the Kosmos, 114, 117; objective correlate to the Necessary Proposition in Logic, 133; Generation from, 598.

Naturalia Parva, complementary to the De Animâ, 54.

Necessary, The, as a mode affecting Antiphasis, 126 seq.; relation of, to the Possible, 127, 205; a formal mode of Proposition, 131; why it may be given up as a Mode, 206.

Necessity, in what sense Aristotle denies that all events happen by, 116.

Negation, disjunction of subject and predicate, 111; through what collocations of the negative particle obtained strictly, 118 seq., 169; real and apparent, 122; _see_ Contradictory, _Antiphasis_.

Neleus, inherited library of Theophrastus, and carried it away to Skêpsis, 36; heirs of, buried his library for safety, 36.

Nikanor, son of Proxenus, ward and friend of Aristotle, bore Alexander's rescript to the Greek cities, 11; executor, and chief beneficiary, under Aristotle's will, 17-20; married Aristotle's daughter, 20.

Nikokles, correspondent of Isokrates, 7.

Nikomachus, father of Aristotle, medical author and physician to Amyntas, 2; son of Aristotle, 17, 18.

Nominalism, main position of, clearly enunciated by Aristotle, 481 n.; scholastic formula of, 555.

_Non Causa pro Causâ_, 388; how to solve, 413.

_Non-Ens_, in the sense of Falsehood, 60, 108; Accident borders on, 98, 593.

_Non per Hoc_, the argument so called, 179; Fallacy of, 388.

Notion, the general, as a cause and creative force, 422.

_Notiora, nobis_ v. _naturâ_, 197, 215, 239, 332.

Noun, function of the, 109, 110, 130; the indefinite, 118, 124.