Chapter II: Peculiar Antiseptic Processes (7)

_Fig._ 998. is a front view of the reel; little more than one-half of it being shown. _Fig._ 999. is an end view. Here the steam-pulleys are omitted, for fear of obstructing the view of the more essential parts. A, A, are the two end framings, connected by mahogany stretchers, which form the table B, for receiving the bobbins C, C, which are sometimes weighted at top with a lump of lead, to prevent their tumbling. D is the reel, consisting of four long laths of wood, which are fixed upon iron frames, attached to an octagonal wooden shaft. The arm which sustains one of these laths is capable of being bent inwards, by loosening a tightening hook, so as to permit the hanks, when finished, to be taken off, as in every common reel.

The machine consists of two equal parts, coupled together at _a_, to facilitate the removal of the silk from either half of the reel; the attendant first lifting the one part, and then the other. E is the guide bar, which by a traverse motion causes the silk to be wound on in a cross direction. _b_ and _c_ are the wire guides, and _d_ are little levers lying upon the cloth-covered guide bar E. The silk in its way from the block to the reel, passes under these levers, by which it is cleaned from loose fibres.

On the other end of the shaft of the reel, the spur wheel 1 is fixed, which derives motion from wheel 2, attached to the shaft of the steam-pulley F. Upon the same shaft there is a bevel wheel 3, which impels the wheel 4 upon the shaft _e_; to whose end a plate is attached, to which the crank _f_ is screwed, in such a way as to give the proper length of traverse motion to the guide bar E, connected to that crank or eccentric stud by the jointed rod _g_. Upon the shaft of the steam-pulleys F, there is a worm or endless screw, to the left of _f_, _fig._ 999., which works in a wheel 5; attached to the short upright shaft _h_ (_fig._ 998.). At the end of _h_, there is another worm, which works in a wheel 6; at whose circumference there is a stud _i_, which strikes once at every revolution against an arm attached to a bell, seen to the left of G; thus announcing to the reel-tenter that a measured length of silk has been wound upon her reel. _e_ is a rod or handle, by which the fork _l_, with the strap, may be moved upon the fast or loose pulley, so as to set on or arrest the motion at pleasure.

Throwsters submit their silk to scouring and steaming processes. They soak the hanks, as imported, in lukewarm soap-water in a tub; but the bobbins of the twisted single silk from the spinning mill are enclosed within a wooden chest, and exposed to the opening action of steam for about ten minutes. They are then immersed in a cistern of warm water, from which they are transferred to the doubling frame.

The wages of the workpeople in the silk-throwing mills of Italy are about one half of their wages in Manchester; but this difference is much more than counterbalanced by the protecting duty of 2_s._ 10_d._ a pound upon thrown silk, and the superior machinery of our mills. In 1832, there was a power equal to 342 horses engaged in the silk-throwing mills of Manchester; and of about 100 in the mills of Derby. The power employed in the other silk mills of England and Scotland has not been recorded.

There is a peculiar kind of silk called _marabout_, containing generally three threads, made from the white Novi raw silk. From its whiteness, it takes the most lively and delicate colours without the discharge of its gum. After being made into tram by the single twist upon the spinning mill, it is reeled into hanks, and sent to the dyer without further preparation. After being dyed, the throwster re-winds and re-twists it upon the spinning mill, in order to give it the whipcord hardness which constitutes the peculiar feature of marabout. The cost of the raw Novi silk is 19_s._ 6_d._ a pound; of throwing it into tram, 2_s._ 6_d._; of dyeing, 2_s._; of re-winding and re-twisting, after it has been dyed, about 5_s._; of waste, 2_s._, or 10 per cent.; the total of which sum is 31_s._; being the price of one pound of marabout in 1832.

An ESTIMATE of the Annual Quantities of SILK produced or exported from the several Countries in the World, exhibiting also the Countries to which exported.

+-------------------+---------------------------+------------+------+
|Countries whence |Quantities. |Countries to|Quan- |
|exported. | |which ex- |ti- |
| | |ported. |ties. |
+-------------------+---------------------------+------------+------+
| | | |Bales.|
|Italy exports |34,000 bales of 225 small | | |
| | lbs. | | |
|France produces |10,500 { 73-1/8 kils., or |}England |28,000|
|India and Bengal | 9,500 {128-1/2 Vienna lbs.|}France |22,000|
| export | 162 lbs. English | | |
|Persia . . | 7,500 |Prussia | 7,600|
|China . . | 4,000 |Russia | 6,400|
|Asia Minor . . | 3,500 |Austria and | |
|Levant, Turkey, and| |Germany | 5,000|
|Archipelago export | 3,500 |Switzerland | 5,000|
|Spain . . | 1,500 | |------|
| |------ |Total |74,000|
|Total |74,000 bales. | | |
+-------------------+---------------------------+------------+------+

_Note._--These estimates exclude the silk manufactured in Italy.

The declared value of the silk manufactures exported from the United Kingdom in 1836, was 917,822_l._; and in 1837, only 494,569. The deficit in the last year was owing to the commercial crisis in the United States; which country took, the preceding year, our silk goods to the value of 524,301_l._

SILKWORM GUT, for angling, is made as follows:--Select a number of the best and largest silkworms, just when they are beginning to spin; which is known by their refusing to eat, and having a fine silk thread hanging from their mouths. Immerse them in strong vinegar, and cover them closely for twelve hours, if the weather be warm, but two or three hours longer, if it be cool. When taken out, and pulled asunder, two transparent guts will be observed, of a yellow green colour, as thick as a small straw, bent double. The rest of the entrails resembles boiled spinage, and therefore can occasion no mistake as to the silk-gut. If this be soft, or break upon stretching it, it is a proof that the worm has not been long enough under the influence of the vinegar. When the gut is fit to draw out, the one end of it is to be dipped into the vinegar, and the other end is to be stretched gently to the proper length. When thus drawn out, it must be kept extended on a thin piece of board, by putting its extremities into slits in the end of the wood, or fastening them to pins, and then exposed in the sun to dry. Thus genuine silk-gut is made in Spain. From the manner in which it is dried, the ends are always more or less compressed or attenuated.[53] _Fig._ 1000. _a_, is the silkworm; _b_, the worm torn asunder; _c_, _c_, the guts; _d_, _d_, a board slit at the ends, with the gut to dry; _f_, _f_, a board with wooden pegs, for the same purpose.

[53] Nobb’s Art of Trolling.

SILVER (_Argent_, Fr.; _Silber_, Germ.;) was formerly called a _perfect_ metal, because heat alone revived its oxide, and because it could pass unchanged through fiery trials, which apparently destroyed most other metals. The distinctions, perfect, imperfect, and noble, are now justly rejected. The bodies of this class are all equal in metallic nature, each being endowed merely with different relations to other forms of matter, which serve to characterize it, and to give it a peculiar value.

When pure and planished, silver is the brightest of the metals. Its specific gravity in the ingot is 10·47; but, when condensed under the hammer or in the coining press, it becomes 10·6. It melts at a bright red heat, a temperature estimated by some as equal to 1280° Fahr., and by others to 22° Wedgewood. It is exceedingly malleable and ductile; affording leaves not more than 1/100000 of an inch thick, and wire far finer than a human hair.

By Sickingen’s experiments, its tenacity is, to that of gold and platinum, as the numbers 19, 15, and 26-1/4; so that it has an intermediate strength between these two metals. Pure atmospheric air does not affect silver, but that of houses impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, soon tarnishes it with a film of brown sulphuret. It is distinguished chemically from gold and platinum by its ready solubility in nitric acid, and from almost all other metals, by its saline solutions affording a curdy precipitate with a most minute quantity of sea salt, or any soluble chloride.

Silver occurs under many forms in nature:--

1. _Native silver_, possesses the greater part of the above properties; yet, on account of its being more or less alloyed with other metals, it differs a little in malleability, lustre, density, &c. It sometimes occurs crystallized in wedge-form octahedrons, in cubes, and cubo-octahedrons. At other times it is found in dendritic shapes, or arborescences, resulting from minute crystals implanted upon each other. But more usually it presents itself in small grains without determinable form, or in amorphous masses of various magnitude.

The _gangues_ (mineral matrices) of native silver are so numerous, that it may be said to occur in all kinds of rocks. At one time it appears as if filtered into their fissures, at another as having vegetated on their surface, and at a third, as if impasted in their substance. Such varieties are met with principally in the mines of Peru.

The native metal is found in almost all the silver mines now worked; but especially in that of Kongsberg in Norway, in carbonate and fluate of lime, &c.; at Schlangenberg in Siberia, in a sulphate of barytes; at Allémont, in a ferruginous clay, &c. In the article MINES, I have mentioned several large masses of native silver that have been discovered in various localities.

The metals most usually associated with silver in the native alloy, are gold, copper, arsenic, and iron. At Andreasberg and Guadalcanal it is alloyed with about 5 per cent. of arsenic. The auriferous native silver is the rarest; it has a brass-yellow colour.

2. _Antimonial silver._--This rare ore is yellowish-blue; destitute of malleability; even very brittle; spec. grav. 9·5. It melts before the blowpipe, and affords white fumes of oxide of antimony; being readily distinguished from arsenical iron, and arsenical cobalt, by its lamellar fracture. It consists of from 76 to 84 of silver, and from 24 to 16 of antimony.

3. _Mixed antimonial silver._--At the blowpipe it emits a strong garlic smell. Its constituents are, silver 16, iron 44, arsenic 35, antimony 4. It occurs at Andreasberg.

4. _Sulphuret of silver._--This is an opaque substance, of a dark-gray or leaden hue; slightly malleable, and easily cut with a knife, when it betrays a metallic lustre. The silver is easily separated by the blowpipe. It consist of, 13 of sulphur to 89 of silver, by experiment; 13 to 87 are the theoretic proportions. Its spec. grav. is 6·9. It occurs crystallized in most silver mines, but especially in those of Freyberg, Joachimsthal in Bohemia, Schemnitz in Hungary, and Mexico.

5. _Red sulphuret of silver; silver glance._--Its spec. grav. is 5·7. It contains from 84 to 86 of silver.

6. _Sulphuretted silver, with bismuth._--Its constituents are, lead 35, bismuth 27, silver 15, sulphur 16, with a little iron and copper. It is rare.

7. _Antimoniated sulphuret of silver_, the red silver of many mineralogists, is an ore remarkable for its lustre, colour, and the variety of its forms. It is friable, easily scraped by the knife, and affords a powder of a lively crimson red. Its colour in mass, is brilliant red, dark red, or even metallic reddish-black. It crystallizes in a variety of forms. Its constituents are,--silver from 56 to 62; antimony from 16 to 20; sulphur from 11 to 14; and oxygen from 8 to 10. The antimony being in the state of a purple oxide in this ore, is reckoned to be its colouring principle. It is found in almost all silver mines; but principally in those of Freyberg, Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines, and Guadalcanal.

8. _Black sulphuret of silver_; is blackish, brittle, cellular, affording globules of silver at the blowpipe. It is found only in certain mines, at Allémont, Freyberg; more abundantly in the silver mines of Peru and Mexico. The Spaniards call it _negrillo_.

9. _Chloride of silver, or horn silver._--In consequence of its semi-transparent aspect, its yellowish or greenish colour, and such softness that it may be cut with the nail, this ore has been compared to horn, and may be easily recognised. It melts at the flame of a candle, and may be reduced when heated along with iron or black flux, which are distinctive characters. It is seldom crystallized; but occurs chiefly in irregular forms, sometimes covering the native silver as with a thick crust, as in Peru and Mexico. Its density is only 4·74.

Chloride of silver sometimes contains 60 or 70 per cent. of clay; and is then called butter-milk ore, by the German miners. The blowpipe causes globules of silver to sweat out of it. This ore is rather rare. It occurs in the mines of Potosi, of Annaberg, Freyberg, Allémont, Schlangenberg, in Siberia, &c.

10. _Carbonate of silver_, a species little known, has been found hitherto only in the mine of S. Wenceslas, near Wolfache.

TABLE of the Quantities of SILVER brought into the Market every year, on an average, from 1790 to 1802.

+----------------+------------+---------------+------------+
| Old Continent. |Lbs. Avoird.| New Continent.|Lbs. Avoird.|
+----------------+------------+---------------+------------+
| ASIA. | | | |
|Siberia | 38,500 |Central America| 1,320,000 |
| EUROPE. | | | |
|Hungary | 44,000 |South America | 605,000 |
|Austrian States | 11,000 | | |
|Hartz and Hessia| 11,000 | | |
|Saxony | 22,000 | | |
|Norway | 22,000 | | |
|Sweden }| | | |
|France }| 11,000 | | |
|Spain }| | | |
| | --------| | ----------|
|Total of the | |Total of the | |
|Old Continent | 159,500 |New Continent | 1,925,000 |
+----------------+------------+---------------+------------+

Thus the New Continent furnished twelve times more silver than the Old. For more detailed statistics of silver, see the end of the article.

The following is Mr. Ward’s description of the treatment of silver ores in Mexico:--

“After returning from San Augustin,” says he, “I passed the whole of the afternoon at the _hacienda_ (metallurgic works) of Salgado, in which the ores of the Valenciana mine are reduced. The _hacienda_, of which a representation is given below, _fig._ 1001. contains forty-two crushing-mills, called _arrastres_, and thirty-six stampers. The ore, on being extracted from the mine, is placed in the hands of the _pepenadores_, men and women, who break all the larger pieces with hammers, and after rejecting those in which no metallic particles are contained, divide the rest into three classes” (inferior, middling, and rich). “These are submitted to the action of the _morteros_ (stamps), one of which, of eight stampers, is capable of reducing to powder ten cargas of ore (each of 350 lbs.) in twenty-four hours. This powder not being thought sufficiently fine for the quicksilver to act upon with proper effect, it is transferred from the _morteros_ to the _arrastres_ (crushing-mills, see wood-cut), in which water is used. Each of these reduces to a fine impalpable metalliferous mud, six quintals (600 lbs.) of powder in 24 hours. At Guanajuato, where water-power cannot be obtained, the _arrastres_ are worked by mules (see _fig._ 1001.), which are kept constantly in motion at a slow pace, and are changed every 6 hours. The grinding-stones, as well as the sides and bottom of the mill itself, are composed of granite; four blocks of which revolve in each crushing-mill, attached to cross-bars of wood. This part of the operation is thought of great importance, for it is upon the perfection of the grinding that the saving of the quicksilver is supposed in a great measure to depend, in the subsequent amalgamation. The grinding is performed usually in a covered shed or gallery which in a large _hacienda_, like Salgado, from the number of _arrastres_ at work at the same time, is necessarily of considerable extent.”

_Fig._ 1002. represents the rude grinding apparatus used at the _lavaderos_, or gold washings, in Chile. The streamlet of water conveyed to the hut of the gold washer, is received upon a large rude stone, whose flat surface has been hollowed out into a shallow basin, and in the same manner into 3 or 4 others in succession; the auriferous particles are thus allowed to deposit themselves in these receptacles, while the lighter earthy atoms, still suspended, are carried off by the running water. The gold thus collected is mixed with a quantity of ferruginous black sand and stony matter, which requires the process of trituration, effected by the very rude and simple _trapiche_ shown in the figure; consisting of two stones, the under one being about three feet in diameter, and slightly concave. The upper stone is a large spherical boulder of syenitic granite, about two feet in diameter, having on its upper part two iron plugs fixed oppositely, to which is secured, by lashings of hide, a transverse horizontal pole of _canela_ (cinnamon) _wood_, about 10 feet long; two men seated on the extremities of this lever, work it up and down alternately, so as to give to the stone a rolling motion, which is sufficient to crush and grind the materials placed beneath it. The washings thus ground, are subjected to the action of running water, upon inclined planes formed of skins, by which process the siliceous particles are carried off, while a portion of the ferruginous matter, mixed with the heavier grains of gold, is extracted by a loadstone; it is again washed, till nothing but pure gold-dust remain. The whole process is managed with much dexterity; and if there were much gold to be separated, it would afford very profitable employment; but generally the small quantity collected is sufficient only to afford subsistence to a few miserable families.

The _trapiche_, _ingenio_, or mill, for grinding the ores of silver, is a very simple piece of mechanism. A place is chosen where a small current of water, whose section will present a surface of six inches diameter, can be brought to a spot where it can fall perpendicularly ten or twelve feet; at this place a well is built of this depth, about 6 feet in diameter; in its centre is fixed an upright shaft, upon a central brass pin; it is confined above by a wooden collar. A little above its foot, the shaft has a small wheel affixed to it, round which are fixed a number of radiating spokes, shaped at the end somewhat like cups, and forming altogether a horizontal wheel, four feet in diameter. Upon the slanting edges of the cups, the water is made to strike with the force it has acquired in falling down a nearly perpendicular trough, scooped out of the solid trunk of a tree. This impression makes the wheel turn with a quick rotatory motion. The upright axis rises about 6 feet above the top of the well, at about half which height is inserted a small horizontal arm, four feet long, which serves as an axle to a ponderous mill-stone of granite, of from four to six feet diameter, which is made to roll on its edge in a circular trough, sometimes made of the same material, and sometimes of hard wood.

The weight of this quickly rolling stone effects the pulverization of the ore. In some cases, it is taken out in the dry state, and sifted; but more generally the separation of the finely ground particles is accomplished by the action of running water. For this purpose a small stream is made to trickle into the circular trough, by which the pounded ore is worked up into a muddy consistence, and the finer particles flow off with the excess of water, through a notch cut in the margin of the trough. This fine matter is received in little pools, where the pounded ore is left to settle; and the clear water being run off, the powder is removed from the bottom, and carried to the place of amalgamation.

The _ingenios_, or stamping-mills, are driven by a small breast water-wheel, of five feet diameter, and one foot broad. _Fig._ 1003. will give a sufficient idea of their construction. The long horizontal shaft, fixed on the axis of the wheel, is furnished with 5 or 6 cams placed at different situations round the shaft, so as to act in succession on the projecting teeth of the upright rods or pestles. Each of these weighs 200 pounds, and works in a corresponding oblong mortar of stone or wood.

The _patio_, or amalgamation floor, _fig._ 1004., is a large flat space, open to the sky, 312 feet in length, by 236 in breadth, and securely surrounded by strong walls. It is paved with large unhewn blocks of porphyry, and is capable of containing 24 _tortas_, or flat circular collections of _lama_, of about 50 feet diameter, and 7 inches deep, when the patio is not filled, (but of somewhat smaller dimensions when nearly so,) ranged in 4 rows, and numbered from the left-hand corner. At one end a small space is generally set apart for the assays, which are made each on one monton.

The following description of Mexican amalgamation is given by Captain Lyon.

A torta of Zacatecas contains 60 montons of 20 quintals each, and is thus formed:--In the first instance, a square space, of the requisite size for a torta, is marked out, and enclosed by a number of rough planks, which are propped in their places on the patio floor by large stones, and dried horse-dung and dust are piled round their edges to prevent the escape of the lama. A heap of saltierra (salt mixed with earthy impurities) is then piled in the centre, in the proportion of 2 fanegas (each = 1·6 English bushels) and a half to the monton, = 150 for the torta. After this, the lama, or ore ground into a fine paste, is poured in. When the last or 60th monton is delivered, the saltierra is shovelled down and well mixed with the lama, by treading it with horses, and turning it with shovels; after which the preparation is left at rest for the remainder of the day. On the following day comes the _el incorporo_. After about one hour’s treading by horses, the magistral or roasted and pulverized copper ore is mixed with the lama, (the _repaso_ or treading-mill still continuing,) in summer in the proportion of 15 cargas of 12 arrobas (25 lbs. each) to the torta, if the ore be of 6 marcs to the monton, and in winter in only half the quantity. For it is a singular fact, that in summer the mixture cools, and requires more warmth; while in winter it acquires of itself additional heat. With poorer ores, as for instance those of 4 marcs to the monton, 12 cargas are applied in summer, and 6 in winter. From November to February, lime is also occasionally used to cool the lama, in the proportion of about a peck per monton.

The _repaso_, or treading out, is continued by six horses, which are guided by one man, who stands in the lama, and directs them all by holding all their long halters. This operation is much more effectual in a morning than an evening, and occupies about five or six hours. When the magistral is well mixed, the quicksilver is applied, by being sprinkled through pieces of coarse cloth doubled up like a bag, so that it spurts out in very minute particles. The second treading of the horses then follows; after which the whole mixture is turned over by six men with wooden shovels, who perform the operation in an hour. The torta is then smoothed and left at rest for one entire day, to allow the incorporation to take place. It undergoes the turning by shovels and treading by horses every other day, until the amalgamator ascertains that the first admixture of quicksilver is found to be all taken up by the silver; and this he does by vanning or washing a small quantity of the torta in a little bowl. A new supply is then added, and when this has done its duty, another is applied to catch any stray particles of silver. On the same day, after a good repaso, the torta is removed on hand-barrows by the labourers, to the _lavaderos_, in order that it may receive its final cleansing. The general method of proportioning the quicksilver to the tortas, is by allowing that every marco of silver which is promised by trial of the ores as the probable produce of a monton, will require in the whole process 4 lbs.

In metals of five to six marcs and a half per monton (of the average richness of Zacatecas), 16 lbs. of quicksilver were incorporated for every monton, = 900 lbs. for the torta. On the day of the second addition, the proportion is 5 lbs. the monton; and when the torta is ready to receive the last dose of quicksilver, it is applied at the rate of 7 lbs. the monton, = 420 lbs.; making a total of 1620 lbs. of quicksilver. With poorer ores, less quicksilver and less magistral are required.

The usual time for the completion of the process of amalgamation, is from 12 to 15 days in the summer, and 20 to 25 in the winter. This is less than a third of the time taken at some other mines in Mexico. This rapidity is owing to the tortas being spread very flat, and receiving thereby the stronger influence of the sun. In the Mexican mines, only one monton is commonly mixed at a time; and the lama is then piled in a small conical heap or monton.

_Lavadero, or washing vat._--Here the prepared tortas are washed, in order to carry off the earthy matters, and favour the deposition of the amalgam at the bottom. Each vat is about 8 feet deep, and 9 in diameter; and solidly built in masonry.

A large horizontal wheel, worked by mules, drives a vertical one, which turns a horizontal wheel fitted round a perpendicular wooden shaft, revolving upon an iron pivot at the bottom of the vat. To the lower end of this shaft, four cross-beams are fitted, from which long wooden teeth rise to the height of 5 feet. Their motion through the water being rapid, keeps all the lighter particles afloat, while the heavier sink to the bottom. The large wheel is worked by four mules, two at each extremity of the cross-beam. Water is supplied from an elevated tank. It requires 12 hours’ work of one tub to wash a torta. Eight porters are employed in carrying the prepared _lama_ of the torta in hand-barrows to the vats. The earthy matter receives a second washing.

The amalgam is carried in bowls into the _azogueria_, where it is subjected to straining through the strong canvas bottom of a leather bag. The hard mass left in the bag is moulded into wedge-shaped masses of 30 lbs., which are arranged in the burning-house, (_fig._ 1005.), to the number of 11, upon a solid copper stand, called _baso_, having a round hole in its centre. Over this row of wedges several others are built; and the whole pile is called _pina_. Each circular range is firmly bound round with a rope. The base is placed over a pipe which leads to a small tank of water for condensing the quicksilver; a cylindrical space being left in the middle of the _pina_, to give free egress to the mercurial vapours.

A large bell-shaped cover, called _capellina_, is now hoisted up, and carefully lowered over the _pina_, by means of pulleys. A strong lute of ashes, saltierra, and lama is applied to its lower edge, and made to fit very closely to the plate on which the base stands. A wall of fire-bricks is then built loosely round the capellina, and this space is filled with burning charcoal, which is thrice replenished, to keep it burning all night. After the heat has been applied 20 hours, the bricks and ashes are removed, the luting broken, and the capellina hoisted up. The burned silver is then found in a hard mass, which is broken up, weighed, and carried to the casting-house, to be formed into bars of about 1080 ounces each. The loss of silver in burning, is about 5 ounces to each bar (_barra_), and the loss of quicksilver, from 2-1/2 upon the good metals, to 9 upon the coarse.

Molina told Mr. Miers, that the produce of the galena ores of Uspaltata did not average more than 2 marcs per _caxon_ of 5000 lbs., which is an excessively poor ore. The argentiferous galena ores of Cumberland afford 11 marcs per caxon; while the average produce of the Potosi silver ores is only 5 or 6 marcs in the same quantity. These comparisons afford the clearest evidence that the English mode of smelting can never be brought into competition with the process of amalgamation as practised in America.

Humboldt, Gay Lussac, Boussingault, Karsten, and several other chemists of note, have offered solutions of the amalgamation enigma of Mexico and Peru. The following seems to be the most probable _rationale_ of the successive steps of the process:--

The addition of the _magistral_ (powder of the roasted copper pyrites), is not for the purpose of disengaging muriatic acid from the sea salt (_saltierra_), as has been supposed, since nothing of the kind actually takes place; but, by reciprocal or compound affinity, it serves to form chloride of copper, and chloride of iron, upon the one hand, and sulphate of soda, upon the other. Were sulphuric acid to be used instead of the magistral, as certain novices have prescribed, it would certainly prove injurious, by causing muriatic acid to exhale. Since the ores contain only at times oxide of silver, but always a great abundance of oxide of iron, the acid would carry off both partly, but leave the chloride of silver in a freer state. A magistral, such as sulphate of iron, which is not in a condition to generate the chlorides, will not suit the present purpose; only such metallic sulphates are useful as are ready to be transformed into chlorides by the _saltierra_. This is peculiarly the case with sulphate of copper. Its deuto-chloride gives up chlorine to the silver, becomes in consequence a protochloride, while the chloride of silver, thus formed, is revived, and amalgamated with the quicksilver present, by electro-chemical agency which is excited by the saline menstruum; just as the voltaic pile of copper and silver is rendered active by a solution of sea salt. A portion of chloride of mercury will be simultaneously formed, to be decomposed in its turn by the sulphate of silver resulting from the mutual action of the acidified pyrites, and the silver or its oxide in the ore. An addition of quicklime counteracts the injurious effect of too much magistral, by decomposing the resulting sulphate of copper. Quicksilver being an excellent conductor of heat, when introduced in too great quantities, is apt to cool the mass too much, and thereby enfeebles the operation of the deuto-chloride of copper upon the silver.

There is a method of extracting silver from its ores by what is called _imbibition_. This is exceedingly simple, consisting in depriving, as far as possible, the silver of its gangue, then melting it with about its own weight of lead. The alloy thus procured, contains from 30 to 35 _per cent._ of silver, which is separated by cupellation on the great scale, as described under ores of LEAD. In this way the silver is obtained at Kongsberg in Norway.

The amalgamation works at Halsbrücke, near Freyberg, for the treatment of silver ores by mercury, have been justly admired as a model of arrangement, convenience, and regularity; and I shall conclude this subject with a sketch of their general distribution.

_Fig._ 1006. presents a vertical section of this great _usine_ or _hüttenwerk_, subdivided into four main departments. The first, A, B, is devoted to the preparation and roasting of the matters intended for amalgamation. The second, B, C, is occupied with two successive siftings and the milling. The third, C, D, includes the amalgamation apartment above, and the wash-house of the residuums below. And in the fourth, D, E, the distilling apparatus is placed, where the amalgam is finally delivered.

Thus, from one extremity of this building to the other, the workshops follow in the order of the processes; and the whole, over a length of 180 feet, seems to be a natural laboratory, through which the materials pass, as it were of themselves, from their crude to their refined condition; so skilfully economized and methodical are the labours of the workmen; such are the regularity, precision, concert, and facility, which pervade this long series of combinations, carriages, movements, and metamorphoses of matter.

Here we distinguish the following objects:--

1. In division A, B; _a_, _a_, is the magazine of salt; _b_, _b_, is the hall of preparation of the ores; on the floor of which they are sorted, interstratified, and mixed up with salt; _c_, _c_, are the roasting furnaces; in each of which we see, 1, the fireplace; 2, 3, the reverberatory hearth, divided into two portions, one a little higher than the other, and more distant from the fireplace, called the _drier_. The materials to be calcined fall into it, through a chimney 6. The other part 2, of the hearth is the calcining area. Above the furnace are chambers of sublimation 4, 5, for condensing some volatile matters which escape by the opening 7. _e_ is the main chimney.

2. In the division B, C, we have _d_, the floor for the coarse sifting; beneath, that for the fine sieves; from which the matters fall into the hopper, whence they pass down to _g_, the mill-house, in which they are ground to flour, exactly as in a corn-mill, and are afterwards boulted through sieves, _p_, _f_, is the wheel machinery of the mill.

3. The compartment C, D, is the amalgamation work, properly speaking, where the casks are seen in their places. The washing of the residuums is effected in the shop _l_, below. _k_, _k_, is the compartment of revolving casks.

4. In the division D, E, the distillation process is carried on. There are four similar furnaces, represented in different states, for the sake of illustration. The wooden drawer is seen below, supporting the cast-iron basin, in which the tripod with its candelabra for bearing the amalgam saucers is placed. _q_ is a store chamber.

At B, are placed the pulleys and windlass for raising the roasted ore, to be sifted and ground; as also for raising the milled flour, to be transported to the amalgamation casks. At D, the crane stands for raising the iron bells that cover the amalgamation candelabra.

_Details of the Amalgamation Process, as practised at Halsbrücke._--All ores which contain more than 7 lbs. of lead, or 1 lb. of copper, per cent., are excluded from this reviving operation (_anquickverfahren_); because the lead would render the amalgam very impure, and the copper would be wasted. They are sorted for the amalgamation, in such a way that the mixture of the poorer and richer ores may contain 7-1/2, or, at most, 8 loths (of 1/2 oz. each) of silver per 100 lbs. The most usual constituents of the ores are, sulphur, silver, antimonial silver (speissglanzsilber), bismuth, sulphurets of arsenic, of copper, iron, lead (nickel, cobalt), zinc, with several earthy minerals. It is essential that the ores to be amalgamated shall contain a certain proportion of sulphur, in order that they may decompose enough of sea salt in the roasting to disengage as much chlorine as to convert all the silver present into a chloride. With this view, ores poor in sulphur are mixed with those that are richer, to make up a determinate average. The ore-post is laid upon the _bed-floor_, in a rectangular heap, about 17 ells long, and 4-1/2 ells broad (13 yards and 3-1/2); and upon that layer the requisite quantity of salt is let down from the floor above, through a wooden tunnel; 40 cwts. of salt being allotted to 400 cwts. of ore. The heap being made up with alternate strata to the desired magnitude, must be then well mixed, and formed into small bings, called _roast-posts_, weighing each from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 cwts. The annual consumption of salt at Halsbrücke is 6000 cwts.; it is supplied by the Prussian salt-works.

_Roasting of the Amalgamation Ores._--The furnaces appropriated to the roasting of the ore-posts are of the reverberatory class, provided with soot chambers. They are built up alongside of the _bed-floor_, and connected with it by a brick tunnel. The prepared ground ore (_erzmehl_) is spread out upon the hearth, and dried with incessant turning over; then the fire is raised so as to kindle the sulphur, and keep the ore redhot for one or two hours; during which time, dense white-gray vapours of arsenic, antimony, and water, are exhaled. The desulphuration next begins, with the appearance of a blue flame. This continues for three hours, during which the ignition is kept up; and the mass is diligently turned over, in order to present new surfaces, and to prevent any caking. Whenever sulphurous acid ceases to be formed, the finishing calcination is to be commenced with increased firing; the object being now to decompose the sea salt by means of the metallic sulphates that have been generated, to convert them into chlorides, with the simultaneous production of sulphate of soda. The stirring is to be continued till the proofs taken from the hearth no longer betray the smell of sulphurous, but only of muriatic acid gas. This roasting stage lasts commonly three quarters of an hour, 13 or 14 furnaces are worked at the same time at Halsbrücke; and each turns out in a week 5 tons upon an average. Out of the _nicht_ chambers or soot vaults of the furnaces, from 96 to 100 cwts. of ore-dust are obtained, containing 32 marcs (16 lbs.) of silver. This dust is to be treated like unroasted ore. The fuel of the first fire is pitcoal; of the finishing one, fir-wood. Of the former 115-1/2 cubic feet, and of the latter, 294-1/4, are, upon an average, consumed for every 100 cwts. of ore.

During the last roasting, the ore increases in bulk by one fourth, becomes in consequence a lighter powder, and of a brown colour. When this process is completed, the ore is raked out upon the stone pavement, allowed to cool, then screened in close sieve-boxes, in order to separate the finer powder from the lumps. These are to be bruised, mixed with sea salt, and subjected to another calcination. The finer powder alone is taken to the millstones, of which there are 14 pairs in the establishment. The stones are of granite, and make from 100 to 120 revolutions per minute. The roasted ore, after it has passed through the boulter of the mill, must be as impalpable as the finest flour.

_The Amalgamation._--This (the _verquicken_) is performed in 20 horizontal casks, arranged in 4 rows, each turning upon a shaft which passes through its axis; and all driven by the water-wheel shown in the middle of _fig._ 1006. The casks are 2 feet 10 inches long, 2 feet 8 inches wide, inside measure, and are provided with iron ends. The staves are 3-1/2 inches thick, and are bound together with iron hoops. They have a double bung-hole, one formed within the other, secured by an iron plug fastened with screws. They are filled by means of a wooden spout terminated by a canvas hose; through which 10 cwts. of the boulted ore-flour (_erzmehl_) are introduced after 3 cwts. of water have been poured in. To this mixture, from 3/4 to 7/8 of a cwt. of pieces of iron, 1-1/2 inch square, and 3/8 thick, are added. When these pieces get dissolved, they are replaced by others from time to time. The casks being two thirds full, are set to revolve for 1-1/2 or 2 hours, till the ore-powder and water become a uniform pap; when 5 cwts. of quicksilver are poured into each of them. The casks being again made tight, are put in geer with the driving machinery, and kept constantly revolving for 14 or 16 hours, at the rate of 20 or 22 turns in the minute. During this time they are twice stopped and opened, in order to see whether the pap be of the proper consistence; for if too thick, the globules of quicksilver do not readily combine with the particles of ore; and if too thin, they fall and rest at the bottom. In the first case, some water must be added; in the second, some ore. During the rotation, the temperature rises, so that even in winter it sometimes stands so high as 104° F.

The chemical changes which occur in the casks are the following:--The metallic chlorides present in the roasted ore are decomposed by the iron, whence results muriate of iron, whilst the deutochloride of copper is reduced partly to protochloride, and partly to metallic copper, which throw down metallic silver. The mercury dissolves the silver, copper, lead, antimony, into a complex amalgam. If the iron is not present in sufficient quantity, or if it has not been worked with the ore long enough to convert the copper deutochloride into a protochloride, previously to the addition of the mercury, more or less of the last metal will be wasted by its conversion into protochloride (calomel). The water holds in solution sulphate of soda, undecomposed sea salt, with chlorides of iron, manganese, &c.

As soon as the revivification is complete, the casks must be filled with water, set to revolve slowly (about 6 or 8 times in the minute), whereby in the course of an hour, or an hour and a half at most, a great part of the amalgam will have collected at the bottom; and in consequence of the dilution, the portion of horn silver held in solution by the sea salt will fall down and be decomposed. Into the small plug in the centre of the bung, a small tube with a stopcock is now to be inserted, to discharge the amalgam into its appropriate chamber. The cock must be stopped whenever the brown muddy residuum begins to flow. The main bung being then opened, the remaining contents of the casks are emptied into the _wash-tun_, while the pieces of iron are kept back. The residuary ore is found to be stripped of its silver within 5/32 or 7/40 of an ounce per cwt. The emptying of all the casks, and charging them again, takes 2 hours; and the whole process is finished within 18 or 20 hours; namely, 1 hour for charging, 14 to 16 hours for amalgamating; 1-1/2 hour for diluting; 1 hour for emptying. In 14 days, 3200 cwts. of ore are amalgamated. For working 100 cwts. of ore, 14-1/2 lbs. of iron, and 2 lbs. 12-1/2 ounces of mercury, are required; whence, for every pound of silver obtained, 0·95 of an ounce of mercury are consumed.

Trials have been made to conduct the amalgamation process in iron casks, heated to 150° or 160° Fahrenheit, over a fire; but though the de-silvering was more complete, the loss by mercury was so much greater as to more than counterbalance that advantage.

_Treatment of the Amalgam._--It is first received in a moist canvas bag, through which the thin uncombined quicksilver spontaneously passes. The bag is then tied up and subjected to pressure. Out of 20 casks, from 3 to 3-1/2 cwts. of solid amalgam are thus procured, which usually consist of 1 part of an alloy, containing silver of 12 or 13 _loths_ (in 16), and 6 parts of quicksilver. The foreign metals in that alloy are, copper, lead, gold, antimony, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, zinc, arsenic, and iron. The filtered quicksilver contains moreover 2 to 3 loths of silver in the cwt.

_Fig._ 1007. represents the apparatus for distilling the amalgam in the Halsbrücke works, marked _m_ in _fig._ 1006. _a_ is the wooden drawer, sliding in grooves upon the basis _q_; B is an open basin or box of cast iron, laid in the wooden drawer; _y_ is a kind of iron candelabra, supported upon four feet, and set in the basin B; under _d_ are five dishes or plates, of wrought iron, with a hole in the centre of each, whereby they are fitted upon the stem of the candelabra, 3 inches apart, each plate being successively smaller than the one below it. 3 indicates a cast-iron bell, furnished with a wrought-iron frame and hook, for raising it by means of a pulley and cord. _s_ is a sheet-iron door for closing the stove, whenever the bell has been set in its place.

The box _a_, and the basin B, above it, are filled with water, which must be continually renewed, through a pipe in the side of the wooden box, so that the iron basin may be kept always submersed and cool. The drawer _a_, being properly placed, and the plates under _d_ being charged with balls of amalgam (weighing altogether 3 cwts.), the bell 3 is to be let down into the water, as at _y_, and rested upon the lower part of the candelabra. Upon the ledge 1, which defines the bottom of the fireplace, a circular plate of iron is laid, having a hole in its middle for the bell to pass through. Upon this plate chips of fir-wood are kindled, then the door _s_, which is lined with clay, is closed and luted tight. The fuel is now placed in the vacant space _k_, round the upper part of the bell. The fire must be fed in most gradually, first with turf, then with charcoal; whenever the bell gets red, the mercury volatilizes, and condenses in globules into the bottom of the basin B. At the end of 8 hours, should no more drops of mercury be heard to fall into the water, the fire is stopped. When the bell has become cool, it is lifted off; the plates are removed from the candelabra _d_; and this being taken out, the drawer _a_ is slid away from the furnace. The mercury is drained, dried, and sent again into the amalgamation works. The silver is fused and refined by cupellation.

The solid amalgam which is distilled in the above apparatus, would be distilled more profitably out of iron trays set in the mercurial retorts described and figured in pages 809, 810.

From 3 cwts. of amalgam, distilled under the bell, from 95 to 100 marcs (1/2 lbs.) of _teller_ silver (dish silver) are procured, containing from 10 to 13-1/2 parts of fine silver out of 16; one-fifth part of the metal being copper. The _teller_ silver is refined in quantities of 160 or 170 marcs, in black-lead crucibles filled within two inches of their brims, and submitted to brisk ignition. The molten mass exhales some vapours, and throws up a liquid slag, which being skimmed off, the surface is to be strewed over with charcoal powder, and covered with a lid. The heat having been briskly urged for a short time, the charcoal is then removed along with any fresh slag that may have risen, in order to observe whether the vapours have ceased. If not, fresh charcoal must be again applied, the crucible must be covered, and the heat increased, till fumes are no longer produced, and the surface of the silver becomes tranquil. Finally, the alloy, which contains a little gold, and much copper, being now from 11 to 13 _löthig_ (that is, holding from 11 to 13 parts of fine silver in 16 parts), is cast into iron moulds, in ingots of 60 marcs. The loss of weight by evaporation and skimming of the slag amounts to 2 per cent.; the loss in silver is quite inconsiderable.

The dust from the furnace (_tiegelöfen_) is collected in a large condensation chamber of the chimney, and affords from 40 to 50 marcs of silver per cwt. The slags and old crucibles are ground and sent to the small amalgamation mill.

The earthy residuum of the amalgamation casks being submitted to a second amalgamation, affords out of 100 cwts. about 2 lbs. of coarse silver. This is first fused along with three or four per cent. of a mixture of potashes and calcined quicksalz, (impure sulphate of soda), and then refined. The supernatant liquor that is drawn out of the tanks in which the contents of the casks are allowed to settle, consists chiefly of sulphate of soda, along with some common salt, sulphates of iron and manganese, and a little phosphate, arseniate, and fluate of soda. The earthy deposit contains from 1/4 to 9/32 of a _loth_ of silver per cwt., but no economical method of extracting this small quantity has yet been contrived.

The argentiferous or _rich lead_ is treated in Germany by the cupellation furnace represented in _figs._ 1008, 1009, 1010, and 1011. These figures exhibit the cupellation furnace of the principal smelting work in the Hartz, where the following parts must be distinguished; (_fig._ 1010.) 1, masonry of the foundation; 2, flues for the escape of moisture; 3, stone covers of the flues; 4, bed of hard rammed scoriæ; 5, bricks set on edge, to form the permanent area of the furnace; 6, the sole, formed of wood ashes, washed, dried, and beaten down; _k_, dome of iron plate, movable by a crane, and susceptible of being lined two inches thick with loam; _n_, _n_, tuyères for two bellows _s_; having valves suspended before their orifices to break and spread the blast; _q_, door for introducing into the furnace the charge of lead, equal to 84 quintals at a time; _s_, _fig._ 1011., two bellows, like those of a smith’s forge; _y_, door of the fireplace, through which billets of wood are thrown on the grate; _x_, small aperture or door, for giving issue to the frothy scum of the cupellation, and the litharge; _z_, basin of safety, usually covered with a stone slab, over which the litharge falls: in case of accident the basin is laid open to admit the _rich lead_.

The following is the mode of conducting the cupellation. Before putting the lead into the furnace, a floor is made in it of ashes beat carefully down (see 6, _fig._ 1010.); and there is left in the centre of this floor a circular space, somewhat lower than the rest of the hearth, where the silver ought to gather at the end of the operation. The cupel is fully six feet in diameter.

In forming the floor of a cupel, 35 cubic feet of washed wood ashes, usually got from the soap works, are employed. The preparation of the floor requires 2-1/2 hours’ work; and when it is completed, and the movable dome of iron plate has been lined with loam, 84 quintals (cwt.) of lead are laid on the floor, 42 quintals being placed in the part of the furnace farthest from the bellows, and 42 near to the fire-bridge; to these, scoriæ containing lead and silver are added, in order to lose nothing. The movable lid is now luted on the furnace, and heat is slowly applied in the fireplace, by burning fagots of fir-wood, which is gradually raised. Section 1010. is in the line C, D, of 1009.

At the end of three hours, the whole lead being melted, the instant is watched for when no more ebullition can be perceived on the surface of the bath or melted metal; then, but not sooner, the bellows are set a-playing on the surface at the rate of 4 or 5 strokes per minute, to favour the oxidizement.

In five hours, reckoned from the commencement of the process, the fire is smartly raised; when a grayish froth (_abstrich_) is made to issue from the small aperture _x_ of the furnace. This is found to be a brittle mixture of oxidized metals and impurities. The workman now glides the rake over the surface of the bath, so as to draw the froth out of the furnace; and, as it issues, powdered charcoal is strewed upon it, at the aperture _x_, to cause its coagulation. The froth skimming lasts for about an hour and a half.

After this time, the litharge begins to form, and it is also let off by the small opening _x_; its issue being aided by a hook. In proportion as the floor of the furnace gets impregnated with litharge, the workman digs in it a gutter for the escape of the liquid litharge: it falls in front of the small aperture, and concretes in stalactitic forms.