Chapter M: D’Arcet states the analysis of Marseilles soap at (13)

VERDIGRIS. (_Vert-de-gris_, Fr.; _Grünspan_, Germ.) The copper used in this manufacture, is formed into round sheets, from 20 to 25 inches diameter, by one twenty-fourth of an inch in thickness. Each sheet is then divided into oblong squares, from 4 to 6 inches in length, by 3 broad; and weighing about 4 ounces. They are separately beaten upon an anvil, to smooth their surfaces, to consolidate the metal, and to free it from scales. The refuse of the grapes, after the extraction of their juice, formerly thrown on to the dunghill, is now preserved for the purpose of making verdigris. It is put loosely into earthen vessels, which are usually 16 inches high, 14 in diameter at the widest part, and about 12 at the mouth. The vessels are then covered with lids, which are surrounded by straw mats. In this situation the materials soon become heated, and exhale an acid odour; the fermentation beginning at the bottom of the cask, and gradually rising till it actuate the whole mass. At the end of two or three days, the manufacturer removes the fermenting materials into other vessels, in order to check the process, lest putrefaction should ensue. The copper plates, if new, are now prepared, by rubbing them over with a linen cloth dipt in a solution of verdigris; and they are laid up alongside of one another to dry. If the plates are not subjected to this kind of preparation, they will become black, instead of green, by the first operation. When the plates are ready, and the materials in a fermenting state, one of them is put into the earthern vessel for 24 hours, in order to ascertain whether it be a proper period to proceed to the remaining part of the process. If, at the end of this period, the plate be covered with an uniform green layer, concealing the whole copper, every thing is right; but if, on the contrary, liquid drops hang on the surface of the metal, the workmen say the plates are _sweating_, and conclude that the heat of the fermented mass has been inadequate; on which account another day is allowed to pass before making a similar trial. When the materials are finally found to be ready, the strata are formed in the following manner. The plates are laid on a horizontal wooden grating, fixed in the middle of a vat, on whose bottom a pan full of burning charcoal is placed, which heats them to such a degree, that the women who manage this work are obliged to lay hold of them frequently with a cloth when they lift them out. They are in this state put into earthern vessels, in alternate strata with the fermented materials, the uppermost and undermost layers being composed of the expressed grapes. The vessels are covered with their straw mats, and left at rest. From 30 to 40 pounds of copper are put into one vessel.

At the end of 10, 12, 15, or 20 days the vessels are opened, to ascertain, by the materials having become white, if the operation be completed.

Detached glossy crystals will be perceived on the surface of the plates; in which case the grapes are thrown away, and the plates are placed upright in a corner of the verdigris cellar, one against the other, upon pieces of wood laid on the ground. At the end of two or three days they are moistened by dipping in a vessel of water, after which they are replaced in their former situation, where they remain seven or eight days, and are then subjected to momentary immersion, as before. This alternate moistening and exposure to air is performed six or eight times, at regular intervals of about a week. As these plates are sometimes dipped into damaged wine, the workmen term these immersions, _one wine_, _two wines_, &c.

By this treatment, the plates swell, become green, and covered with a stratum of verdigris, which is readily scraped off with a knife. At each operation every vessel yields from five to six pounds of verdigris, in a _fresh_ or _humid_ state; which is sold to wholesale dealers, who dry it for exportation. For this purpose, they knead the paste in wooden troughs, and then transfer it to leathern bags, a foot and a half long, and ten inches in diameter. These bags are exposed to the sun and air till the verdigris has attained a sufficient degree of hardness. It loses about half its weight in this operation; and it is said to be knife-proof, when this instrument, plunged through the leathern bag, cannot penetrate the loaf of verdigris.

The manufacture of verdigris at Montpellier is altogether domestic. In most wine farm-houses there is a verdigris cellar; and its principal operations are conducted by the females of the family. They consider the forming the strata, and scraping off the verdigris, the most troublesome part. Chaptal says that this mode of making verdigris would admit of some improvements: for example, the acetification requires a warmer temperature than what usually arises in the earthen vessels; and the plates, when set aside to generate the coat of verdigris, require a different degree of heat and moisture from that requisite for the other operations.

Verdigris is a mixture of the crystallized acetate of copper and the sub-acetate, in varying proportions. According to Vauquelin’s researches, there are three compounds of oxide of copper and acetic acid; 1. a subacetate, insoluble in water, but decomposing in that fluid, at common temperatures changing into peroxide and acetate; 2. a neutral acetate, the solution of which is not altered at common temperatures, but is decomposed by ebullition, becoming peroxide and superacetate; and, 3. superacetate, which in solution is not decomposed, either at common temperatures or at the boiling point; and which cannot be obtained in crystals, except by slow spontaneous evaporation, in air or _in vacuo_. The first salt, in the dry state, contains 66·51 of oxide; the second, 44·44; and the third, 33·34.

Mr. Phillips has given the following analyses of French and English verdigris; _Annals of Philosophy_, No. 21.--

French English
Verdigris. Verdigris.
Acetic acid 29·3 29·62
Peroxide of copper 43·5 44·25
Water 25·2 25·51
Impurity 2·0 0·62
----- ------
100·0 100·00

_Distilled verdigris_, as it was long erroneously called, is merely a _binacetate_ or superacetate of copper, made by dissolving, in a copper kettle, one part of verdigris in two of distilled vinegar; aiding the mutual action by slight heat and agitation with a wooden spatula. When the liquor has taken its utmost depth of colour, it is allowed to settle, and the clear portion is decanted off into well glazed earthen vessels. Fresh vinegar is poured on the residuum, and if its colour does not become deep enough, more verdigris is added. The clear and saturated solution is then slowly evaporated, in a vessel kept uniformly filled, till it acquires the consistence of syrup, and shows a pellicle on its surface; when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans, called _oulas_ in the country. In each of these dishes, two or three sticks are placed, about a foot long, cleft till within two inches of their upper end, and having the base of the cleft kept asunder by a bit of wood. This kind of pyramid is suspended by its summit in the liquid. All these vessels are transported into crystallizing rooms, moderately heated with a stove, and left in the same state for 15 days, taking care to maintain an uniform temperature. Thus are obtained very fine groups of crystals of acetate of copper, clustered round the wooden rods; on which they are dried, taken off, and sent into the market. They are distinctly rhomboidal in form, and of a lively deep blue colour. Each cluster of crystals weighs from five to six pounds; and, in general, their total weight is equal to about one-third of the verdigris employed.

The crystallized binacetate of commerce consists, by my analysis, of--acetic acid, 52; oxide of copper, 39·6; water, 8·4, in 100. I have prepared crystals which contain no water. There is a triple acetate of copper and lime, which resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland some years ago, and fetched a high price, till I published an analysis of it in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. It is much inferior, for all uses in the arts, to the proper binacetate.

VERDITER, or BLUE VERDITER. This is a precipitate of oxide of copper with lime, made by adding that earth, in its purest state, to the solution of nitrate of copper, obtained in quantities by the refiners, in parting gold and silver from copper by nitric acid. The cupreous precipitate must be triturated with lime, after it is nearly dry, to bring out the fine velvety blue colour. The process is delicate, and readily misgives in unskilful hands.

The _cendres bleues en pâte_ of the French, though analogous, are in some respects a different preparation. To make it, dissolve sulphate of copper in hot water, in such proportions that the liquid may have a density of 1·3. Take 240 pound measures of this solution, and divide it equally into 4 open-headed casks; add to each of these 45 pound measures of a boiling-hot solution of muriate of lime, of specific gravity 1·317, whereby a double decomposition will ensue; with the formation of muriate of copper and sulphate of lime, which precipitates. It is of consequence to work the materials well together at the moment of mixture, to prevent the precipitate agglomerating in unequal masses. After leaving it to settle for 12 hours, a small quantity of the clear liquor may be examined, to see whether the just proportions of the two salts have been employed, which is done by adding either sulphate of copper or muriate of lime. Should either cause much precipitation, some of the other must be poured in till the equivalent decomposition be accomplished; though less harm results from an excess of sulphate of copper than of muriate of lime.

The muriate of copper is to be decanted from the subsided gypsum, which must be drained and washed in a filter; and these blue liquors are to be added to the stronger; and the whole distributed, as before, into 4 casks; composing in all 670 pound measures of a green liquor, of 1·151 specific gravity.

Meanwhile, a magma of lime is to be prepared as follows:--100 pounds of quicklime are to be mixed up with 300 pounds of water, and the mixture is to be passed through a wire-gauze sieve, to separate the stony and sandy particles, and then to be ground in a proper mill to an impalpable paste. About 70 or 80 pounds of this mixture (the beauty of the colour is inversely as the quantity of lime) are to be distributed in equal portions between the four casks, strongly stirring all the time with a wooden spatula. It is then left to settle, and the limpid liquor is tested by ammonia, which ought to occasion only a faint blue tinge; but if the colour be deep blue, more of the lime paste must be added. The precipitate is now to be washed by decantation, employing for this purpose the weak washings of a former operation; and it is lastly to be drained and washed on a cloth filter. The proportions of material prescribed above, furnish from 500 to 540 pounds of green paste.

Before making further use of this paste, the quantity of water present in it must be determined by drying 100 or 200 grains. If it contain 27 per cent. of dry matter, 12 pounds of it may be put into a wooden bucket (and more or less in the ratio of 12 to to 27 per cent.) capable of containing 17-1/2 pints; a pound (measure) of the lime paste is then to be rapidly mixed into it; immediately afterwards, a pint and a quarter of a watery solution of the pearlash of commerce, of spec. grav. 1·114, previously prepared; and the whole mixture is to be well stirred, and immediately transferred to a colour-mill. The quicker this is done, the more beautiful is the shade.

On the other hand, two solutions must have been previously made ready, one of sal-ammoniac (4 oz. troy dissolved in 3-1/2 pints of water), and another of sulphate of copper (8 oz. troy dissolved in 3-1/2 pints of water).

When the paste has come entirely through the mill, it is to be quickly put into a jar, and the two preceding solutions are to be simultaneously poured into it; when a cork is to be inserted, and the jar is to be powerfully agitated. The cork must now be secured with a fat lute. At the end of four days this jar and three of its fellows are to be emptied into a large hogshead nearly full of clear water, and stirred well with a paddle. After repose, the supernatant liquid is run off; when it is filled up again with water, and elutriated several times in succession, till the liquid no longer tinges turmeric paper brown. The deposit may be then drained on a cloth filter. The pigment is sold in the state of a paste; and is used for painting, or printing paper-hangings for the walls of apartments.

The above prescribed proportions furnish the superfine blue paste: for the second quality, one-half more quicklime paste is used; and for the third, double of the lime and sal ammoniac; but the mode of preparation is in every case the same.

This paste may be dried into a blue powder, or into crayons for painters, by exposing it on white deals to a very gentle heat in a shady place. This is called _cendres bleues en pierre_.

VERDITER, or BREMEN GREEN. This pigment is a light powder, like magnesia, having a blue or bluish green colour. The first is most esteemed. When worked up with oil or glue, it resists the air very well; but when touched with lime, it is easily affected, provided it has not been long and carefully dried. A strong heat deprives it of its lustre, and gives it a brown or blackish-green tint.

The following is, according to M. J. G. Gentele, the process of fabrication in Bremen, Cassel, Eisenach, Minden, &c.:--

_a._ 225 lbs. of sea salt, and 222 lbs. of blue vitriol, both free from iron, are mixed in the dry state, then reduced between mill-stones with water to a thick homogeneous paste.

_b._ 225 lbs. of plates of old copper are cut by scissors into bits of an inch square, then thrown and agitated in a wooden tub containing two lbs. of sulphuric acid, diluted with a sufficient quantity of water, for the purpose of separating the impurities; they are afterwards washed with pure water in casks made to revolve upon their axes.

_c._ The bits of copper being placed in oxidation-chests, along with the magma of common salt and blue vitriol previously prepared in strata of half an inch thick, they are left for some time to their mutual reaction. The above chests are made of oaken planks joined without iron nails, and set aside in a cellar, or other place of moderate temperature.

The saline mixture, which is partially converted into sulphate of soda and chloride of copper, absorbs oxygen from the air, whereby the metallic copper passes into a hydrated oxide, with a rapidity proportioned to the extent of the surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. In order to increase this exposure, during the three months that the process requires, the whole mass must be turned over once every week, with a copper shovel, transferring it into an empty chest alongside, and then back into the former one.

At the end of three months, the corroded copper scales must be picked out, and the saline particles separated from the slimy oxide with the help of as little water as possible.

_d._ This oxidized _schlam_, or mud, is filtered, then thrown, by means of a bucket containing 30 pounds, into a tub, where it is carefully divided or comminuted.

_e._ For every six pailfuls of _schlam_ thus thrown into the large tub, 12 pounds of muriatic acid, at 15° Baumé, are to be added; the mixture is to be stirred, and then left at rest for 24 or 36 hours.

_f._ Into another tub, called the blue back, there is to be introduced, in like manner, for every six pailfuls of the acidified _schlam_, 15 similar pailfuls of a solution of colourless clear caustic alkali, at 19° Baumé.

_g._ When the back (_e_) has remained long enough at rest, there is to be poured into it a pail of pure water for every pail of _schlam_.

_h._ When all is thus prepared, the set of workmen who are to empty the back (_e_), and those who are to stir (_f_), must be placed alongside of each. The first set transfer the _schlam_ rapidly into the latter back; where the second set mix and agitate it all the time requisite to convert the mass into a consistent state, and then leave it at rest from 36 to 48 hours.

The whole mass is to be now washed; with which view it is to be stirred about with the affusion of water, allowed to settle, and the supernatant liquor is drawn off. This process is to be repeated till no more traces of potash remain among the blue. The deposit must be then thrown upon a filter, where it is to be kept moist, and exposed freely to the air. The pigment is now squeezed in the filter-bags, cut into bits, and dried in the atmosphere, or at a temperature not exceeding 78° Fahr. It is only after the most complete desiccation that the colour acquires its greatest lustre.

VERMICELLI, is a paste of wheat flour, drawn out and dried in slender cylinders, more or less tortuous, like worms, whence the Italian name. The _gruau_ of the French is wheat coarsely ground, so as to free it from the husk; the hardest and whitest part, being separated by sifting, is preferred for making the finest bread. When this _gruau_ is a little more ground, and the dust separated from it by the boulting-machine, the granular substance called _semoule_ is obtained, which is the basic of the best pastes. The softest and purest water is said to be necessary for making the most plastic vermicelli dough; 12 pounds of it being usually added to 50 pounds of _semoule_. It is better to add more _semoule_ to the water, than water to the _semoule_, in the act of kneading. The water should be hot, and the dough briskly worked while still warm. The Italians pile one piece of this dough upon another, and then tread it well with their feet for two or three minutes. They afterwards work it for two hours with a powerful rolling-pin, a bar of wood from 10 to 12 feet long, larger at the one end than the other, having a sharp cutting edge at the extremity, attached to the large kneading-trough.

When the dough is properly prepared, it is reduced to thin ribands, cylinders, or tubes, to form vermicelli and macaroni of different kinds. This operation is performed by means of a powerful press. This is vertical, and the iron plate or follower carried by the end of the screw fits exactly into a cast-iron cylinder, called the _bell_, like a sausage-machine, of which the bottom is perforated with small holes, of the shape and size intended for the vermicelli. The _bell_ being filled, and warmed with a charcoal fire to thin the dough into a paste, this is forced slowly through the holes, and is immediately cooled and dried by a fanner as it protrudes. When the threads or fillets have acquired the length of a foot, they are grasped by the hand, broken off, and twisted, while still flexible, into any desired shape upon a piece of paper.

The macaroni requires to be made of a less compact dough than the vermicelli. The former is forced through the perforated bottom, usually in fillets, which are afterwards formed into tubes by joining their edges together before they have had time to become dry. The _lazagnes_ are macaroni left in the fillet or riband shape.

VERMILLION, or _Cinnabar_, is a compound of mercury and sulphur in the proportion of 100 parts of the former to 16 of the latter, which occurs in nature as a common ore of quicksilver, and is prepared by the chemist as a pigment, under the name of Vermillion. It is, properly speaking, a bisulphuret of mercury. This artificial compound being extensively employed, on account of the beauty of its colour, in painting, for making red sealing-wax, and other purposes, is the object of an important manufacture. When vermillion is prepared by means of sublimation, it concretes in masses of considerable thickness, concave on one side, convex on the other, of a needle-form texture; brownish-red in the lump, but when reduced to powder of a lively red colour. On exposure to a moderate heat, it evaporates without leaving a residuum, if it be not contaminated with red lead; and at a higher heat, it takes fire, and burns entirely away, with a blue flame.

Holland long kept a monopoly of the manufacture of vermillion, from being alone in possession of the art of giving it a fine flame colour. Meanwhile the French chemists examined this product with great care, under an idea that the failure of other nations to rival the Dutch, arose from ignorance of its true composition; some, with Berthollet, imagined that it contained a little hydrogen; and others, with Fourcroy, believed that the mercury contained in it was oxidized; but, eventually, Seguin proved that both of these opinions were erroneous; having ascertained, on the one hand, that no hydrogenous matter was given out in the decomposition of cinnabar, and on the other that sulphur and mercury, by combining, were transformed into the red sulphuret in close vessels, without the access of any oxygen whatever. It was likewise supposed that the solution of the problem might be found in the difference of composition between the red and black sulphurets of mercury; and many conjectures were made with this view, the whole of which were refuted by Seguin. He demonstrated, in fact, that a mere change of temperature was sufficient to convert the one sulphuret into the other, without occasioning any variation in the proportion of the two elements. Cinnabar, moderately heated in a glass tube, is convertible into ethiops, which in its turn is changed into cinnabar by exposing the tube to a higher temperature; and thence he was led to conclude that the difference between these two sulphurets was owing principally to the state of the combination of the constituents. It would seem to result, from all these researches, that cinnabar is only an intimate compound of pure sulphur and mercury, in the proportions pointed out by analysis; and it is therefore reasonable to conclude, that in order to make fine vermillion, it should be sufficient to effect the union of its elements at a high enough temperature, and to exclude the influence of all foreign matters; but, notwithstanding these discoveries, the art of making good vermillion is nearly as much a mystery as ever. M. Seguin, indeed, announced in his Memoirs, that he had succeeded in obtaining, in his laboratory, as good a cinnabar as that of Holland, and at a remunerative price; but whatever truth may be in this assertion, or however much the author may have been excited by the love of honour and profit, no manufacture on the great scale sprung up under his auspices. France is still as tributary as ever to foreign nations for this chemical product. At an exposition some years ago, indeed, a sample of good French vermillion was brought forward to prove that the problem was nearly solved; but that it is not so completely, may be inferred from the silence on this subject in M. Dupin’s report of the last exposition, in 1834, where we see so many chemical trifles honoured with eulogiums and medals by the judges of the show. The English vermillion is now most highly prized by the French manufacturers of sealing-wax.

M. Tuckert, apothecary of the Dutch court, published, long ago, in the _Annales de Chimie_, vol. iv., the best account we yet have of the manufacture of vermillion in Holland; one which has been since verified by M. Payssé, who saw the process practised on the great scale with success.

“The establishment in which I saw, several times, the fabrication of sublimed sulphuret of mercury,” says M. Tuckert, “was that of Mr. Brand, at Amsterdam, beyond the gate of Utrecht; it is one of the most considerable in Holland, producing annually, from three furnaces, by means of four workmen, 48,000 pounds of cinnabar, besides other mercurial preparations. The following process is pursued here:--

“The ethiops is first prepared by mixing together 150 pounds of sulphur, with 1080 pounds of pure mercury, and exposing this mixture to a moderate heat in a flat polished iron pot, one foot deep, and two feet and a half in diameter. It never takes fire, provided the workman understands his business. The black sulphuret, thus prepared, is ground, to facilitate the filling with it of small earthen bottles capable of holding about 24 ounces of water; from 30 to 40 of which bottles are filled beforehand, to be ready when wanted.

“Three great subliming pots or vessels, made of very pure clay and sand, have been previously coated over with a proper lute, and allowed to dry slowly. These pots are set upon three furnaces bound with iron hoops, and they are covered with a kind of iron dome. The furnaces are constructed so that the flame may freely circulate and play upon the pots, over two-thirds of their height.

“The subliming vessels having been set in their places, a moderate fire is kindled in the evening, which is gradually augmented till the pots become red. A bottle of the black sulphuret is then poured into the first in the series, next into the second and third, in succession; but eventually, two, three, or even more, bottles may be emptied in at once; this circumstance depends on the stronger or weaker combustion of the sulphuret of mercury thus projected. After its introduction, the flame rises 4 and sometimes 6 feet high; when it has diminished a little, the vessels are covered with a plate of iron, a foot square, and an inch and a half thick, made to fit perfectly close. In this manner, the whole materials which have been prepared are introduced, in the course of 34 hours, into the three pots; being for each pot, 360 pounds of mercury, and 50 of sulphur; in all, 410 pounds.”

The degree of firing is judged of, from time to time, by lifting off the cover; for if the flame rise several feet above the mouth of the pot, the heat is too great; if it be hardly visible, the heat is too low. The proper criterion being a vigorous flame playing a few inches above the vessel. In the last of the 36 hours’ process, the mass should be dexterously stirred up every 15 or 20 minutes, to quicken the sublimation. The subliming pots are then allowed to cool, and broken to pieces in order to collect all the vermillion encrusted within them; and which usually amounts to 400 lbs., being a loss of only 60 on each vessel. The lumps are to be ground along with water between horizontal stones, elutriated, passed through sieves, and dried. It is said that the rich tone of the Chinese vermillion may be imitated by adding to the materials for subliming one per cent. of sulphuret of antimony, and by digesting the ground article first in a solution of sulphuret of potassa, and, finally, in diluted muriatic acid.

The humid process of Kirchoff has of late years been so much improved, as to furnish a vermillion quite equal in brilliancy to the Chinese. The following process has been recommended. Mercury is triturated for several hours with sulphur, in the cold, till a perfect ethiops is formed; potash lye is then added, and the trituration is continued for some time. The mixture is now heated in iron vessels, with constant stirring at first, but afterwards only from time to time. The temperature must be kept up as steadily as possible at 130° Fahr., adding fresh supplies of water as it evaporates. When the mixture which was black, becomes, at the end of some hours, brown-red, the greatest caution is requisite, to prevent the temperature from being raised above 114°, and to preserve the mixture quite liquid, while the compound of sulphur and mercury should always be pulverulent. The colour becomes red, and brightens in its hue, often with surprising rapidity. When the tint is nearly fine, the process should be continued at a gentler heat, during some hours. Finally, the vermillion is to be elutriated, in order to separate any particles of running mercury. The three ingredients should be very pure. The proportion of product varies with that of the constituents, as we see from the following results of experiments, in which 300 parts of mercury were always employed, and from 400 to 450 of water:--

Sulphur. Potash. Vermillion obtained.
114 75 330
115 75 331
120 120 321
150 152 382
120 180 245
100 180 244
60 180 142

The first proportions are therefore the most advantageous; the last, which are those of M. Kirchoff himself, are not so good.

Brunner found that 300 parts of quicksilver, 114 of sulphur, 75 of caustic potassa, and from 400 to 450 of water, form very suitable proportions for the moist process; that the best temperature was 113° F.; and that 122° was the highest limit of heat compatible with the production of a fine colour.

The theory of this process is by no means clear. We may suppose that a sulphuret of potassium and mercury is first formed, which is eventually destroyed, in proportion as the oxygen of the air acts upon the sulphuret of potassium itself. There may also be produced some hyposulphite of mercury, which, under the same influence, would be transformed into sulphuret of mercury and sulphate of potash.

Sulphuret of potassium and mercury furnish also vermillion, but it is not beautiful. Red oxide of mercury, calomel, turbith mineral, and the soluble mercury of Hahnemann, treated with the sulphuret of potassium, or the hydrosulphuret of ammonia, are all capable of giving birth to vermillion by the humid way.

The vermillion of commerce is often adulterated with red lead, brickdust, dragon’s blood, and realgar. The first two, not being volatile, remain when the vermillion is heated to its subliming point; the third gives a red tincture to alcohol; the fourth exhales its peculiar garlic smell with heat; and when calcined in a crucible with carbonate of soda, and nitre in excess, affords arsenic acid, which may be detected by the usual chemical tests.

VINEGAR MANUFACTORY, BY MALT. Annual produce, 100,000 gallons.

_Expenses for One Month._ _£ s. d._
Cost of material and fuel for 8,333 gallons,
at 8-3/4_d._ 303 16 2
Wages to 8 workmen, at 25_s._ per week 40 0 0
Salaries to clerks, manager, and traveller 83 6 8
Travelling expensesat 30 0 0
Three horses’ keep 7 10 0
Rent and taxes 25 0 0
-----------
_£_489 12 10
-----------

Expenses for 5 months, at 489_l._ 12_s._ 10_d._ 2448 4 2
Duty on 41,665 gallons, at 2_d._ 347 4 2
Stock of utensils 1500 0 0
------------
_£_4295 8 4
------------

Produce of 100,000 gallons, at 1_s._ 8_d._ _£_8333 6 8
Expenses for 12 months, at 489_l._
12_s._ 10_d._ _£_5875 18 0
Duty on 100,000 gallons,
at 2_d._ 833 6 8
Interest on capital, 4295_l._ 8_s._ 4_d._ 214 4 5
---------
6923 9 1
------------
Net profit _£_1409 17 7
------------

See ACETIC ACID.

VIOLET DYE, is produced by a mixture of red and blue colouring-matters, which are applied in succession. Silk is dyed a fugitive violet with either archil or brazil wood; but a fine fast violet, first by a crimson with cochineal, without tartar or tin mordant, and after washing, it is dipped in the indigo vat. A finish is sometimes given with archil. A violet is also given to silk, by passing it through a solution of verdigris, then through a bath of logwood, and, lastly, through alum water. A more beautiful violet may be communicated by passing the alumed silk through a bath of brazil wood, and after washing it in the river, through a bath of archil.

To produce violets on printed calicoes, a dilute acetate of iron is the mordant, and the dye is madder. The mordanted goods should be well dunged.

A good process for dyeing cottons violet, is--first, to gall, with 18 or 20 pounds of nut-galls for every 100 pounds of cotton; second, to pass the stuff; still hot, through a mordant composed of--alum, 10 pounds; iron-liquor, at 1-1/2° B., and sulphate of copper, each 5 or 6 pounds; water, from 24 to 28 gallons; working it well, with alternate steeping, squeezing, airing, dipping, squeezing, and washing; third, to madder, with its own weight of the root; and fourth, to brighten with soap. If soda be used at the end, instead of soap, the colour called _prune de monsieur_ will be produced; and by varying the doses of the ingredients, a variety of violet tints may be given.

The best violets are produced by dyeing yarn or cloth which has been prepared with oil as for the Turkey-red process. See MADDER.

For the violet _pruneau_, a little nitrate of iron is mixed with the alum mordant, which makes a black; but this is changed into _violet pruneau_, by a madder bath, followed by a brightening with soap.

VITRIFIABLE COLOURS; see ENAMELS, PASTES, POTTERY, and STAINED GLASS.

VITRIOL, from _vitrum_, glass, is the old chemical, and still the vulgar appellation of sulphuric acid, and of many of its compounds, which in certain states have a glassy appearance: thus--

Vitriolic acid, or oil of vitriol, is sulphuric acid; blue vitriol, is sulphate of copper; green vitriol, is green sulphate of iron; vitriol of Mars, is red sulphate of iron; and white vitriol, is sulphate of zinc.

W.

WACKE, is a massive mineral, intermediate between claystone and basalt. It is of a greenish-gray colour; vesicular in structure; dull, opaque; streak shining; soft, easily frangible; spec. grav. 2·55 to 2·9; it fuses like basalt.

WADD, is the provincial name of plumbago in Cumberland; and also of an ore of manganese in Derbyshire, which consists of the peroxide of that metal, associated with nearly its own weight of oxide of iron.

WADDING (_Ouate_, Fr.; _Watte_, Germ.); is the spongy web which serves to line ladies’ pelisses, &c. _Ouate_, or _Wat_, was the name originally given to the glossy downy tufts found in the pods of the plant commonly called _Apocyn_, and by botanists _Asclepias syriaca_, which was imported from Egypt and Asia Minor for the purpose of stuffing cushions, &c. Wadding is now made with a lap or fleece of cotton prepared by the carding-engine (see _Carding_, COTTON MANUFACTURE), which is applied to tissue paper by a coat of size, made by boiling the cuttings of hare-skins, and adding a little alum to the gelatinous solution. When two laps are glued with their faces together, they form the most downy kind of wadding.

WAFERS. There are two manners of manufacturing wafers: 1, with wheat flour and water, for the ordinary kind; and 2, with gelatine. 1. A certain quantity of fine flour is to be diffused through pure water, and so mixed as to leave no clotty particles. This thin pap is then coloured with one or other of the matters to be particularly described under the second head; and which are, vermillion, sulphate of indigo, and gamboge. The pap is not allowed to ferment, but must be employed immediately after it is mixed. For this purpose a tool is employed, consisting of two plates of iron, which come together like pincers or a pair of tongs, leaving a certain small definite space betwixt them. These plates are first slightly heated, greased with butter, filled with the pap, closed, and then exposed for a short time to the heat of a charcoal fire. The iron plates being allowed to cool, on opening them, the thin cake appears dry, solid, brittle, and about as thick as a playing-card. By means of annular punches of different sizes, with sharp edges, the cake is cut into wafers. 2. The transparent wafers are made as follows:--

Dissolve fine glue, or isinglass, in such a quantity of water, that the solution, when cold, may be consistent. Let it be poured hot upon a plate of mirror glass, (previously warmed with steam, and slightly greased,) which is fitted in a metallic frame, with edges just as high as the wafers should be thick. A second plate of glass, heated and greased, is laid on the surface, so as to touch every point of the gelatine, resting on the edges of the frame. By this pressure, the thin cake of gelatine is made perfectly uniform. When the two plates of glass get cold, the gelatine becomes solid, and may easily be removed. It is then cut with proper punches into discs of different sizes.

The colouring-matters ought not to be of an insalubrious kind.

For red wafers, carmine is well adapted, when they are not to be transparent; but this colour is dear, and can be used only for the finer kinds. Instead of it, a decoction of brazil wood, brightened with a little alum, may be employed.

For yellow, an infusion of saffron or turmeric has been prescribed; but a decoction of weld, fustic, or Persian berries, might be used.

Sulphate of indigo, partially saturated with potash, is used for the blue wafers; and this mixed with yellow, for the greens. Some recommend the sulphate to be nearly neutralized with chalk, and to treat the liquor with alcohol, in order to obtain the best blue dye for wafers.

Common wafers are, however, coloured with the substances mentioned at the beginning of the article; and for the cheaper kinds, red lead is used instead of vermillion, and turmeric instead of gamboge.

WALNUT HUSKS, or PEELS (_Brout des noix_, Fr.); are much employed by the French dyers for rooting or giving dun colours.

WARP (_Chaine_, Fr.; _Kette_, _Auschweif_, _Zettel_, Germ.); is the name of the longitudinal threads or yarns, whether of cotton, linen, silk, or wool, which being decussated at right angles by the woof or weft threads, form a piece of cloth. The warp yarns are parallel, and continuous from end to end of the web. See WEAVING, for a description of the _warping-mill_.

WASH, is the fermented wort of the distiller.

WASHING. See BLEACHING, and SCOURING.

WATERING OF STUFFS (_Moirage_, Fr.); is a process to which silk and other textile fabrics are subjected, for causing them to exhibit a variety of undulated reflections, and plays of light. It is produced by sprinkling water upon the goods, and then passing them through a calender, either with cold or hot rollers, plain or variously indented.

WATER-PROOF CLOTH. See CAOUTCHOUC, and GELATINE.

A patent was obtained, in August, 1830, by Mr. Thomas Hancock, for rendering textile fabrics impervious to water and air, by spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the surfaces of the goods, and then exposing them to the air to dry. It does not appear that this project has been realized in our manufactures.

Mr. William Simpson Potter proposes, in his patent, of April, 1835, to render fabrics water-proof by imbuing them with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush applied to the wrong side of the cloth, distended upon a table. After it is dry, it must be brushed on the wrong side, against the grain. Then the brush is to be dipped in clean water, and passed lightly over the cloth. The gloss caused by the above application can be taken off by brushing the goods when they are dry. Cloth so prepared is said to be impervious to water, but not to air.

I have examined woollen cloth now on sale in a shop in the Strand, which may be breathed through with the greatest facility, but which retains water upon its surface, as is evinced by a body of water standing upon a concave piece of it tied over a show-glass in the window.

Mr. Sievier’s plan of rendering cloth water-proof, for which he obtained a patent in December, 1835, consists in spreading over it, with a brush, a solution of India rubber in spirits of turpentine, at one or more applications, and then applying a similar solution mixed with acetate of lead, litharge, sulphate of zinc, gum mastic, or other drying material. He next takes wool, or other textile material, cut into proper lengths, and spreads it upon the surface of the fabric varnished in this manner, for the purpose of forming the nap or pile. He then presses the cloth by means of rollers, or brushes, so as to fix the nap firmly to its surface.

WATERS, MINERAL--TABLE I. ANALYSES of the principal MINERAL WATERS of Germany.

+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+
|Grains of Anhydrous | Carlsbad. | ms. |Schlesi-|Marien-|Auscho-|
|Ingredients in One | | | scher. | bad. |witz. |
|Pound Troy. | | | Ober- |Kreutz-|Ferdi- |
| | | | salz- | br. |nands- |
| | | |brunnen.| |brun- |
| | | | | |nen. |
+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+
|Carbonate of Soda | 7·2712 | 8·0625 | 6·1133 | 5·3499| 4·5976|
|Ditto of Lithia | 0·0150 | 0·0405 | 0·0127 | 0·0858| 0·0507|
|Ditto of Baryta | -- | 0·0022 | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Strontia | 0·0055 | 0·0080 | 0·0165 | 0·0028| 0·0040|
|Ditto of Lime | 1·7775 | 0·8555 | 1·7497 | 2·9509| 3·0085|
|Ditto of Magnesia | 1·0275 | 0·5915 | 1·4107 | 2·0390| 2·2867|
|Do. (Proto) of Manganese| 0·0048 | 0·0028 | -- | 0·0288| 0·0692|
|Ditto (Proto) of Iron | 0·0208 | 0·0120 | 0·0480 | 0·1319| 0·2995|
|Sub-Phos. of Lime | 0·0012 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Alumina | 0·0019 | 0·0014 | 0·0045 | -- | 0·0040|
|Sulphate of Potassa | -- | 0·4050 | 0·2220 | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Soda | 14·9019 | -- | 2·2095 |28·5868|16·9022|
|Ditto of Lithia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Lime | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Strontia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Chlor. of Potassium | - - | 0·0338 | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Sodium | 5·9820 | 5·7255 | 0·8752 |10·1727| 6·7472|
|Ditto of Magnesium | - - | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Fluoride of Calcium | 0·0184 | 0·0014 | -- | -- | -- |
|Alumina | - - | -- | -- | 0·0023| -- |
|Silica | 0·4329 | 0·3104 | 0·2531 | 0·2908| 0·5023|
| +-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+
|Total | 31·4606 | 16·0525 |12·9152 |49·6417|34·4719|
| +-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+
|Carbonic Acid Gas in 100| | | | | |
|cubic inches | 58 | 51 | 98 | 105 | 146 |
|Temperature (F.) |Sprud. 165°| | | | |
| |Neub. 138°|Kess. 117°| 58° | 53° | 46° |
| |Mühl. 128°|Krän. 84°| | | |
| |Ther. 122°| | | | |
|Analyzed by |Berzelius. |Struve. |Struve. |Berze- |Stein- |
| | | | |lius. |mann. |
+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
|Grains of Anhydrous |Eger. | Pyr- | Spa. | Fach- |Geil- | Selt- |
|Ingredients in One |Fran- | mont. | Pou- |ingen. | nau. | zer. |
|Pound Troy. |zens- | | hon. | | | |
| |brun- | | | | | |
| |nen. | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
|Carbonate of Soda |3·8914| -- |0·5531|12·3328|4·9658| 4·6162|
|Ditto of Lithia |0·0282| | | | | |
|Ditto of Baryta | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0014|
|Ditto of Strontia |0·0023| -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0144|
|Ditto of Lime |1·3501| 4·7781|0·7387| 1·8667|2·2279| 1·4004|
|Ditto of Magnesia |0·5040| -- |0·8425| 1·2983|1·6282| 1·5000|
|Do. (Proto) of Manganese|0·0322| 0·0364|0·0389| -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto (Proto) of Iron |0·1762| 0·3213|0·2813| -- | -- | -- |
|Sub-Phos. of Lime |0·0172| -- |0·0102| 0·0061| -- | 0·0007|
|Ditto of Alumina |0·0092| 0·0110|0·0064| -- | -- | 0·0020|
|Sulphate of Potassa | -- | 0·0314|0·0598| -- |0·2154| 0·2978|
|Ditto of Soda |8·3785| 1·6092|0·0289| 0·1267|0·0315| -- |
|Ditto of Lithia | -- | 0·0067| -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Lime | -- | 5·0265| -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Strontia | -- | 0·0154| -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Ditto of Magnesia | -- | 2·3684| -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Chlor. of Potassium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·2685|
|Ditto of Sodium |6·9229| -- |0·3371| 3·2337|0·4072|12·9690|
|Ditto of Magnesium | -- | 0·8450| -- | -- | -- | -- |
|Fluoride of Calcium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0013|
|Alumina | -- | -- | -- | -- |0·0185| |
|Silica |0·3548| 0·3727|0·3739| 0·0657|0·2021| 0·2265|
| +------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
|Total |1·6670|15·4221|3·2691|18·9300|9·6966|21·2982|
| +------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+
|Carbonic Acid Gas in 100| | | | | | |
|cubic inches | 154 | 160 | 136 | 135 | 163 | 126 |
|Temperature (F.) | | | | | | |
| | 53° | 56° | 50° | 50° | 51° | 58° |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
|Analyzed by |Berze-|Struve.|Stru- |Bi- |Stru- |Struve.|
| |ius | |ve. |schoff.|ve. | |
+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+
|Grains of Anhydrous | Selt- | Seid- |Püllna. |
|Ingredients in One | zer. |schutz.| |
|Pound Troy. | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+
|Carbonate of Soda | 4·6162| | |
|Ditto of Lithia | | | |
|Ditto of Baryta | 0·0014| | |
|Ditto of Strontia | 0·0144| | |
|Ditto of Lime | 1·4004| 5·1045| 0·5775|
|Ditto of Magnesia | 1·5000| 0·8235| 4·8045|
|Do. (Proto) of Manganese| -- | 0·0032| |
|Ditto (Proto) of Iron | -- | 0·0095| |
|Sub-Phos. of Lime | 0·0007| 0·0117| 0·0026|
|Ditto of Alumina | 0·0020| 0·0088| |
|Sulphate of Potassa | 0·2978| 3·6705| 3·6000|
|Ditto of Soda | -- |17·6220| 92·8500|
|Ditto of Lithia | -- | | |
|Ditto of Lime | -- | 1·1287| 1·9500|
|Ditto of Strontia | -- | 0·0347| |
|Ditto of Magnesia | -- |62·3535| 69·8145|
|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | 5·9302| |
|Chlor. of Potassium | 0·2685| | |
|Ditto of Sodium |12·9690| | |
|Ditto of Magnesium | -- | 1·2225| 14·7495|
|Fluoride of Calcium | 0·0013| | |
|Alumina | | | |
|Silica | 0·2265| 0·0900| 0·1320|
| +-------+-------+--------+
|Total |21·2982|98·0133|188·4806|
| +-------+-------+--------+
|Carbonic Acid Gas in 100| | | |
|cubic inches | 126 | 20 | 7 |
|Temperature (F.) | | | |
| | 58° | 58° | 58° |
| | | | |
| | | | |
|Analyzed by |Struve.|Struve.|Struve. |
| | | | |
+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+

TABLE II.--The COMPOSITION of other celebrated MINERAL WATERS.

+------------------------------+------+--------------------------+
|Names of the Springs. |Grains| Cubic Inches of Gases. |
| | of +------+-----+------+------+
| |water.| Oxy- |Car- |Sulph.|Azote.|
| | | gen. |bonic|hydro-| |
| | | |acid.| gen. | |
+------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------+
| | | | | | |
| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. |138240| -- | 84·0| 36·0 | -- |
| | | | | | |
|Sulphurous. | | | | | |
| Harrowgate (2) |103643| -- | 8·0| 19·0 | 7·0 |
| Moffat (2) |103643| -- | 1·0| 10·0 | 4·0 |
| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | 8940| -- | -- | 13·06| -- |
| Enghein (4) | 92160| -- | 18·5| 7·0 | -- |
| | | | | | |
|Saline. | | | | | |
| Seidlitz | 58309| -- | 8·0| -- | -- |
| Cheltenham (5) |103643| -- | 30·3| 3·0 | 12·0 |
| Plombieres (6) | 14600| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 7291| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Pitcaithley (7) | 7291| -- | 1·0| -- | -- |
| | | | | | |
|Chalybeate. | | | | | |
| Tunbridge (3) |103643| 1·4 | 10·6| -- | 4·0 |
| Brighton (8) | 58309| -- | 18·0| -- | -- |
| Toplitz (9) | 22540| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | | |
|Calcareous, nearly pure. | | | | | |
| Bath (10) | 15360| -- | 2·4| -- | -- |
| Buxton (11) | 58309| -- | -- | -- | 2·0 |
| Bristol (12) | 58309| -- | 30·3| -- | -- |
| Matlock | 58309| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Malvern (13) | 58309| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | | |
| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | 100| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Sea water, Forth (7) | 7291| -- | -- | -- | -- |
+------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------+

+------------------------------+--------------------------+
|Names of the Springs. | Carbonates of |
| +-----+-----+-----+--------+
| |Soda.|Lime.|Mag- | Iron. |
| | | |ne- | |
| | | |sia. | |
+------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+--------+
| | grs.|grs. |grs. | grs. |
| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | -- | 2·4 | 1·25| 0·3-1/4|
| | | | | |
|Sulphurous. | | | | |
| Harrowgate (2) | -- |18·5 | 5·5 | -- |
| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- |15·25| 5·89| -- |
| Enghein (4) | -- |21·4 | 1·35| -- |
| | | | | |
|Saline. | | | | |
| Seidlitz | -- | 6·7 |21·0 | -- |
| Cheltenham (5) | -- | -- |12·5 | 5·0 |
| Plombieres (6) | 36·0| 0·4 | -- | -- |
| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| -- | 0·5 | -- | 0·17 |
| Pitcaithley (7) | -- | 0·5 | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
|Chalybeate. | | | | |
| Tunbridge (3) | -- | -- | -- | 1·0 |
| Brighton (8) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Toplitz (9) | 13·5|16·5 | -- | 32·5 |
| | | | | |
|Calcareous, nearly pure. | | | | |
| Bath (10) | -- | 1·6 | -- | 0·004 |
| Buxton (11) | -- |10·5 | -- | -- |
| Bristol (12) | -- |13·5 | -- | -- |
| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Malvern (13) | 5·33| 1·6 | 0·92| 0·625 |
| | | | | |
| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Sea water, Forth (7) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+--------+