Chapter II: Application of Light-Gas (23)

_Process of Haussmann._--He treats cotton twice or 4 times in a solution of aluminated potash, mixed with one thirty-eighth part of linseed oil. The solution is made by adding caustic potash to alum. He dries and rinses each time, and dries after the last operation. He then rinses and proceeds to the madder bath. For the rose colour, he takes one pound of madder for one pound of cotton; for carmine red, he takes from 2 to 3 pounds; and for the deepest red, no less than 4 pounds. It is said that the colour thus obtained surpasses Turkey red.

_The French process, by Vitalis of Rouen._--First operation. Scouring with a soda lye, of 1° Baumé, to which there is usually added the remainder of the _white_ preparation bath, which consists of oil and soda with water. It is then washed, wrung out, and dried.

In the second operation, he states that from 25 to 30 pounds of sheep’s dung are commonly used for 100 pounds of cotton yarn. The dung is first steeped for some days in a lye of soda, of 8° to 10° B. This is afterwards diluted with about 500 pints of a weaker ley, and at the same time bruised with the hand in a copper basin whose bottom is pierced with small holes. The liquor is then poured into a vat containing 5 or 6 pounds of fat oil (Gallipoli), and the whole are well mixed. The cotton is washed in this, and the hanks of yarn are then stretched on perches in the open air, and turned from time to time, so as to make it dry equably. After receiving thus a certain degree of desiccation, it is carried into the drying house, which is heated to 50° Reaumur (144° Fahrenheit), where it loses the remainder of its moisture, which would have prevented it from combining with the other mordants which it is afterwards to receive. What is left of the bath is called _avances_, and is added to the following bath. Two, or even three dung baths are given to the cotton, when it is wished to have very rich colours. When the cotton has received the dung baths, care must be taken not to leave it lying in heaps for any length of time, lest it should take fire; an accident which has occasionally happened.

The white bath is prepared by pouring 6 pounds of fat oil, into 50 pints of soda water, at 1° or sometimes less, according as, by a preliminary trial, the oil requires. This bath ought to be repeated two, three, or even a greater number of times, as more or less body is to be given to the colour.

To what remains of the white bath, and which is also styled _avances_, about 100 pints of soda lye of two or three degrees are added. Through this the cotton is passed as usual. Formerly it was the practice to give two, or three, or even four oils. Now, two are found to be sufficient.

The cotton is steeped for five or six hours in a tepid solution of soda, of 1° at most; it is set to drain, is then sprinkled with water, and at the end of an hour is washed, hank by hank, to purge it entirely from the oil. What remains of the water of degraissage, serves for the scouring or first operation.

For 100 pounds of cotton, from 20 to 25 pounds of galls in sorts must be taken, which are bruised and boiled in about 100 pints of water, till they crumble easily between the fingers. The galling may be done at two operations, dividing the above quantity of galls between them, which is thought to give a richer and more uniform colour.

The aluming of 100 pounds of cotton requires from twenty-five to thirty pounds of pure alum, that is, alum entirely free from ferruginous salts. The alum should be dissolved without boiling, in about 100 pints of river or rain water. When the alum is dissolved, there is to be poured in a solution of soda, made with the sixteenth part of the weight of the alum. A second portion of the alkaline solution must not be poured in till the effervescence caused by the first portion has entirely ceased,--and so in succession. The bath of saturated alum, being merely tepid, the cotton is passed through it, as in the gall bath, so as to impregnate it well, and it is dried with the precautions recommended above. The dyers who gall at two times, alum also twice, for like reasons.

For 25 pounds of cotton, 25 pints of blood are prescribed, and 400 pints of water. Whenever the bath begins to warm, 50 pounds of madder are diffused through the bath; though sometimes the maddering is given at two operations, by dividing the madder into two portions.

The brightening bath is prepared always for 100 pounds of cotton, with from four to five pounds of rich oil, six pounds of Marseilles white soap, and 600 litres of soda water of 2° B.

The rosing is given with solution of tin, mixed with soap water.

The Turkey-red dye of Messrs. Monteith and Co., of Glasgow, is celebrated all over the world, and merits a brief description here.

The calico is taken as it comes from the loom without bleaching, for the natural colour of the cotton wool harmonizes well with the dye about to be given; it is subjected to a fermentative steep for 24 hours, like that preliminary to bleaching, after which it is washed at the dash wheel. It is then boiled in a lye, containing about 1 pound of soda crystals for 12 pounds of cloth. The oiling process now begins. A bath is made with 10 gallons of Gallipoli oil, 15 gallon measures of sheep’s dung not indurated; 40 gallons of solution of soda crystals, of 1·06 specific gravity; 10 gallons of solution of pearl-ash of spec. grav. 1·04; and 140 gallons of water; constituting a milk-white, soapy solution of about spec. grav. 1·022. This liquor is put into a large cylindrical vat, and constantly agitated by the rotation of wooden vanes, which are best constructed on the plan of the mashing apparatus of a brewery, but far slighter. This saponaceous compound is let off as wanted by a stopcock into the trough of a padding machine, in order to imbue every fibre of the cloth in its passage. This impregnation is still more fully ensured by laying the padded cloth aside in wooden troughs during 16 or 18 days. The sheep’s dung has been of late years disused by many Turkey-red dyers both in England and France, but it is found to be advantageous in producing the very superior colour of the Glasgow establishment. It is supposed, also, to promote the subsequent bleaching during the exposure on the green; which is the next process in favourable weather, but in bad weather the goods are dried over a hot-flue.

The cloth is padded again with the saponaceous liquor; and again spread on the grass, or dried hard in the stove. This alternation is repeated a third time, and occasionally, even a fourth.

The cloth by this time is varnished as it were with oil, and must be cleansed in a certain degree by being passed through a weak solution of pearl-ash, at the temperature of about 122° F. It is then squeezed by the rollers and dried.

A second system of oiling now commences, with the following liquor:--10 gallons of Gallipoli oil; 30 gallons of soda crystals lye, of sp. grav. 1·06; and 10 gallons of caustic potash lye, of specific gravity 1·04, thoroughly diffused through 170 gallons of water. With this saponaceous liquor the cloth is padded as before, and then passed between squeezing-rollers, which return the superfluous liquor into the padding-trough. The cloth may be now laid on the grass if convenient; but at any rate it must be hard dried in the stove.

These saponifying, grassing, and drying processes, are repeated three times; whereby the cloth becomes once more very oleaginous, and must be cleansed again by steeping in a compound lye of soda crystals and pearl-ash of the spec. grav. 1·012, at the temperature of 122°. The cloth is taken out, squeezed between rollers to save the liquor, and washed. A considerable portion of the mingled alkalis disappear in this operation, as if they entered into combination with the oil in the interior of the cotton filaments. The cloth is now hard dried.

_Galling_ is the next great step in the Turkey-red preparation; and for its success all the oil should have been perfectly saponified.

From 18 to 20 pounds of Aleppo galls (for each 100 libs of cloth) are to be bruised and boiled for 3 or 4 hours, in 25 gallons of water, till 5 gallons be evaporated; and the decoction is to be then passed through a searce. Two pounds of sumach may be substituted for every pound of galls. The goods must be well padded with this decoction, kept at 90° F., passed through squeezing-rollers, and dried. They are then passed through a solution of alum of the sp. gr. 1·04, to which a certain portion of chalk is added to saturate the acid excess of that supersalt; and in this cretaceous mixture, heated to 110°, the cloth is winced and steeped for 12 hours. It is then passed between squeezing-rollers, and dried in the stove.

The _maddering_ comes next.

From two to three pounds of madder, ground to powder in a proper mill, are taken for every pound of cloth. The cloth, as usual in maddering, is entered into the cold bath, and winced by the automatic reel during one hour that the bath takes to boil, and during an ebullition of two hours afterwards. One gallon of bullock’s blood is added to the cold bath for every 25 pounds of cloth; being the quantity operated upon in one bath. The utility of the blood in improving the colour has been ascribed to its colouring particles; but it is more probably owing to its albuminous matter combining with the margarates of soda and potash condensed in the fibres.

As madder contains a dingy brown colouring matter associated with the fine red, the goods must be subjected to a clearing process to remove the former tinge, which is more fugitive than the latter. Every hundred pounds of cloth are therefore boiled during 12 hours at least, with water containing 5 pounds of soda crystals, 8 pounds of soap, and 16 gallons of the residual pearl-ash and soda-lye of the last cleansing operation. By this powerful means the dun matter is well nigh removed; but it is completely so by a second boil, at a heat of 250° F., in a tight globular copper, along with 5 pounds of soap, and 1 pound of muriate of tin crystals, dissolved in a sufficient body of water for 100 pounds of cloth. The muriate of tin serves to raise the madder red to a scarlet hue. A margarate of tin is probably fixed upon the cloth in this operation.

When the weather permits, the goods should be now laid out for a few days on the grass. Some manufacturers give them a final brightening with a weak bath of a chloride of lime; but it is apt to impoverish the colour.

According to the latest improvements of the French dyers, each of the four processes of oiling, mordanting, dyeing, and brightening differs, in some respects, from the above.

1. Their first step is boiling the cloth for four hours, in water containing one pound of soap for every four pieces. Their saponaceous bath of a creamy aspect is used at a temperature of 75° F.; and it is applied by the padding machine 6 times, with the grassing and drying alternations. In winter, when the goods cannot be exposed on the grass, no less than 12 alternations of the saponaceous or white bath are employed, and 8 in spring. They consider the action of the sun-beam to aid greatly in brightening this dye; but at Midsummer, if it be continued more than 4 hours, the scarlet colour produced begins to be impaired.

They conceive that the oiling operation impregnates the fibres with super-margarate of potash or soda, insoluble salts which attract and condense the alumina, and the red colouring particles of the madder, so firmly that they can resist the clearing boil.

2. Their second step, the mordanting, consists first in padding the pieces through a decoction of galls mixed with a solution of an equal weight of alum; and after drying in the hot-flue, &c., again padding them in a solution of an acetate of alumina, made by decomposing a solution of 16 libs. of alum with 16 libs of acetate of lead, for 6 pieces of cloth, each 32 _aunes_ long.

3. The maddering is given at two successive operations; with 4 pounds of Avignon madder per piece at each time.

4. The _brightening_ is performed by a 12 hours’ boil in water with soda crystals, soap, and salt of tin; and the _rosing_ by a 10 hours’ boil with soap and salt of tin. Occasionally, the goods are passed through a weak solution of chloride of potash. When the red has too much of a crimson cast, the pieces are exposed for two days on the grass, which gives them a bright scarlet tint.

Process of M. Werdet to dye broad cloth and wool by madder:--

“Preparation for 24 pounds of scoured wool:

“Take 4-1/4 pounds of cream of tartar, 4-1/4 pounds of pure alum; boil the wool gently for 2 hours, transfer it into a cool place, and wash it next day in clear water.

“_Dyeing._--12 pounds of Avignon madder, infused half an hour at 30° R. (100° F.) Put into the bath 1 pound of muriate of tin, let the colour rose for three quarters of an hour at the same heat, and drain or squeeze the madder through canvas. The whole of the red dye will remain upon the filter, but the water which has passed through will be as deep a yellow as a weld bath. The boiler with the dye must now be filled up with clear river water, and heated to 100° F. Two ounces of the solution of the tartar and alum must be poured into it, and the wool must be turned over in it for an hour and a half, while the heat is gradually raised to the boiling point. The wool is then removed and washed. It must be rosed the following day.

“_Rosing._--Dissolve in hot water 1 pound of white Marseilles soap; let the bath cool, and pass the wool through it till it has acquired the desired shade; 15 or 20 minutes are sufficient. On coming out of this bath it should be washed.

“_Solution of deuto-muriate of tin_:--

“2 ounces of pure muriatic acid; 4 drachms of pure nitric acid; 1 ounce of distilled water. Dissolve in it, by small portions at a time, 2 drachms of grain tin, in a large bottle of white glass, shutting it after putting in the tin. This solution may be preserved for years, without losing its virtue.”

I have inserted this process, as recently recommended by the French minister of commerce, and published by M. Pouillet in vol. i. of his Portefeuille Industriel, to show what _official_ importance is sometimes given by our neighbours to the most frivolous things.

Madders imported for home consumption. Gross amount of Duty paid in
1836. 1837. 1836. 1837.
Cwts. 106,172 | cwts. 79,228 | _£_10,810 | _£_8,081

MADREPORES, are calcareous incrustations produced by _polypi_ contained in cells of greater or less depth, placed at the surface of calcareous ramifications, which are fixed at their base, and perforated with a great many pores. The mode of the increase, reproduction and death of these animals is still unknown to naturalists. Living madrepores are now-a-days to be observed only in the South American, the Indian, and the Red seas; but although their polypi are not found in our climate at present, there can be no doubt of their having existed in these northern latitudes in former times, since fossil madrepores occur in both the older and newer secondary strata of Europe.

MAGISTERY, is an old chemical term to designate white pulverulent substances, spontaneously precipitated in making certain metallic solutions; as magistery of bismuth.

MAGISTRAL, in the language of the Spanish smelters of Mexico and South America, is the roasted and pulverized copper pyrites, which is added to the ground ores of silver in their _patio_, or amalgamation magma, for the purpose of decomposing the horn silver present. See SILVER, for an account of this curious process of reduction.

MAGMA, is the generic name of any crude mixture of mineral or organic matters, in a thin pasty state.

MAGNANIER, is the name given in the southern departments of France to the proprietor of a nursery in which silk-worms are reared upon the great scale, or to the manager of the establishment. The word is derived from _magnans_, which signifies silkworms in the language of the country people. See SILK.

MAGNESIA (Eng. and Fr.; _Bittererde_, _Talkerde_, Germ.), is one of the primitive earths, first proved by Sir H. Davy to be the oxide of a metal, which he called _magnesium_. It is a fine, light, white powder, without taste or smell, which requires 5150 parts of cold water, and no less than 36,000 parts of boiling water, for its solution. Its specific gravity is 2·3. It is fusible only by the heat of the hydroxygen blowpipe. A natural hydrate is said to exist which contains 30 per cent. of water. Magnesia changes the purple infusion of red cabbage to a bright green. It attracts carbonic acid from the air, but much more slowly than quicklime. It consists of 61·21 parts of metallic basis, and 38·79 of oxygen; and has, therefore, 20 for its prime equivalent upon the hydrogen scale. Its only employment in the arts is for the purification of fine oil, in the preparation of varnish.

Magnesia may be obtained by precipitation with potash or soda, from its sulphate, commonly called Epsom salt; but it is usually procured by calcining the artificial or natural carbonate. The former is, properly speaking, a subcarbonate, consisting of 44·69 magnesia, 35·86 carbonic acid, and 19·45 water. It is prepared by adding to the solution of the sulphate, or the muriate (the _bittern_ of sea-salt evaporation works), a solution of carbonate of soda, or of carbonate of ammonia distilled from bones in iron cylinders. The sulphate of magnesia is generally made by acting upon magnesian limestone with somewhat dilute sulphuric acid. The sulphate of lime precipitates, while the sulphate of magnesia remains in solution, and may be made to crystallize in quadrangular prisms, by suitable evaporation and slow cooling. Where muriatic acid may be had in profusion for the trouble of collecting it, as in the soda works in which sea salt is decomposed by sulphuric acid, the magnesian limestone should be first acted upon with as much of the former acid as will dissolve out the lime, and then, the residuum being treated with the latter acid, will afford a sulphate at the cheapest possible rate; from which magnesia and all its other preparations may be readily made. Or, if the equivalent quantity of calcined magnesian limestone be boiled for some time in bittern, the lime of the former will displace the magnesia from the muriatic acid of the latter. This is the most economical process for manufacturing magnesia. The subcarbonate, or _magnesia alba_ of the apothecary, has been proposed by Mr. E. Davy to be added by the baker to damaged flour, to counteract its acescency.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE (_Dolomie_, Fr.; _Bittertalk_, _Talkspath_, Germ.), is a mineral which crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Spec. grav. 2·86; scratches calc-spar; does not fall spontaneously into powder, when calcined, as common limestone does. It consists of 1 prime equivalent of carbonate of lime = 50, associated with 1 of carbonate of magnesia = 42.

_Massive magnesian limestone_, is yellowish-brown, cream-yellow, and yellowish-gray; brittle. It dissolves slowly and with feeble effervescence in dilute muriatic acid; whence it is called _Calcaire lent dolomie_ by the French mineralogists. Specific gravity 2·6 to 2·7.

Near Sunderland, it is found in flexible slabs. The principal range of hills composing this geological formation in England, extends from Sunderland on the northeast coast to Nottingham, and its beds are described as being about 300 feet thick on the east of the coal field in Derbyshire, which is near its southern extremity. On the western side of the Cumberland mountains magnesian limestone overlies the coal measures near Whitehaven. The stratification of this rock is very distinct, the individual courses of stone not exceeding in general the thickness of a common brick.

The lime resulting from the calcination of magnesian limestone appears to have an injurious action on vegetation, unless applied in quantities considerably less than common lime, when it is found to fertilize the soil. After two years, its hurtful influence on the ground seems to become exhausted, even when used in undue quantity. Great quantities of it are annually brought from Sunderland to Scotland by the Fifeshire farmers, and employed beneficially by them, as a manure, in preference to other kinds of lime. It has been unfairly denounced by Mr. Tennent and Sir H. Davy, as a sterilizer.

This rock is used in many places for building; indeed our most splendid monument of Gothic architecture, York Minster, is constructed of magnesian limestone.

MAGNESIA, NATIVE (_Brucite_; _Guhr magnésien_, Fr.; _Wassertalk_, Germ.), is a white, lamellar, pearly-looking mineral, soft to the touch. Spec. grav. 2·336; tender; scratched by calc-spar; affording water by calcination; leaving a white substance which browns turmeric paper; and, by calcination with nitrate of cobalt, becoming of a lilac hue. It consists of 69·75 magnesia, and 30·25 water. It occurs in veins in the serpentine at Hoboken, in New Jersey, as also at Swinaness, in the island of Unst, Shetland.

MAGNESITE, _Giobertite_; native carbonate of magnesia, occurs in white, hard, stony masses, in the presidency of Madras, and in a few other localities. It dissolves very slowly in muriatic acid, and gives out carbonic acid in the proportion of 22 parts by weight to 42 of the mineral, according to my experiments, and is therefore an atomic carbonate. It forms an excellent and beautiful mortar cement for terraces; a purpose to which it has been beneficially applied in India by Dr. Macleod.

MAGNET, NATIVE, is a mineral consisting of the protoxide and peroxide of iron combined in equivalent proportions. See IRON.

MAHALEB. The fruit of this shrub affords a violet dye, as well as a fermented liquor like _Kirschwasser_. It is a species of cherry cultivated in our gardens.

MALACHITE, or _mountain green_, is native carbonate of copper of a beautiful green colour, with variegated radiations and zones; spec. grav. 3·5; it scratches calc-spar, but not fluor; by calcination it affords water and turns black. Its solution in the acids, deposits copper upon a plate of iron plunged into it. It consists of carbonic acid 18·5; deutoxide of copper 72·2; water 9·3.

MALATES, are saline compounds of the bases, with

MALIC ACID. (_Acide malique_, Fr.; _Aepfelsäure_, Germ.) This acid exists in the juices of many fruits and plants, alone, or associated with the citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids; and occasionally combined with potash or lime. Unripe apples, sloes, barberries, the berries of the mountain ash, elder berries, currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, bilberries, brambleberries, whortleberries, cherries, ananas, afford malic acid; the house-leek and purslane contain the malate of lime.

The acid may be obtained most conveniently from the juice of the berries of the mountain ash, or barberries. This must be clarified, by mixing with white of egg, and heating the mixture to ebullition; then filtering, digesting the clear liquor with carbonate of lead, till it becomes neutral; and evaporating the saline solution, till crystals, of malate of lead be obtained. These are to be washed with cold water, and purified by re-crystallization. On dissolving the white salt in water, and passing a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, the lead will be all separated in the form of a sulphuret, and the liquor, after filtration and evaporation, will yield yellow granular crystals, or cauliflower concretions, of malic acid, which may be blanched by re-dissolution and digestion with bone-black, and re-crystallization.

Malic acid has no smell, but a very sour taste, deliquesces by absorption of moisture from the air, is soluble in alcohol, fuses at 150° Fahr., is decomposed at a heat of 348°, and affords by distillation a peculiar acid, the pyromalic. It consists in 100 parts, of 41·47 carbon; 3·51 hydrogen; and 55·02 oxygen; having nearly the same composition as citric acid. A crude malic acid might be economically extracted from the fruit of the mountain ash, applicable to many purposes; but it has not hitherto been manufactured upon the great scale.

MALLEABILITY, is the property belonging to certain metals, of being extended under the hammer. A table of malleability is given in the article DUCTILITY.

MALT; (Eng. and Fr.; _Malz_, Germ.) is barley-corn, which has been subjected to an artificial process of germination. See BEER.

Table of the Quantity of Malt consumed by the undermentioned Brewers of London and Vicinity, from October 10th, 1836, to October 10th, 1837.

+--------------------------------+-------+
| Brewers. | Qrs. |
+--------------------------------+-------+
|Barclay and Co. | 100005|
|Hanbury and Co. | 82798|
|Whitbread and Co. | 47012|
|Reid and Co. | 43945|
|Combe and Co. | 40366|
|Hoare and Co. | 32347|
|Calvert and Co. | 32335|
|Meux and Co. | 30575|
|Elliot and Co. | 24154|
|Taylor and Co. | 23556|
|Charrington and Co. | 18842|
|Thorne and Son | 16404|
|Gardner | 15256|
|Ramsbottom and Co. | 15227|
|J. & C. Goding (11 months) | 14023|
|Bricheno | 9863|
|Courage and Co. | 9284|
|Wood and Co. | 7834|
|Goding, Thos. | 7095|
|Hazard | 6674|
|Mann, Jas. | 6588|
|Harris, Thos. | 6042|
|More | 6025|
|M’Leod, B. | 4960|
|Farren and Till | 4783|
|Manners and Co. | 4552|
|Hale, George. | 4547|
|Halford and Topham | 3786|
|Stains and Fox | 5783|
|Lamont and Co. | 3600|
|Laxton | 3583|
|Richmond | 3174|
|Maynard | 3133|
|M’Leod and Thompson | 2834|
|Tubb | 2826|
|Johnson and Wyatt | 2809|
|Duggan and Co. | 2665|
|Hodgson | 2400|
|Sherborn and Co. | 2347|
|Griffith | 2221|
|Cox, John | 2151|
|Masterman | 1914|
|Hill and Rice | 1853|
|Gray and Dacre | 1760|
|Plimmer | 1747|
|Hayward | 1737|
|Verey, W. and C. | 1573|
|Williamson and Co. | 1566|
|Honeyball | 1512|
|Satchell and Son | 1441|
|Clarke, C. | 1330|
|Colyer | 1299|
|Filmer and Wall | 1298|
|Nicholls and Co. | 1240|
|Hagan | 1143|
|Hume | 1126|
|Buckley and Co. | 1025|
|Verey, J. | 1017|
|Collins, J. | 966|
|Jones | 956|
|Ufford and Oldershaw | 953|
|Blogg, B. | 943|
|Ing | 900|
|Keep | 886|
|Soulby | 861|
|Clarke, R. | 834|
|Jenner | 833|
|Manvell | 824|
|M’Leods | 820|
|Braithwaite | 799|
|Addison | 768|
|Turner | 766|
|Holt | 756|
|Church | 742|
|Clarke, S. | 741|
|Mann, Joel | 733|
|Turner | 712|
|Mantell | 693|
|Lock | 651|
|Hood | 649|
|Pink, A. | 636|
|Collins | 598|
|Wright | 588|
|West | 565|
|Abbott | 560|
|Hett (6 months) | 552|
|Wells | 520|
|Higgs | 475|
|Harris, Robt. | 470|
|Woodward | 462|
|Wicks | 441|
|Bell | 440|
|Thompson | 406|
|Mattam | 400|
|M’Intosh | 397|
|Thurlby | 392|
|Griffiths | 391|
|Kay | 360|
|Tidman | 332|
|Lindsay | 326|
|Cooper | 315|
|West | 306|
|Carpenter | 299|
|Green | 292|
|Chapman | 286|
|Brace | 266|
|Clark | 248|
|Allen | 245|
|Powditch | 238|
|Garnett | 232|
|Hill | 222|
|Olley | 214|
|Ward | 206|
|Bye | 201|
|Newton | 175|
|Chadwick | 169|
|Prosser | 166|
|Smith | 164|
|Edwards | 156|
|Pugh | 155|
|Hainstock | 155|
|Lloyd | 154|
|Reynolds | 151|
|Latham | 142|
|Meaton | 140|
|Brewer | 135|
|Stirling | 133|
|Ambler | 130|
|Potter | 122|
|Champion | 121|
|Miller | 115|
|Edwards | 108|
|Easton | 105|
|Griffiths | 105|
|Hopkins | 91|
|Hudson | 90|
|Thorpe | 89|
|Burt | 88|
|Bowden | 88|
|Batt | 84|
|Phillips | 83|
|Jewit | 82|
|Tyler | 76|
|Whittaker | 75|
|Begbie | 75|
|Carter | 75|
|Priddle | 74|
|Coomber | 73|
|Stallwood | 71|
|Jones | 71|
|Rose | 67|
|Norris | 67|
|Remnant | 62|
|Kearney | 62|
|Smith | 62|
|Woodroffe | 60|
|Knight | 60|
|Graves | 54|
|Sheppard | 52|
|Field | 51|
|Bradfield | 51|
|Webb | 50|
|Chapman | 48|
|Price | 45|
|Godfrey | 45|
|Hobbs | 32|
|Denman | 31|
+--------------------------------+-------+
| Qrs. |
|Quantity used 1836, 754,313|
|Quantity used 1837, 714,488|
| -------|
| Decrease 1837, 39,825|
| -------|
| JOHN SLATER, _Cask Inspector_. |
|_Hop-Duty_, 1837. (_Old_) _£_178,578. |
|3_s._ 0-1/2_d._ |
+----------------------------------------+

Table of the Quantity of Malt from Barley, which paid Duty in

+------+----------+---------+---------+
|Years.| England. |Scotland.| Ireland.|
+------+----------+---------+---------+
| | Bushels. | Bushels.| Bushels.|
|1834. |34,949,646|3,580,758|1,776,883|
|1835. |36,078,855|3,604,816|1,825,300|
|1836. |37,196,998|4,168,854|1,872,104|
| |
| Amount of Duties paid: |
| | _£_ | _£_ | _£_ |
|1834. | 4,449,745| 462,514| 229,514|
|1835. | 4,660,185| 465,622| 235,767|
|1836. | 4,804,612| 538,477| 241,813|
+------+----------+---------+---------+

MALT KILN; (_Darre_, Germ.) The improved malt kiln of Pistorius is represented _fig._ 653. in a top view; _fig._ 654. in a longitudinal view and section; and _fig._ 655., in transverse section. _a a_, are two quadrangular smoke flues, constructed of fire-tiles, or fire-stones, and covered with iron plates, over which a pent-house roof is laid; the whole bound by the cross pieces _b_ (_figs._ 654, 655.) These flues are built above a grating _c c_, which commences at _c´_; in front of _c´_ there is a bridge of bricks. Instead of such a brick flue covered with plates, iron pipes may be used, covered with semi-cylindrical tiles, to prevent the malt that may happen to fall from being burned. _d d_, are the breast walls of the kiln, 3 feet high, furnished with two apertures shut with iron doors, through which the malt that drops down may be removed from time to time. _e_ is a beam of wood lying on the breast wall, against which the hurdles are laid down slantingly towards the back wall of the kiln; _f f_, are two vertical flues left in the substance of the walls, through which the hot air, discharged by open pipes laid in a subjacent furnace, rises into the space between the pent-house roof and the iron plates, and is thence allowed to issue through apertures in the sides. _g_ is the discharge flue in the back wall of the kiln for the air now saturated with moisture; _h_ is the smoke-pipe, from which the smoke passes into the anterior flue _a_, provided with a slide-plate, for modifying the draught; the smoke thence flows off through a flue fitted also with a damper-plate into the chimney _i_. _k_ is the smoke-pipe of a subsidiary fire, in case no smoke should pass through _h_. The iron pipes are 11 inches in diameter, the air-flue _f_, 5 inches, and the smoke-pipe _h_, 10 inches square; the brick flues 10 inches wide, and the usual height of bricks.

MALTHA; _Bitume Glutineux_, or mineral pitch. It is a soft glutinous substance, with the smell of pitch. It dissolves in alcohol, but leaves a bituminous residuum; as also in naphtha, and oil of turpentine. It seems to be inspissated petroleum.

MANGANESE, (Eng. and Fr.; _Mangan_, _Braunsteinmetal_, Germ.) is a grayish-white metal, of a fine-grained fracture, very hard, very brittle, with considerable lustre, of spec. grav. 8·013, and requiring for fusion the extreme heat of 160° Wedgewood. It should be kept in closely stoppered bottles, under naphtha, like potassium, because with contact of air it speedily gets oxidized, and falls into powder. It decomposes water slowly at common temperatures, and rapidly at a red heat. Pure oxide of manganese can be reduced to the metallic state only in small quantities, by mixing it with lamp black and oil into a dough, and exposing the mixture to the intense heat of a smith’s forge, in a luted crucible; which must be shaken occasionally to favour the agglomeration of the particles into a button. Thus procured, it contains, however, a little carbon.

Manganese is susceptible of five degrees of oxigenation:--

1. The _protoxide_ may be obtained from a solution of the sulphate by precipitation with carbonate of potash, and expelling the carbonic acid from the washed and dried carbonate, by calcination in a close vessel filled with hydrogen gas, taking care that no air have access during the cooling. It is a pale green powder, which slowly attracts oxygen from the air, and becomes brown; on which account it should be kept in glass tubes, containing hydrogen, and hermetically sealed. It consists of 77·57 metal and 22·43 oxygen. It forms with 24 per cent. of water a white hydrate; and with acids, saline compounds; which are white, pink, or amethyst coloured. They have a bitter, acerb taste, and afford with hydrogenated sulphuret of ammonia, a flesh-red precipitate, but with caustic alkalis, one which soon turns brown-red, and eventually black.

2. The _deutoxide of manganese_ exists native in the mineral called _Braunite_; but it may be procured either by calcining, at a red heat, the proto-nitrate, or by spontaneous oxidizement of the protoxide in the air. It is black; when finely pulverized, dark brown, and is convertible, on being heated in acids, into protoxide, with disengagement of oxygen gas. It consists of 69·75 metal, and 30·25 oxygen. It forms with 10 per cent. of water, a liver-brown hydrate, which occurs native under the name of _Manganite_. It dissolves readily in tartaric and citric acids, but in few others. This oxide constitutes a bronze ground in calico-printing.

3. _Peroxide of manganese_; _Braunstein_, occurs abundantly in nature. It gives out oxygen freely when heated, and becomes an oxidulated deutoxide. It consists of 63·36 metal, and 36·64 oxygen.

4. _Manganesic acid_, forms green-coloured salts, but has not hitherto been insulated from the bases. It consists of 53·55 metal, and 46·45 oxygen.

5. _Hypermanganesic acid_, consists of 49·70 metal, and 50·30 oxygen.

_Ores of manganese._--There are two principal ores of this metal which occur in great masses; the peroxide and the hydrated oxide; the first of which is frequently found in primitive formations.

1. _Metalloide oxide of manganese_; _pyrolusite_, or gray manganese ore; has a metallic lustre, a steel gray colour, and affords a black powder. Spec. grav. 4·85. Scratches calc-spar. It effervesces briskly with borax at the blow-pipe, in consequence of the disengagement of oxygen gas. This is the most common ore of manganese, and a very valuable one, being the substance mostly employed in the manufacture of chloride of lime and of flint-glass. It is the peroxide. Great quantities are found near Tavistock, in Devonshire, and Launceston, in Cornwall.

2. _Braunite_, is a dark brown substance, of a glassy metallic lustre, affording a brown powder. Spec. grav. 4·8. It scratches felspar; but is scratched by quartz. Infusible at the blow-pipe, and effervesces but slightly when fused with glass of borax. It is the deutoxide. It gives out at a red heat only 3 per cent. of oxygen.

3. _Manganite_, or hydroxide of manganese; is brownish-black or iron-black, powder brown, with somewhat of a metallic lustre. Spec. grav. 4·3. Scratches fluor spar; affords water by calcination in a glass tube; infusible at the blow-pipe; and effervesces slightly when fused with glass of borax. It consists of about 90 of deutoxide, and 10 of water.

4. _Haussmanite_, _black braunstein_; is brownish-black, affords a reddish-brown powder. Spec. grav. 4·7; scratches fluor spar; infusible at the blow-pipe; does not effervesce when fused with borax. It is a deutoxide. This is a rare mineral, and of no value to the arts.

5. _Barytic oxide of manganese_; _fibrous wad_. It is a combination of deutoxide and peroxide, with some baryta.

6. _Manganese blende_, or sulphuret of manganese; has a metallic aspect; is black, or dark steel gray; spec. grav. 3·95; has no cleavage; cannot be cut; infusible, but affords after being roasted distinct evidence of manganese, by giving a violet tinge to soda at the blow-pipe. Soluble in nitric acid; solution yields a white precipitate with the ferro-cyanide of potassium. It consists of sulphur 53·65; manganese 66·35.

7. _Carbonate of manganese_; _dialogite_. Spec. grav. 3·4; affords a green frit by fusion with carbonate of soda; is soluble with some effervescence in nitric acid; solution when freed from iron by succinate of ammonia, gives a white precipitate, with ferrocyanide of potassium. It consists of 28 carbonic acid, 56 protoxide of manganese, 5·4 of lime, 4·5 protoxide of iron, and 0·8 magnesia.

8. _Hydrosilicate of manganese_; is a black metallic looking substance, which yields a yellowish-brown powder, and water by calcination; is acted upon by muriatic acid, but affords no chlorine. It consists of silica 25; protoxide of manganese 60; water 13.

9. _Ferriferous phosphate of manganese_, is brown or black. Spec. grav. 3·6; scratches fluor; affords by calcination a very little of an acid water which corrodes glass; very fusible at the blow-pipe into a black metalloid magnetic bead; is acted upon by nitric acid: solution lets fall a blue precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium; which tested by soda is shown to be manganese. It consists of phosphoric acid 32·78; protoxide of iron 31·90; protoxide of manganese 32·60; phosphate of lime 3·2. Another phosphate called _hureaulite_, contains 38 of phosphoric acid; 11·10 of protoxide of iron; 32·85 of protoxide of manganese, and 18 of water.

_Black wad_, is the old English name of the hydrated peroxide of manganese. It occurs in various imitative shapes, in froth-like coatings upon other minerals, as also massive. Some varieties possess imperfect metallic lustre. The external colour is brown of various shades, and similar in the streak, only shining. It is opaque, very sectile, soils and writes. Its specific gravity is about 3·7. Mixed with linseed oil into a dough, black wad forms a mass that spontaneously inflames. A variety from the Hartz, analyzed by Klaproth, afforded peroxide of manganese 68; oxide of iron 6·5; water 17·5; carbon 1; barytes and silica 9. The localities of black wad are particularly Cornwall and Devonshire, the Hartz, and Piedmont. I have analyzed many varieties of the black wad sold to the manufacturers of bleaching salt, and flint glass, and have found few of them so rich in peroxide of manganese as the above. Very generally they contained no less than 25 _per cent._ of oxide of iron, 8 or 9 of silica, about 7 of water, and the remainder amounting to only 60 _per cent._ of the peroxide.

M. Gay Lussac has proposed to determine the commercial value of manganese ore, by the quantity of chlorine which it affords when treated with liquid muriatic acid. He places the manganese powder in a small retort or matras, pours over it the acid, and the chlorine being disengaged with the aid of a gentle heat, is transmitted into a vessel containing milk of lime or potash water. This liquor is thereafter poured into a dilute solution of sulphate of indigo; and the quantity of chlorine is inferred from the quantity of the blue solution which is decoloured. I pass the chlorine into test solution of indigo.

The manufacturer of flint glass uses a small proportion of the black manganese ore, to correct the green tinge which his glass is apt to derive from the iron present in the sand he employs. To him it is of great consequence to get a native manganese containing as little iron oxide as possible; since in fact the colour or limpidity of his product will depend altogether upon that circumstance.

Sulphate of manganese has been of late years introduced into calico printing, to give a chocolate or bronze impression. It is easily formed by heating the black oxide, mixed with a little ground coal, with sulphuric acid. See CALICO PRINTING.

The peroxide of manganese is used also in the formation of glass pastes, and in making the black enamel of pottery. See OXALIC ACID.

MANGLE. (_Calandre_, Fr.; _Mangel_, Germ.) This is a well known machine for smoothing table cloths, table napkins, as well as linen and cotton furniture. As usually made, it consists of an oblong rectangular wooden chest, filled with stones, which load it to the degree of pressure that it should exercise upon the two cylinders on which it rests, and which, by rolling backwards and forwards over the linen spread upon a polished table underneath, render it smooth and level. The moving wheel, being furnished with teeth upon both surfaces of its periphery, and having a notch cut out at one part, allows a pinion, uniformly driven in one direction, to act alternately upon its outside and inside, so as to cause the reciprocating motion of the chest. This elegant and much admired English invention, called the mangle-wheel, has been introduced with great advantage into the machinery of the textile manufactures.

Mr. Warcup, of Dartford, obtained a patent several years ago for a mangle, in which the linen, being rolled round a cylinder revolving in stationary bearings, is pressed downwards by heavy weights hung upon its axes, against a curved bed, made to slide to and fro, or traverse from right to left, and left to right, alternately.

Mr. Hubie, of York, patented in June, 1832, another form of mangle, consisting of three rollers, placed one above another in a vertical frame, the axle of the upper roller being pressed downwards by a powerful spring. The articles intended to be smoothed are introduced into the machine by passing them under the middle roller, which is made to revolve by means of a fly wheel; the pinion upon whose axis works in a large toothed wheel fixed to the shaft of the same roller. The linen, &c. is lapped as usual in protecting cloths. This machine is merely a small CALENDER.

MANIOC, is the Indian name of the nutritious matter of the shrub _jatropha manihot_, from which _cassava_ and _tapioca_ are made in the West Indies.

MANNA, is the concrete saccharine juice of the _Fraxinus ornus_, a tree much cultivated in Sicily and Calabria. It is now little used, and that only in medicine.

MARBLE. This title embraces such of the primitive, transition, and purer compact limestones of secondary formation, as may be quarried in solid blocks without fissures, and are susceptible of a fine polished surface. The finer the white, or more beautifully variegated the colours of the stone, the more valuable, _ceteris paribus_, is the marble. Its general characters are the following:--

Marble effervesces with acids; affords quicklime by calcination; has a conchoidal scaly fracture; is translucent only on the very edges; is easily scratched by the knife; has a spec. grav. of 2·7; admits of being sawn into slabs; and receives a brilliant polish. These qualities occur united in only three principal varieties of limestone; in the saccharoid limestone, so called from its fine granular texture resembling that of loaf sugar, and which constitutes modern statuary marble, like that of Carrara; 2. in the foliated limestone, consisting of a multitude of small facets formed of little plates applied to one another in every possible direction, constituting the antique statuary marble, like that of Paros; 3. in many of the transition and carboniferous, or _encrinitic_ limestones, subordinate to the coal formation.

The saccharoid and lamellar, or statuary marbles, belong entirely to primitive and transition districts. The greater part of the close-grained coloured marbles belong also to the same geological localities; and become so rare in the secondary limestone formations, that immense tracts of these occur without a single bed sufficiently entire and compact to constitute a workable marble. The limestone lying between the calcareo-siliceous sands and gritstone of the under oolite, and which is called Forest marble in England, being susceptible of a tolerable polish, and variegated with imbedded shells, has sometimes been worked into ornamental slabs in Oxfordshire, where it occurs in the neighbourhood of Whichwood forest; but this case can hardly be considered as an exception to the general rule. To constitute a profitable marble-quarry, there must be a large extent of homogeneous limestone, and a facility of transporting the blocks after they are dug. On examining these natural advantages of the beds of Carrara marble, we may readily understand how the statuary marbles discovered in the Pyrenees, Savoy, Corsica, &c. have never been able to come into competition with it in the market. In fact, the two sides of the valley of Carrara may be regarded as mountains of statuary marble of the finest quality.

Gypseous alabaster may be readily distinguished from marbles, because it does not effervesce with acids, and is soft enough to be scratched by the nail; stalagmitic alabaster is somewhat harder than marble, translucent, and variegated with regular stripes or undulations.

Some granular marbles are flexible in thin slabs, or, at least, become so by being dried at the fire; which shews, as Dolomieu suspected, that this property arises from a diminution of the attractive force among the particles, by the loss of the moisture.

The various tints of ornamental marbles generally proceed from oxides of iron; but the blue and green tints are sometimes caused by minute particles of hornblende, as in the slate-blue variety called Turchino, and in some green marbles of Germany. The black marbles are coloured by charcoal, mixed occasionally with sulphur and bitumen; when they constitute stinkstone.

Brard divides marbles, according to their localities, into classes, each of which contains eight subdivisions:--

1. Uni-coloured marbles; including only the white and the black.

2. Variegated marbles; those with irregular spots or veins.

3. Madreporic marbles, presenting animal remains in the shape of white or gray spots, with regularly disposed dots and stars in the centre.

4. Shell marbles; with only a few shells interspersed in the calcareous base.

5. Lumachella marbles, entirely composed of shells.

6. Cipolin marbles, containing veins of greenish talc.

7. Breccia marbles, formed of a number of angular fragments of different marbles, united by a common cement.

8. Puddingstone marbles; a conglomerate of rounded pieces.

_Antique marbles._--The most remarkable of these are the following:--_Parian marble_, called _lychnites_ by the ancients, because its quarries were worked by lamps; it has a yellowish-white colour; and a texture composed of fine shining scales, lying in all directions. The celebrated Arundelian tables at Oxford consist of Parian marble, as well as the Medicean Venus. _Pentelic marble_, from Mount Penteles, near Athens, resembles the Parian, but is somewhat denser and finer grained, with occasional greenish zones, produced by greenish talc, whence it is called by the Italians _Cipolino statuario_. The Parthenon, Propyleum, the Hippodrome, and other principal monuments of Athens, were of Pentelic marble; of which fine specimens may be seen among the Elgin collection, in the British Museum. _Marmo Greco_, or Greek white marble, is of a very lively snow white colour, rather harder than the preceding, and susceptible of a very fine polish. It was obtained from several islands of the Archipelago, as Scio, Samos, Lesbos, &c. _Translucent white marble_, _Marmo statuario_ of the Italians, is very much like the Parian, only not so opaque. Columns and altars of this marble exist in Venice, and several towns of Lombardy; but the quarries are quite unknown. _Flexible white marble_, of which five or six tables are preserved in the house of Prince Borghese, at Rome. The _White marble of Luni_, on the coast of Tuscany, was preferred by the Greek sculptors to both the Parian and Pentelic. _White marble of Carrara_, between Specia and Lucca, is of a fine white colour, but often traversed by gray veins, so that it is difficult to procure moderately large pieces free from them. It is not so apt to turn yellow as the Parian marble. This quarry was worked by the ancients, having been opened in the time of Julius Cæsar. Many antique statues remain of this marble. Its two principal quarries at the present day are those of Pianello and Polvazzo. In the centre of its blocks very limpid rock-crystals are sometimes found, which are called Carrara diamonds. As the finest qualities are becoming excessively rare, it has risen in price to about 3 guineas the cubic foot. The _White marble_ of Mount Hymettus, in Greece, was not of a very pure white, but inclined a little to gray. The statue of Meleager, in the French Museum, is of this marble.

_Black antique marble_, the _Nero antico_ of the Italians. This is more intensely black than any of our modern marbles; it is extremely scarce, occurring only in sculptured pieces. The _red antique marble_, _Egyptum_ of the ancients, and _Rosso antico_ of the Italians, is a beautiful marble of a deep blood-red colour, interspersed with white veins and with very minute white dots, as if strewed over with grains of sand. There is in the Grimani palace at Venice, a colossal statue of Marcus Agrippa in _rosso antico_, which was formerly preserved in the Pantheon at Rome. _Green antique marble_, _verde antico_, is a kind of breccia, whose paste is a mixture of talc and limestone, while the dark green fragments consist of serpentine. Very beautiful specimens of it are preserved at Parma. The best quality has a grass-green paste, with black spots of noble serpentine, but is never mingled with red spots. _Red spotted green antique marble_, has a dark green ground marked with small red and black spots, with fragments of _entrochi_ changed into white marble. It is known only in small tablets. _Leek marble_; a rare variety of that colour, of which there is a table in the Mint at Paris. _Marmo verde pagliocco_ is of a yellowish green colour, and is found only in the ruins of ancient Rome. _Cervelas marble_ of a deep red, with numerous gray and white veins, is said to be found in Africa, and highly esteemed in commerce. _Yellow antique marble_, _giallo antico_ of the Italians; colour of the yolk of an egg, either uniform or marked with black or deep yellow rings. It is rare, but may be replaced by Sienna marble. _Red and white antique marbles_, found only among the ruins of ancient Rome. _Grand antique_, a breccia marble, containing shells, consists of large fragments of a black marble, traversed by veins or lines of a shining white. There are four columns of it in the Museum at Paris. _Antique Cipolino marble._ Cipolin is a name given to all such marbles as have greenish zones produced by green talc; their fracture is granular and shining, and displays here and there plates of talc. _Purple antique breccia marble_, is very variable in the colour and size of its spots. _Antique African breccia_, has a black ground, variegated with large fragments of a grayish-white, deep red, or purplish wine colour; and is one of the most beautiful marbles. _Rose-coloured antique breccia_ marble is very scarce, occurring only in small tablets. There are various other kinds of ancient breccias, which it would be tedious to particularize.

_Modern marbles._--1. British. Black marble is found at Ashford, Matlock, and Monsaldale in Derbyshire; black and white in the north part of Devonshire; the variegated marbles of Devonshire are generally reddish, brownish, and grayish, variously veined with white and yellow, or the colours are often intimately blended; the marbles from Torbay and Babbacombe, display a great variety in the mixture of their colours; the Plymouth marble is either ash-coloured with black veins, or blackish-gray and white, shaded with black veins; the cliffs near Marychurch exhibit marble quarries not only of great extent, but of superior beauty to any other in Devonshire, being either of a dove-coloured ground with reddish-purple and yellow veins, or of a black ground mottled with purplish globules. The green marble of Anglesea is not unlike the _verde antico_; its colours being greenish-black, leek-green, and sometimes dull purplish, irregularly blended with white. The white part is limestone, the green shades proceed from serpentine and asbestos. There are several fine varieties of marble in Derbyshire; the mottled-gray in the neighbourhood of Moneyash, the light gray being rendered extremely beautiful by the number of purple veins which spread upon its polished surface in elegant irregular branches; but its chief ornament is the multitude of _entrochi_, with which this transition limestone-marble abounds. Much of the transition and carboniferous limestone of Wales and Westmoreland is capable of being worked up into agreeable dark marbles.

In Scotland, a particularly fine variety of white marble is found in immense beds, at Assynt in Sutherlandshire. A beautiful ash-gray marble of a very uniform grain, and susceptible of a fine polish, occurs on the north side of the ferry of Ballachulish in Invernesshire. One of the most beautiful varieties is that from the hill of Belephetrich in Tiree, one of the Hebrides. Its colours are pale blood-red, light flesh-red, and reddish-white, with dark green particles of hornblende, or rather sahlite, diffused through the general base. The compact marble of Iona is of a fine grain, a dull white colour, somewhat resembling pure compact felspar. It is said by Bournon, to consist of an intimate mixture of tremolite and carbonate of lime, sometimes with yellowish or greenish-yellow spots. The carboniferous limestone of many of the coal basins in the lowlands of Scotland may be worked into a tolerably good marble for chimney-pieces.