Chapter M: D’Arcet states the analysis of Marseilles soap at (14)

+------------------------------+--------------------------+
|Names of the Springs. | Sulphates of |
| +------+------+------+-----+
| |Soda. |Lime. | Mag- |Iron.|
| | | | ne- | |
| | | | sia. | |
+------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+
| | grs. | grs. | grs. | grs.|
| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. |18·2 |13·0 |91·0 | -- |
| | | | | |
|Sulphurous. | | | | |
| Harrowgate (2) | -- | -- | 0·5 | -- |
| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Enghein (4) | -- |33·3 | 5·8 | -- |
| | | | | |
|Saline. | | | | |
| Seidlitz | -- |41·1 |14·44 | -- |
| Cheltenham (5) |48·0 |40·0 | -- | -- |
| Plombieres (6) | 1·0 | -- | -- | -- |
| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 3·7 | -- | -- | -- |
| Pitcaithley (7) | 0·9 | -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
|Chalybeate. | | | | |
| Tunbridge (3) | -- | 1·25 | -- | -- |
| Brighton (8) | -- |32·7 | -- |11·2 |
| Toplitz (9) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
|Calcareous, nearly pure. | | | | |
| Bath (10) | 3·0 |18·0 | -- | -- |
| Buxton (11) | -- | 2·5 | -- | -- |
| Bristol (12) |11·2 |11·7 | -- | -- |
| Matlock | -- |trace | -- | -- |
| Malvern (13) | 2·896| -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | -- | ·054| -- | -- |
| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Sea water, Forth (7) |25·6 | -- | -- | -- |
+------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+

+------------------------------+--------------------------+
|Names of the Springs. | Muriates of |
| +-------+-----+------+-----+
| | Soda. |Lime.| Mag- |Pot- |
| | | | ne- |ash. |
| | | | sia. | |
+------------------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+
| | grs. | grs.| grs.| grs.|
| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | 6·0 | 0·6 | 2·8 | -- |
| | | | | |
|Sulphurous. | | | | |
| Harrowgate (2) |615·5 | 3·0 | 9·1 | -- |
| Moffat (2) | 3·6 | -- | -- | -- |
| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | 6·21 | -- | -- | -- |
| Enghein (4) | 2·4 | -- | 8·0 | -- |
| | | | | |
|Saline. | | | | |
| Seidlitz | -- | -- | 36·5 | -- |
| Cheltenham (5) | 5·0 | -- | 12·5 | -- |
| Plombieres (6) | 2·0 | -- | -- | -- |
| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 21·0 |20·8 | -- | -- |
| Pitcaithley (7) | 12·7 |20·2 | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
|Chalybeate. | | | | |
| Tunbridge (3) | 0·5 | -- | 2·25| -- |
| Brighton (8) | 12·2 | -- | 6·0 | -- |
| Toplitz (9) | 61·3 |28·5 | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
|Calcareous, nearly pure. | | | | |
| Bath (10) | 6·6 | -- | -- | -- |
| Buxton (11) | 1·5 | -- | -- | -- |
| Bristol (12) | 4·0 | -- | 7·25| -- |
| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Malvern (13) | 1·55 | -- | -- | -- |
| | | | | |
| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | 10·676| 3·8 | 10·1 | |
| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | 7·8 |10·6 | 24·2 | |
| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| 6·95 | 4·0 | 15·31| |
| Sea water, Forth (7) |159·3 | 5·7 | 35·5 |trace|
| | | | |[70] |
+------------------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+

+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+
|Names of the Springs. |Sil-|Alu-|Res-|Tem- |
| |ica.|mi- |ins.|pera-|
| | |na. | |ture.|
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+
| |grs.|grs.|grs.| |
| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | -- | -- | 6·0| cold|
| | | | | |
|Sulphurous. | | | | |
| Harrowgate (2) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- | -- | -- | 143°|
| Enghein (4) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| | | | | |
|Saline. | | | | |
| Seidlitz | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Cheltenham (5) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Plombieres (6) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Pitcaithley (7) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| | | | | |
|Chalybeate. | | | | |
| Tunbridge (3) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| Brighton (8) |1·12| -- | -- | cold|
| Toplitz (9) | -- |15·1| -- | cold|
| | | | | |
|Calcareous, nearly pure. | | | | |
| Bath (10) | 0·4| -- | -- | 114°|
| Buxton (11) | -- | -- | -- | 82°|
| Bristol (12) | -- | -- | -- | 74°|
| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | 66°|
| Malvern (13) | -- | -- | -- | cold|
| | | | | |
| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | | | | |
| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | | | | |
| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| | | | |
| Sea water, Forth (7) | | | | |
+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+

(1) Schmesser.
(2) Garnet.
(3) Babington.
(5) Fothergill.
(6) Vauquelin.
(7) Dr. Murray.
(8) Marcet.
(9) John.
(10) Phillips.
(11) Pearson.
(12) Carrick.
(13) Dr. Philip.
(14) Dr. Marcet.
(15) Klaproth.
(16) M. Gay Lussac.

[70] Dr. Wollaston.

Mineral waters may, in most cases, be artificially prepared, by the skilful application of the knowledge derived from analysis, with such precision as to imitate very closely the native springs. When the various earthy or metallic constituents, are held in solution by carbonic acid, or sulphuretted, they should be placed along with their due proportions of water, in the receiver of the aerating machine (see SODA WATER), and then the proper quantity of gas should be injected into the water. Sufficient agitation will be given by the action of the forcing-pump to promote their solution.

WAX (_Cire_, Fr.; _Wachs_, Germ.); is the substance which forms the cells of bees. It was long supposed to be derived from the pollen of plants, swallowed by these insects, and merely voided under this new form; but it has been proved by the experiments, first of Mr. Hunter, and more especially of M. Huber, to be the peculiar secretion of a certain organ, which forms a part of the small sacs, situated on the sides of the median line of the abdomen of the bee. On raising the lower segments of the abdomen, these sacs may be observed, as also scales or spangles of wax, arranged in pairs upon each segment. There are none, however, under the rings of the males and the queen. Each individual has only eight wax sacs, or pouches; for the first and the last ring are not provided with them. M. Huber satisfied himself by precise experiments that bees, though fed with honey, or sugar alone, produced nevertheless a very considerable quantity of wax; thus proving that they were not mere collectors of this substance from the vegetable kingdom. The pollen of plants serves for the nourishment of the larvæ.

But wax exists also as a vegetable product, and may, in this point of view, be regarded as a concrete fixed oil. It forms a part of the green fecula of many plants, particularly of the cabbage; it may be extracted from the pollen of most flowers; as also from the skins of plums, and many stone fruits. It constitutes a varnish upon the upper surface of the leaves of many trees, and it has been observed in the juice of the _cow-tree_. The berries of the _Myrica angustifolia_, _latifolia_, as well as the _cerifera_, afford abundance of wax.

Bees’ wax, as obtained by washing and melting the comb, is yellow. It has a peculiar smell, resembling honey, and derived from it, for the cells in which no honey has been deposited, yield a scentless white wax. Wax is freed from its impurities, and bleached, by melting it with hot water or steam, in a tinned copper or wooden vessel, letting it settle, running off the clear supernatant oily-looking liquid into an oblong trough with a line of holes in its bottom, so as to distribute it upon horizontal wooden cylinders, made to revolve half immersed in cold water, and then exposing the thin ribbons or films thus obtained to the blanching action of air, light, and moisture. For this purpose, the ribbons are laid upon long webs of canvas stretched horizontally between standards, two feet above the surface of a sheltered field, having a free exposure to the sunbeams. Here they are frequently turned over, then covered by nets to prevent their being blown away by winds, and watered from time to time, like linen upon the grass field in the old method of bleaching. Whenever the colour of the wax seems stationary, it is collected, remelted, and thrown again into ribbons upon the wet cylinder, in order to expose new surfaces to the blanching operation. By several repetitions of these processes, if the weather proves favourable, the wax eventually loses its yellow tint entirely, and becomes fit for forming white candles. If it be finished under rain, it will become gray on keeping, and also lose in weight.

In France, where the purification of wax is a considerable object of manufacture, about four ounces of cream of tartar, or alum, are added to the water in the first melting-copper, and the solution is incorporated with the wax by diligent manipulation. The whole is left at rest for some time, and then the supernatant wax is run off into a settling cistern, whence it is discharged by a stopcock or tap, over the wooden cylinder revolving at the surface of a large water-cistern, kept cool by passing a stream continually through it.

The bleached wax is finally melted, strained through silk sieves, and then run into circular cavities in a moistened table, to be cast or moulded into thin disc pieces, weighing from two to three ounces each, and three or four inches in diameter.

Neither chlorine, nor even the chlorides of lime and alkalis, can be employed with any advantage to bleach wax, because they render it brittle, and impair its burning quality.

Wax purified, as above, is white and translucent in thin segments; it has neither taste nor smell; it has a specific gravity of from 0·960 to 0·966; it does not liquefy till it be heated to 154-1/2° F.; but it softens at 86°, becoming so plastic, that it may be moulded by the hand into any form. At 32° it is hard and brittle.

It is not a simple substance, but consists of two species of wax, which may be easily separated by boiling alcohol. The resulting solution deposits, on cooling, the waxy body called _cerine_. The undissolved wax, being once and again treated with boiling alcohol, finally affords from 70 to 90 per cent. of its weight of cerine. The insoluble residuum is the _myricine_ of Dr. John, so called because it exists in a much larger proportion in the wax of the _Myrica cerifera_. It is greatly denser than wax, being of the same specific gravity as water; and may be distilled without decomposition, which cerine undergoes. See these two articles.

Wax is adulterated sometimes with starch; a fraud easily detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves the former, and leaves the latter substance; and more frequently with mutton suet. This fraud may be discovered by dry distillation; for wax does not thereby afford, like tallow, sebacic acid (benzoic), which is known by its occasioning a precipitate in a solution of acetate of lead. It is said that two per cent. of a tallow sophistication may be discovered in this way.

Bees’ wax imported for home consumption:--in 1835, unbleached, 4,449 cwts.; bleached, 243 cwts.;--in 1836, unbleached, 4,673 cwts.; bleached, 121 cwts. Duty, when from British possessions, 10_s._; from foreign, 30_s._

WAX, MINERAL, or _Ozocerite_, is a solid, of a brown colour, of various shades, translucent, and fusible like bees’ wax; slightly bituminous to the smell, of a foliated texture, a conchoidal fracture, but wanting tenacity, so that it can be pulverized in a mortar. Its specific gravity varies from 0·900 to 0·953. Candles have been made of it in Moldavia, which give a tolerable light. It occurs at the foot of the Carpathians near Slanik, beneath a bed of bituminous slate-clay, in masses of from 80 to 100 pounds weight. Layers of brown amber are found in the neighbourhood. It is associated with variegated sandstone, rock salt, and beds of coal (lignite?). It is analogous to _hatchetine_. Something similar has been discovered in a _trouble_ at Urpeth colliery, near Newcastle, 60 fathoms beneath the surface. _Ozocerite_ consists of different hydro-carburetted compounds associated together; the whole being composed, ultimately, of--hydrogen 14, carbon 86, very nearly.

WEAVING (_Tissage_, Fr.; _Weberei_, Germ.); is performed by the implement called _loom_ in English, _métier à tisser_ in French, and _weberstuhl_ in German. The process of warping must always precede weaving. Its object is to arrange all the longitudinal threads, which are to form the chain of the web, alongside of each other in one parallel plane. Such a number of bobbins, filled with yarn, must therefore be taken as will furnish the quantity required for the length of the intended piece of cloth. One-sixth of that number of bobbins is usually mounted at once in the warp mill, being set loosely in a horizontal direction upon wire skewers, or spindles, in a square frame, so that they may revolve, and give off the yarn freely. The warper sits at A, _fig._ 1159., and causes the reel B to revolve, by turning round with his hand the wheel C, with the endless rope or band D. The bobbins filled with yarn are placed in the frame E. There is a sliding piece at F, called the _heck_ box, which rises and falls by the coiling and uncoiling of the cord G, round the central shaft of the reef H. By this simple contrivance, the band of warp-yarns is wound spirally, from top to bottom, upon the reel. I, I, I, are wooden pins which separate the different bands. Most warping mills are of a prismatic form; having twelve, eighteen, or more sides. The reel is commonly about six feet in diameter, and seven feet in height, so as to serve for measuring exactly upon its periphery the total length of the warp. All the threads from the frame E, pass through the heck F, which consists of a series of finely-polished hard-tempered steel pins, with a small hole at the upper part of each, to receive and guide one thread. The heck is divided into two parts, either of which may be lifted by a small handle below, while their eyes are placed alternately. Hence, when one of them is raised a little, a vacuity is formed between the two bands of the warp; but when the other is raised, the vacuity is reversed. In this way, the lease is produced at each end of the warp, and it is preserved by appropriate wooden pegs. The lease being carefully tied up, affords a guide to the weaver for inserting his lease-rods. The warping mill is turned alternately from right to left, and from left to right, till a sufficient number of yarns are coiled round it to form the breadth that is wanted; the warper’s principal care being to tie immediately every thread as it breaks, otherwise deficiencies would be occasioned in the chain, injurious to the appearance of the web, or productive of much annoyance to the weaver.

The simplest and probably the most antient of looms, now to be seen in action, is that of the Hindu tanty, shown in _fig._ 1160. It consists of two bamboo rollers; one for the warp, and another for the woven cloth; with a pair of heddles, for parting the warp, to permit the weft to be drawn across between its upper and under threads. The shuttle is a slender rod, like a large netting needle, rather longer than the web is broad, and is made use of as a batten or lay, to strike home or condense each successive thread of weft, against the closed fabric. The Hindu carries this simple implement, with his water pitcher, rice pot, and hooka, to the foot of any tree which can afford him a comfortable shade; he there digs a large hole, to receive his legs, along with the treddles or lower part of the harness; he next extends his warp, by fastening his two bamboo rollers, at a proper distance from each other, with pins, into the sward; he attaches the heddles to a convenient branch of the tree overhead; inserts his great toes into two loops under the geer, to serve him for treddles; lastly, he sheds the warp, draws through the weft, and beats it close up to the web with his rod-shuttle or batten.

The European loom is represented in its plainest state, as it has existed for several centuries, in _fig._ 1161. A is the warp-beam, round which the chain, has been wound; B represents the flat rods, usually three in number, which pass across between its threads, to preserve the lease, or the plane of decussation for the weft; C shows the heddles or healds, consisting of twines looped in the middle, through which loops, the warp yarns are drawn, one half through the front heddle, and the other through the back one; by moving which, the decussation is readily effected. The yarns then pass through the dents of the REED under D, which is set in a movable swing-frame E, called the lathe, lay, and also batten, because it _beats_ home the weft to the web. The lay is freely suspended to a cross-bar F, attached by rulers, called the _swords_, to the top of the lateral standards of the loom, so as to oscillate upon it. The weaver, sitting on the bench G, presses down one of the treddles at H, with one of his feet, whereby he raises the corresponding heddle, but sinks the alternate one; thus sheds the warp, by lifting and depressing each alternate thread, through a little space, and opens a pathway or race-course for the shuttle to traverse the middle of the warp, upon its two friction rollers M, M. For this purpose, he lays hold of the picking-peg in his right hand, and, with a smart jerk of his wrist, drives the fly-shuttle swiftly from one side of the loom to the other, between the shed warp yarns. The shoot of weft being thereby left behind from the shuttle pirn or cop, the weaver brings home, by pulling, the lay with its reed towards him by his left hand, with such force as the closeness of the texture requires. The web, as thus woven, is wound up by turning round the cloth beam I, furnished with a ratchet-wheel, which takes into a holding tooth. The plan of throwing the shuttle by the picking-peg and cord, is a great improvement upon the old way of throwing it by hand. It was contrived exactly a century ago, by John Kay, of Bury in Lancashire, but then resident in Colchester, and was called the fly-shuttle, from its speed, as it enabled the weaver to make double the quantity of narrow cloth, and much more broad cloth, in the same time.

The cloth is kept distended, during the operation of weaving, by means of two pieces of hard wood, called a templet, furnished with sharp iron points in their ends, which take hold of the opposite selvages or lists of the web. The warp and web are kept longitudinally stretched by a weighted cord, which passes round the warp-beam, and which tends continually to draw back the cloth from its beam, where it is held fast by the ratchet tooth. See FUSTIAN, JACQUARD LOOM, REED, and TEXTILE FABRICS.

The greater part of plain weaving, and much even of the figured, is now performed by the power loom, called _métier mécanique à tisser_, in French. _Fig._ 1162. represents the cast-iron power loom of Sharp and Roberts. A, A´, are the two side uprights, or standards, on the front of the loom. D, is the great arch of cast iron, which binds the two sides together. E, is the front cross-beam, terminating in the forks _e_, _e_; whose ends are bolted to the opposite standards A, A´, so as to bind the framework most firmly together. G´, is the breast beam, of wood, nearly square; its upper surface is sloped a little towards the front, and its edge rounded off, for the web to slide smoothly over it, in its progress to the cloth beam. The beam is supported at its end upon brackets, and is secured by the bolts _g´_, _g´_. H, is the cloth beam, a wooden cylinder, mounted with iron gudgeons at its ends, that on the right hand being prolonged to carry the toothed winding wheel H´. _k´_ is a pinion in geer with H´. H´´, is a ratchet wheel, mounted upon the same shaft _h´´´_, as the pinion _h´_. _h´_, is the click of the ratchet wheel H´´. _k´´´_, is a long bolt fixed to the frame, serving as a shaft to the ratchet wheel H´´, and the pinion _h´_. I, is the front heddle-leaf, and I´, the back one. J, J, J´, J´, jacks or pulleys and straps, for raising and depressing the leaves of the heddles. J´´, is the iron shaft which carries the jacks or system of pulleys J, J, J´, J´. K, a strong wooden ruler, connecting the front heddle with its treddle. L, L´, the front and rear marches or treddle-pieces, for depressing the heddle leaves alternately, by the intervention of the rods _k_, (and _k´_, hid behind _k_). M, M, are the two swords (swing bars) of the lay or batten. N, is the upper cross-bar of the lay, made of wood, and supported upon the squares of the levers _n_, _n´_, to which it is firmly bolted. N´, is the lay-cap, which is placed higher or lower, according to the breadth of the reed; it is the part of the lay which the hand-loom weaver seizes with his hand, in order to swing it towards him. _n´_, is the reed contained between the bar N, and the lay-cap N´. O, O, are two rods of iron, perfectly round and straight, mounted near the ends of the batten-bar N, which serve as guides to the drivers or peckers _o_, _o_, which impel the shuttle. These are made of buffalo hide, and should slide freely on their guide-rods. O´, O´, are the fronts of the shuttle-boxes; they have a slight inclination backwards. P, is the back of them. See _figs._ 1163. and 1164. O´´, O´´ are iron plates, forming the bottoms of the shuttle-boxes. _p_, small pegs or pins, planted in the posterior faces P (_fig._ 1164.) of the boxes, round which the levers P´ turn. These levers are sunk in the substance of the faces P, turn round pegs _p_, being pressed from without inwards, by the springs _p´_. P´´, _fig._ 1162. (to the right of K,) is the whip or lever, (and Q´´, its centre of motion, corresponding to the right arm and elbow of the weaver,) which serves to throw the shuttle, by means of the pecking-cord _p´´_, attached at its other end to the drivers _o_, _o_.

On the axis of Q´´, a kind of eccentric or heart wheel is mounted, to whose concave part, the middle of the double band or strap _r_, being attached, receives impulsion; its two ends are attached to the heads of the bolts _r´_, which carry the stirrups _r´´_, that may be adjusted at any suitable height, by set screws.

S (see the left-hand side of _fig._ 1162.), is the moving shaft, of wrought iron, resting on the two ends of the frame, S´ (see the right-hand side), is a toothed wheel, mounted exteriorly to the frame, upon the end of the shaft S. S´´ (near S´), are two equal elbows, in the same direction, and in the same plane, as the shaft S, opposite to the swords M, M, of the lay.

Z, is the loose, and Z´, the fast pulley, or riggers, which receive motion from the steam-shaft of the factory, Z´´, a small fly-wheel, to regulate the movements of the main shaft of the loom.

T, is the shaft of the eccentric tappets, cams, or wipers, which press the treddle levers alternately up and down; on its right end is mounted T´, a toothed wheel in geer with the wheel S´, of one half its diameter. T´´, is a cleft clamping collar, which serves to support the shaft T.

U, is a lever, which turns round the bolt _u_, as well as the click _h´´_. U´, is the click of traction, for turning round the cloth beam, jointed to the upper extremity of the lever U; its tooth _u´_, catches in the teeth of the ratchet wheel H´´. _u´´_, is a long slender rod, fixed to one of the swords of the lay M, serving to push the lower end of the lever U, when the lay retires towards the heddle leaves.

X, is a wrought-iron shaft, extending from the one shuttle-box to the other, supported at its ends by the bearings _x_, _x_.

Y, is a bearing, affixed exteriorly to the frame, against which the spring bar Z, rests, near its top, but is fixed to the frame at its bottom. The spring falls into a notch in the bar Y, and is thereby held at a distance from the upright A, as long as the band is upon the loose pulley _z´_; but when the spring bar is disengaged, it falls towards A, and carries the band upon the fast pulley _z_, so as to put the loom in geer with the steam-shaft of the factory.

Weaving, by this powerful machine, consists of four operations: 1. to shed the warp by means of the heddle leaves, actuated by the tappet wheels upon the axis Q´, the rods _k_, _k´_, the cross-bar E, and the eyes of the heddle leaves I, I´; 2. to throw the shuttle (see _fig._ 1161.), by means of the whip lever P´´, the driver cord _p_, and the pecker _o_; 3. to drive home the weft by the batten N, N´; 4. to unwind the chain from the warp beam, and to draw it progressively forwards, and wind the finished web upon the cloth beam H, by the click and toothed wheel mechanism at the right-hand side of the frame. For more minute details, the reader may consult _The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain_, vol. ii. p. 291.

WEFT (_Trame_, Fr.; _Eintrag_, Germ.); is the name of the yarns or threads which run from selvage to selvage in a web.

WELD (_Vouëde_, Fr.; _Wau_, _Gelbkraut_, Germ.); is an annual herbaceous plant, which grows all over Europe, called by botanists _Reseda luteola_. The stems and the leaves dye yellow; and among the dyes of organic nature, they rank next to the Persian berry for the beauty and fastness of colour. The whole plant is cropped when in seed, at which period its dyeing power is greatest; and after being simply dried, is brought into the market.

Chevreul has discovered a yellow colouring principle in weld, which he has called _luteoline_. It may be sublimed, and thus obtained in long needle-form, transparent yellow crystals. Luteoline is but sparingly soluble in water; but it nevertheless dyes alumed silk and wool of a fine jonquil colour. It is soluble in alcohol and ether; it combines with acids, and especially with bases.

When weld is to be employed in the dye-bath, it should be boiled for three quarters of an hour; after which the exhausted plant is taken out, because it occupies too much room. The decoction is rapidly decomposed in the air, and ought therefore to be made only when it is wanted. It produces with,

Solution of isinglass a slight turbidity.
Litmus paper a faint reddening.
Potash lye a golden yellow tint.
Solution of alum a faint yellow.
Protoxide salts of tin a rich yellow }
Acetate of lead ditto } precipitation.
Salts of copper a dirty yellow-brown }
Sulphate of red oxide of iron a brown, passing into olive.

A lack is made from decoction of weld with alum, precipitated by carbonate of soda or potassa. See YELLOW DYE.

WELDING (_Souder_, Fr.; _Schweissen_, Germ.); is the property which pieces of wrought iron possess, when heated to whiteness, of uniting intimately and permanently under the hammer, into one body, without any appearance of junction. The welding temperature is usually estimated at from 60° to 90° of Wedgewood. When a skilful blacksmith is about to perform the welding operation, he watches minutely the effect of the heat in his forge-fire upon the two iron bars; and if he perceives them beginning to burn, he pulls them out, rolls them in sand, which forms a glassy silicate of iron upon the surface, so as to prevent further oxidizement; and then laying the one properly upon the other, he incorporates them by his right-hand hammer, being assisted by another workman, who strikes the metal at the same time with a heavy forge-hammer.

_Platinum_ is not susceptible of being welded, as many chemical authors have erroneously asserted.

Mr. T. H. Russell, of Handsworth, near Birmingham, obtained a patent, in May, 1836, for manufacturing welded iron tubes, by drawing or passing the skelp, or fillet of sheet iron, five feet long, between dies or holes, formed by a pair of grooved rollers, placed with their sides contiguous; for which process, he does not previously turn up the skelp from end to end, but he does this so as to bring the edges together at the time when the welding is performed. He draws the skelp through two or more pairs of the above pincers or dies, each of less dimension than the preceding. In making tubes of an inch of internal diameter, a skelp four inches and a half broad is employed. The twin rollers revolve on vertical axes, which may be made to approach each other to give pressure; and they are kept cool by a stream of water, while the skelp, ignited to the welding heat, is passed between them. They are affixed at about a foot in front of the mouth of the furnace, on a draw-bench; there being a suitable stop within a few inches of the rollers, against which the workman may place a pair of pincers, having a bell-mouthed hole or die, for welding and shaping the tube. In the first passage between the rollers, a circular revolving plate of iron is let down vertically between them, to prevent the edges of the skelp from overlapping, or even meeting. The welding is performed at the last passage.

WELLS, ARTESIAN. See also ARTESIAN WELLS. The following account of a successful operation of this kind, lately performed at Mortlake, in Surrey, deserves to be recorded. The spot at which this undertaking was begun, is within 100 feet of the Thames. In the first instance, an auger, seven inches in diameter, was used in penetrating 20 feet of superficial detritus, and 200 feet of London clay. An iron tube, 8 inches in diameter, was then driven into the opening, to dam out the land-springs and the percolation from the river. A 4-inch auger was next introduced through the iron tube, and the boring was continued until, the London clay having been perforated to the depth of 240 feet, the sands of the plastic clay were reached, and water of the softest and purest nature was obtained; but the supply was not sufficient, and it did not reach the surface. The work was proceeded with accordingly; and after 55 feet of alternating beds of sand and clay had been penetrated, the chalk was touched upon. A second tube, 4-1/2 inches in diameter, was then driven into the chalk, to stop out the water of the plastic sands; and through this tube an auger, 3-1/2 inches in diameter, was introduced, and worked down through 35 feet of hard chalk, abounding with flints. To this succeeded a bed of soft chalk, into which the instrument suddenly penetrated to the depth of 15 feet. On the auger being withdrawn, water gradually rose to the surface, and overflowed. The expense of the work did not exceed 300_l._ The general summary of the strata penetrated is as follows:--Gravel, 20 feet; London clay, 250; plastic sands and clays, 55; hard chalk with flints, 35; soft chalk, 15; = 375 feet.

WHALEBONE (_Baleine_, Fr.; _Fischbeine_, Germ.); is the name of the horny laminæ, consisting of fibres laid lengthwise, found in the mouth of the whale, which, by the fringes upon their edges, enable the animal to allow the water to flow out, as through rows of teeth (which it wants), from between its capacious jaws, but to catch and detain the minute creatures upon which it feeds. The fibres of whalebone have little lateral cohesion, as they are not transversely decussated, and may, therefore, be readily detached in the form of long filaments or bristles. The _blades_, or scythe-shaped plates, are externally compact, smooth, and susceptible of a good polish. They are connected, in a parallel series, by what is called the _gum_ of the animal, and are arranged along each side of its mouth, to the number of about 300. The length of the longest _blade_, which is usually found near the middle of the series, is the gauge adopted by the fishermen to designate the size of the fish. The greatest length hitherto known has been 15 feet, but it rarely exceeds 12 or 13. The breadth, at the root end, is from 10 to 12 inches; and the average thickness, from four to five tenths of an inch. The series, viewed altogether in the mouth of the whale, resemble, in general form, the roof of a house. They are cleansed and softened before cutting, by boiling for two hours in a long copper.

Whalebone, as brought from Greenland, is commonly divided into portable junks or pieces, comprising ten or twelve blades in each; but it is occasionally subdivided into separate blades, the gum and the hairy fringes having been removed by the sailors during the voyage. The price of whalebone fluctuates from 50_l._ to 150_l._ per ton. The blade is cut into parallel prismatic slips, as follows:--It is clamped horizontally, with its edge up and down, in the large wooden vice of a carpenter’s bench, and is then planed by the following tool: _fig._ 1165. A, B, are its two handles; C, D, is an iron plate, with a guide-notch E; F, is a semicircular knife, screwed firmly at each end to the ends of the iron plate C, D, having its cutting edge adjusted in a plane, so much lower than the bottom of the notch E, as the thickness of the whalebone slip is intended to be; for different thicknesses, the knife may be set by the screws at different levels, but always in a plane parallel to the lower guide surface of the plate C, D. The workman, taking hold of the handles A, B, applies the notch of the tool at the end of the whalebone blade furthest from him, and with his two hands pulls it steadily along, so as to shave off a slice in the direction of the fibres; being careful to cut none of them across. These prismatic slips are then dried, and planed level upon their other two surfaces. The fibrous matter detached in this operation, is used, instead of hair, for stuffing mattresses.

From its flexibility, strength, elasticity, and lightness, whalebone is employed for many purposes: for ribs to umbrellas or parasols; for stiffening stays; for the framework of hats, &c. When heated by steam, or a sand-bath, it softens, and may be bent or moulded, like horn, into various shapes, which it retains, if cooled under compression. In this way, snuff-boxes, and knobs of walking-sticks, may be made from the thicker parts of the blade. The surface is polished at first with ground pumice-stone, felt, and water; and finished with dry quicklime, spontaneously slaked, and sifted.

WHEAT. (_Triticum vulgare_, Linn.; _Froment_, Fr.; _Waizen_, Germ.) See BREAD, GLUTEN, and STARCH.

WHEEL CARRIAGES. Though this manufacture belongs most properly to a treatise upon mechanical engineering, I shall endeavour to describe the parts of a carriage, so as to enable gentlemen to judge of its make and relative merits. The external form may vary with every freak of fashion; but the general structure of a vehicle, as to lightness, elegance, and strength, may be judged of from the following figure and description.

_Fig._ 1166. shows the body of a chariot, hung upon an iron carriage, with iron wheels, axletrees, and boxes; the latter, by a simple contrivance, is close at the out-head, by which means the oil cannot escape; and the fastening of the wheel being at the in-head, as will be explained afterwards, gives great security, and prevents the possibility of the wheel being taken off by any other carriage running against it.

_Fig._ 1167. shows the arm of an axletree, turned perfectly true, with two collars in the solid, as seen at G and H. The parts from G to B are made cylindrical. At K is a screw nail, the purpose of which will be explained in _fig._ 1171.

_Fig._ 1168. is the longitudinal section of a metal nave, which also forms the bush, for the better fitting of which to the axletree, it is bored out of the solid, and made quite air-tight upon the pin; and for retaining the oil, it is left close at the out-head D.

_Fig._ 1169. represents a collet, made of metal, turned perfectly true, the least diameter of which is made the same with that part of the axletree M, _fig._ 1167., and its greatest diameter the same with that of the solid collar G, _fig._ 1167. This collet is made with a joint at S, and opens at _p_. Two grooves are represented at _qq_, _qq_, which are seen at the same letters in _fig._ 1170., as also the dovetail _r_, in both figures.

_Fig._ 1170. is an edge view of the collet, _fig._ 1169.

_Fig._ 1171. is a longitudinal section of an axletree arm, nave or bush, and fastening. A, B, is the arm of the axletree, bored up the centre from B to E. C, C, D, the nave, which answers also for the bush. P, S, the collet (see _figs._ 1169. and 1170.), put into its place. _q_, _q_, two steel pins, passing through the in-head of the bush, and filling up the grooves in the collet. W, W, a caped hoop, sufficiently broad to cover the ends of said pins, and made fast to the bush by screws. This hoop, when so fastened to the bush, prevents the possibility of the pins _q_, _q_, from getting out of their places. _u_, _u_, is a leather washer, interposed betwixt the in-head of the bush and the larger solid collar of the axletree, to prevent the escape of oil at the in-head. K, is a screw, the head of which is near the letter K, in _fig._ 1167. This screw being undone, and oil poured into the hole, it flows down the bore in the centre of the axletree arm, and fills the space B, left by the arm being about one inch shorter than the bore of the bush, and the screw, being afterwards replaced, keeps all tight. In putting on the wheel, a little oil ought to be put into the space betwixt the collet P, S, and the larger collar. The collar P, S, being movable round the axletree arm, and being made fast to the bush by means of the two pins _q_, _q_, revolves along with the bush, acting against the solid collar G, of the arm, and keeps the wheel fast to the axletree, until by removing the caped hoop W, W, and driving out the pins _q_, _q_, the collet becomes disengaged from the bush.

The dovetail, seen upon the collet at _r_, _fig._ 1170., has a corresponding groove cut in the bush, to receive it, in consequence of which the wheel must of necessity be put on so that the collet and pins fit exactly. These wheels very rarely require to be taken off, and they will run a thousand miles without requiring fresh oiling.

The spokes of the wheel, made of malleable iron, are screwed into the bush or nave at C, C, _figs._ 1168. 1171., all round. The felloes, composed merely of two bars of iron, bent into a circle edgeways, are put on, the one on the front, the other on the back, of the spokes, which have shoulders on both sides to support the felloes, and all three are attached together by rivets through them. The space between the two iron rings forming the felloes, should be filled up with light wood, the tire then put on, and fastened to the felloes by bolts and glands clasping both felloes.

This is a carriage without a mortise or tenon, or wooden joint of any kind. It is, at an average, one-seventh lighter than any of those built on the ordinary construction.

The design of Mr. W. Mason’s patent invention, of 1827, is to give any required pressure to the ends of what are called mail axletrees, in order to prevent their shaking in the boxes of the wheels. This object is effected by the introduction of leather collars in certain parts of the box, and by a contrivance, in which the outer cap is screwed up, so as to bear against the end of the axletree with any degree of tightness, and is held in that situation, without the possibility of turning round, or allowing the axletree to become loose.

_Fig._ 1172. shows the section of the box of a wheel, with the end of the axletree secured in it. The general form of the box, and of the axle, is the same as other mail axles, there being recesses in the box for the reception of oil. At the end of the axle, a cap _a_, is inserted, with a leather collar enclosed in it, bearing against the end of the axle; which cap, when screwed up sufficiently tight, is held in that situation by a pin or screw passed through the cap _a_, into the end of the iron box; a representation of this end of the iron box being shown at _fig._ 1173.

In the cap _a_, there is also a groove for conducting the oil to the interior of the box, with a screw at the opening, to prevent it running out as the wheel goes round.

The particular claims of improvement are, the leather collar against the end of the axle; the pin going through one of the holes in the end of the box, to fix it; and the channel for conducting the oil.

Mr. Mason’s patent, of August, 1830, applies also to the boxes and axles of that construction of carriage wheels which are fitted with the so called mail-boxes; but part of the invention applies to other axles.

_Fig._ 1174. represents the nave of a wheel, with the box for the axle within it, both shown in section longitudinally; _fig._ 1175. is a section of the axle, taken in the same direction; and _fig._ 1176. represents the screw cap and oil-box, which attaches to the outer extremity of the axle-box. Supposing the parts were put together, that is, the axle inserted into the box, then the intention of the different parts will be perceived.

The cylindrical recess _a_, in the box of the nave, is designed to fit the cylindrical part of the axle _b_; and the conical part _c_, of the axle, to shoulder up against a corresponding conical cavity in the box, with a washer of leather to prevent its shaking. A collar _d_, formed by a metallic ring, fits loosely upon a cylindrical part of the axle, and is kept there by a flange or rim, fixed behind the cone _c_. Several strong pins _f_, _f_, are cast into the back part of the box; which pins, when the wheel is attached, pass through corresponding holes in the collar _d_; and nuts being screwed on to the ends of the pins _f_, behind the collar, keep the wheel securely attached to the axle. The screw-cap _g_, is then inserted into the recess _h_, at the outer part of the box, its conical end and small tube _i_, passing into the recess _k_, in the end of the axle.

The parts being thus connected, the oil contained within the cap _g_, will flow through the small tube _i_, in its end, into the recess or cylindrical channel _l_, within the axle, and will thence pass through a small hole in the side of the axle, into the cylindrical recess _a_, of the box; and then lodging in the groove and other cavities within the box, will lubricate the axle as the wheel goes round. There is also a small groove cut on the outside of the axle, for conducting the oil, in order that it may be more equally distributed over the surface and the bearings. This construction of the box and axle, as far as the lubrication goes, may be applied to the axles of wheels in general; but that part of the invention which is designed to give greater security in the attachment of the wheel to the carriage, applies particularly to mail axles.

Mr. William Mason’s patent invention for wheel carriages, of August, 1831, will be understood by reference to the annexed figures. _Fig._ 1177. is a plan showing the fore-axletree bed _a_, _a_, of a four-wheeled carriage, to which the axletrees _b_, _b_, are jointed at each end; _fig._ 1178. is an enlarged plan; and _fig._ 1179. an elevation, or side view of one end of the said fore-axletree bed, having a Collinge’s axletree jointed to the axletree bed, by means of the cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, which passes through and turns in a cylindrical hole _d_, formed at the end of the axletree bed, shown also in the plan view, _fig._ 1180., and section, _fig._ 1181.

The axletree _b_, is firmly united with the upper end _e_, of the pin or bolt _c_; and to the lower end of it, which is squared, the guide piece _f_, is also fitted, and secured by the screw _g_, and cap or nut _h_, seen in _fig._ 1179., and in section in _fig._ 1182. There are leather washers _i_, _i_, let into recesses made to receive them in the parts _a_, _b_, and _f_, the intent of which is to prevent the oil from escaping that is introduced through the central perpendicular hole seen in _fig._ 1182., which hole is closed by means of a screw inserted into it. The oil is diffused, or spread over the surface of the cylinder _c_, by means of a side branch leading from the bottom of the hole into a groove formed around the cylinder, and also by means of two longitudinal gaps or cavities made within the hole, as shown in _figs._ 1180. and 1181. The guide piece _f_, is affixed at right angles with the axletree _b_, as shown in _fig._ 1178., and turns freely and steadily in the cylindrical hole _d_, made to receive one end of the iron fore-axletree bed _a_. In like manner, the opposite fore axletree _b_, _fig._ 1177., is jointed to the other end of the iron fore-axletree bed. The outer ends of the guide pieces _f_, _f_, are jointed to the splinter-bar _n_, _fig._ 1181, as follows:--_Fig._ 1183. is a plan, and _fig._ 1184. a section of the joint _o_, in _fig._ 1177., shown on an enlarged scale; a cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, is firmly secured in the splinter-bar, and round the lower part of the said pin or bolt the guide piece _f_, turns, and is made fast in its place by the screw _g_, and screwed nut _h_.

Oil is conveyed to the lower part of the cylindrical pin _c_, in a similar manner to that already described, and two leather washers are likewise furnished, to prevent its escape. The connecting joint at the opposite end of the splinter-bar _n_, is constructed in a similar manner. The futchel or socket _p_, _p_, for the pole of the carriage, must also be jointed to the middle of the fore-axletree bed and splinter-bar, in a similar manner. The swingletrees _q_, _q_, _fig._ 1177., are likewise jointed in the same way to the splinter-bar. _Fig._ 1185. is a side view of these parts. The fore wheels of the carriage, _fig._ 1177., are furnished with cast-iron boxes, as usual. The dotted lines show the action of the pole _p_, _p_, upon the splinter-bar _n_, and as communicated through the latter to the guide pieces _f_, _f_, connected with the axletrees _b_, _b_, so as to lock the wheels _r_, _r_, as shown in that figure.

The axletree may be incased in the woodwork of the fore-bed of the carriage, as usual, and as shown by dotted lines in the back end view thereof, _fig._ 1186.; and the framing _s_, _fig._ 1187., may be affixed firmly upon the said woodwork, in any fit and proper manner, as well as the fore-springs _t_, _t_, shown in _figs._ 1186. and 1187., and likewise in the side view, _fig._ 1188. In certain cases it may be desirable to fix the cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, firmly in the splinter-bar _n_, in the manner shown in _figs._ 1189. and 1190.; the swingletrees _q_, _q_, and guide pieces _f_, _f_, turning freely above and below upon the said pin or bolt, and secured in their places thereon by screws and screwed nuts, oil being also supplied through holes formed in both ends of the said pin or bolt, and leather washers provided, as in the above-described instances.

Mr. Gibbs, engineer, and Mr. Chaplin, coach-maker, obtained a patent, in 1832, for the construction of a four-wheeled carriage which shall be enabled to turn within a small compass, by throwing the axles of all the four wheels simultaneously into different positions. They effect this object by mounting each wheel upon a separate jointed axle, and by connecting the free ends of the four axles by jointed rods or chains, with the pole and splinter-bar in front of the carriage.