A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines

Chapter C: D E F are the four printing cylinders, named in the order of their (29)

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The chief talent of the founder consists in discovering the most economical mixtures, and so compounding them as to produce the desired properties in the castings. One piece, for example, may be required to have great strength and tenacity to bear heavy weights or strains; another must yield readily to the chisel or the file; a third must resist sudden alternations of temperature; and a fourth must be pretty hard.

The filling in of the melted metal is managed in two ways. For strong pieces, whose moulds can be buried in the ground at 7 or 8 yards distance from the furnace, the metal may be run in gutters, formed in the sand of the floor, sustained by plates or stones. The clay plug is pierced with an iron rod, when all is ready.

When from the smaller size, or greater distance of the moulds, the melted metal cannot be run along the floor from the furnace, it is received in cast-iron pots or ladles, lined with a coat of loam. These are either carried by the hands of two or more men, or transported by the crane. Between the successive castings, the discharge hole of the furnace is closed with a lump of clay, applied by means of a stick, having a small disc of iron fixed at its end.

After the metal is somewhat cooled, the moulds are taken asunder, and the excrescences upon the edges of the castings are broken off with a hammer. They are afterwards more carefully trimmed or chipped by a chisel when quite cold. The loss of weight in founding is about 6-1/2 per cent. upon the pig iron employed. Each casting always requires the melting of considerably more than its own weight of iron. This excess forms the gates, false seams, &c.; the whole of which being deducted, shows that 1 cwt. of coke is consumed for every 3 cwt. of iron put into the furnace; for every 138 cwt. of crude metal, there will be 100 cwt. of castings, 32 of refuse pieces, and 6 of waste.

Explanation of the plates.

_Manner of constructing the Mould of a Sugar-pan._

_Fig._ 468. View of the pan.
-- 469. Flat ring of cast-iron for supporting the inner mould.
-- 470. Construction of the inner mould.
-- 471. Formation of the outer surface of the pan.
-- 472. Finished mould.
-- 473. Position of the two flat cast-iron rings, destined to
sustain the moulds of the inner and the outer surface.

_Gas-retort Moulding._

-- 474. Vertical projection, perpendicular to the axis of the
retort; and two sections, the one upright, the other
horizontal.
-- 475. Construction of the core of the retort.
-- 476. Disposition of the outer mould.
-- 477. Adjustment of the core in the mould.
-- 478. _Cupola furnace._ It is 3 feet wide within, and 13-1/2
high.

_m m_, solid body of masonry, as a basis to the furnace.

_b b_, octagonal platform of cast iron, with a ledge in which the plates _a a a a_ are engaged.

_a a_, eight plates of cast iron, 1 inch thick, absolutely similar; only one of them is notched at its lower part in _c_, to allow the melted metal to run out, and two of the others have six apertures _g g g_, &c. to admit the tuyères.

_c_, orifice for letting the metal flow out. A kind of cast iron gutter, _e_, lined with loam is fitted to the orifice.

_d_, hoops of hammered iron, 4-1/4 inches broad; one half of an inch thick for the bottom ones; and a quarter of an inch for the upper ones. The intermediate hoops decrease in thickness from below upwards between these limits.

_e_, cast iron gutter or spout, lined with loam, for running off the metal.

_f f_, cylindrical piece of cast iron, for increasing the height and draught of the furnace.

_g_, side openings for receiving the tuyères, of which there are six upon each side of the furnace. Each of them may be shut at pleasure, by means of a small cast iron plate _h_, made to slide horizontally in grooves sunk in the main plate, pierced with the holes _g g_.

_k k_, interior lining of the surface, made of sand, somewhat argillaceous, in the following way. After having laid at the bottom of the furnace a bed of sand a few inches thick, slightly sloped towards the orifice of discharge, there is set upright, in the axis of the cupola, a wooden cylinder of its whole height, and of a diameter a little less than that of the vacant space belonging to the top of the furnace. Sand is to be then rammed in so as to fill the whole of the furnace; after which the wooden cylinder is withdrawn, and the lining of sand is cut or shaved away, till it has received the proper form.

This lining lasts generally 5 or 6 weeks, when there are 6 meltings weekly.

_i i_, cast iron circular plate, through which the mouth of the furnace passes, for protecting the lining in _k_ during the introduction of the charges.

N N, level of the floor of the foundry. The portion of it below the running out orifice consists of sand, so that it may be readily sunk when it is wished to receive the melted metal in ladles or pots of large dimensions.

The fan distributes the blast from the main pipe to three principal points, by three branch tubes of distribution. A register, consisting of a cast-iron plate sliding with friction in a frame, serves to intercept the blast at any moment, when it is not desirable to stop the moving power. A large main pipe of zinc or sheet iron is fitted to the orifice of the slide valve. It is square at the beginning, or only rounded at the angles; but at a little distance it becomes cylindrical, and conducts the blast to the divaricating points. There, each of the branches turns up vertically, and terminates at _b b_, _fig._ 479., where it presents a circular orifice of 7-1/2 inches. Upon each of the upright pipes _b_, the one end of an elbow-tube of zinc _c c c c_, _fig._ 479., is adjusted rather loosely, and the other end receives a tuyère of wrought iron _d d_, through the intervention of a shifting hose or collar of leather _c c d_, hooped with iron wire to both the tube and the tuyère. The portion _c c c c_ may be raised or lowered, by sliding upon the pipe _b_, in order to bring the nozzle of the tuyère _d d_, to the requisite point of the furnace. The portion _c c c c_ may be made also of wrought iron. A power of 4 horses is adequate to drive this fan, for supplying blast to 3 furnaces.

The founders have observed the efflux of air was not the same when blown into the atmosphere, as it was when blown into the furnaces; the velocity of the fan, with the same impulsive power, being considerably increased in the latter case. They imagine that this circumstance arises from the blast being sucked in, so to speak, by the draught of the furnace, and that the fan then supplied a greater quantity of air.

The following experimental researches show the fallacy of this opinion. Two water syphons, _e e e_, _f f f_, made of glass tubes, one-fifth of an inch in the bore, were inserted into the tuyère, containing water in the portions _g g g_, _h h h_. The one of these _manometers_ for measuring the pressure of the air was inserted at _k_, the other in the centre of the nozzle. The size of this glass tube was too small to obstruct in any sensible degree the outlet of the air. It was found that when the tuyères of the fan discharged into the open air, the expenditure by a nozzle of a constant diameter was proportional to the number of the revolutions of the vanes. It was further found, that when the speed of the vanes was constant, the expenditure by one or by two nozzles was proportional to the total area of these nozzles. The following formulæ give the volume of air furnished by the fan, when the number of turns and the area of the nozzles are known.

25·32 S n
Volume = --------- (1)
1,000,000

0·86´6´7 S n
Volume = ------------ (2)
1,000,000

The volume is measured at 32° Fahr., under a pressure of 29·6 inches barom.

S = is the total area of the orifices of the tuyères in square inches.

_n_ = the number of turns of the vanes in a minute.

After measuring the speed of the vanes blowing into the atmosphere, if we introduce the nozzle of discharge into the orifice of the furnace, we shall find that their speed immediately augments in a notable degree. We might, therefore, naturally suppose that the fan furnishes more air in the second case than in the first; but a little reflection will show that it is not so. In fact, the air which issues in a cold state from the tuyère encounters instantly in the furnace a very high temperature, which expands it, and contributes, along with the solid matters with which the furnace is filled, to diminish the facility of the discharge, and consequently to retard the efflux by the nozzles. The oxygen gas consumed is replaced by a like volume of carbonic acid gas, equally expansible by heat. Reason leads us to conclude that less air flows from the nozzles into the furnace than into the open atmosphere.

The increase in the velocity of the vanes takes place precisely in the same manner, when after having made the nozzles blow into the atmosphere, we substitute for these nozzles others of a smaller diameter, instead of directing the larger ones into the furnace. Hence we may conceive that the proximity of the charged furnace acts upon the blast like the contraction of the nozzles. When the moving power is uniform, and the velocity of the vanes remains the same, the quantity of air discharged must also be the same in the two cases.

Two tuyères, one 5 inches in diameter, the other 4-1/2, and which, consequently, presented a total area of 35-1/2 square inches, discharged air into one of the furnaces, from a fan whose vanes performed 654 turns in the minute. These two nozzles being briskly withdrawn from the furnace, and turned round to the free air, while a truncated pasteboard cone of 3-1/2 inches diameter was substituted for the nozzle of 4-1/2 inches, whereby the area of efflux was reduced to 29·3 square inches, the velocity of the vanes continued exactly the same. The inverse operation having been performed, that is to say, the two original nozzles having been smartly replaced in the furnace, to discover whether or not the moving power had changed in the interval of the experiment, they betrayed no perceptible alteration of speed. From the measures taken to count the speed, the error could not exceed 3 revolutions per minute, which is altogether unimportant upon the number 654.

It follows, therefore, that when the vanes of the fan have the velocity of 654 turns per minute, the expenditure by two nozzles, whose joint area is 35-1/2 square inches, both blowing into a furnace, is to the expenditure which takes place, when the same nozzles blow into the air, as 35·5 is to 29·3; that is, a little more than 4-fifths.

If this be, as is probable, a general rule for areas and speeds considerably different from the above, to find the quantity of air blown into one or more furnaces by the fan, we should calculate the volume by one of the above formulæ (1) or (2), and take 4-fifths of the result, as the true quantity.

The fan A C here represented is of the best excentric form, as constructed by Messrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson. D is the circular orifice round the axis by which the air is admitted; and C C B is the excentric channel through which the air is wafted towards the main discharge pipe E.

FOUNTAIN; a stream of water rising up through the superficial strata of the earth. See ARTESIAN WELLS.

FOXING, is a term employed by brewers to characterize the souring of beer, in the process of its fermentation or ripening.

FRANKFORT BLACK; is made by calcining vine branches, and the other refuse lees of the vinegar vats in Germany. They must be previously washed.

FREEZING. (_Congelation_, Fr.; _Gefrierung_, Germ.) The three general forms, solid, liquid, and gaseous, under one or other of which all kinds of matter exist, seem to be immediately referrible to the influence of heat; modifying, balancing, or subduing the attraction of cohesion. Every solid may be liquefied, and every liquid may be vaporized, by a certain infusion of caloric, whether this be regarded as a moving power, or an elastic essence. The converse of this proposition is equally true; for many gases, till lately styled permanent, may be liquefied, nay, even solidified, by diminution of their temperature, either alone, or aided by a condensing force, to bring their particles within the sphere of aggregative attraction. When a solid is transformed into a liquid, and a liquid into a gas or vapour, a quantity more or less considerable of heat is absorbed, or becomes latent, to use the term of Dr. Black, the celebrated discoverer of this great law of nature. When the opposite transformation takes place, the heat absorbed is again emitted, or what was latent becomes sensible caloric. Upon the first principle, or the absorption of heat, are founded the various artificial methods of producing cold and congelation.

Tables, exhibiting a collective view of all the Frigorific Mixtures contained in Mr. Walker’s publication, 1808.

I.--Table consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, composed of ice, with chemical salts and acids.

Frigorific Mixtures with Ice.

+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
| MIXTURES. | Thermometer |Deg. of cold|
| | sinks. | produced. |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow, or pounded ice 2 parts| } to -5° | * |
|Muriate of soda 1 | } | |
+-------------------------------+ }---------+------------+
|Snow, or pounded ice 5 parts| } | |
|Muriate of soda 2 |From } to -12°| * |
|Muriate of ammonia 1 | } | |
+-------------------------------+any } --------+------------+
|Snow, or pounded ice 24 parts| } | |
|Muriate of soda 10 |tempe- } to -18°| * |
|Muriate of ammonia 5 | } | |
|Nitrate of potash 5 |rature } | |
+-------------------------------+ }---------+------------+
|Snow, or pounded ice 12 parts| } | |
|Muriate of soda 5 | } to -25°| * |
|Nitrate of ammonia 5 | } | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow 3 parts|From +32° to -23°| 55 |
|Diluted sulphuric acid 2 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow 8 parts|From +32° to -27°| 59 |
|Muriatic acid 5 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow 7 parts|From +32° to -30°| 62 |
|Diluted nitric acid 4 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow 4 parts|From +32° to -40°| 72 |
|Muriate of lime 5 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------++-----------+
|Snow 2 parts|From +32° to -50°| 82 |
|Cryst. muriate of lime 3 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+
|Snow 3 parts|From +32° to -51°| 83 |
|Potash 4 | | |
+-------------------------------+-----------------+------------+

N. B.--The reason for the omissions in the last column of the preceding table is, the thermometer sinking in these mixtures to the degree mentioned in the preceding column, and never lower, whatever may be the temperature of the materials at mixing.

II.--Table, consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, having the power of generating or creating cold, without the aid of ice, sufficient for all useful and philosophical purposes, in any part of the world at any season.

Frigorific Mixtures without Ice.

N. B.--If the materials are mixed at a warmer temperature than that expressed in the table, the effect will be proportionably greater; thus, if the most powerful of these mixtures be made when the air is +85°, it will sink the thermometer to +2°.

III.--Table consisting of Frigorific Mixtures selected from the foregoing Tables, and combined so as to increase or extend cold to the extremest degrees.

Combinations of Frigorific Mixtures.

N. B.--The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required, by mixtures taken from either of the preceding tables.

Water absorbs 1000 degrees of heat in becoming vapour; whence, if placed in a saucer within an exhausted receiver, over a basin containing strong sulphuric acid, it will freeze by the rapid absorption of its heat into the vapour so copiously formed under these circumstances.

But the most powerful means of artificial refrigeration is afforded by the evaporation of liquefied carbonic acid gas; for the frozen carbonic acid thus obtained, has probably a temperature 100° under zero; so that when a piece of it is laid upon quicksilver, it instantly congeals this metal. The more copious discussion of this subject belongs to chemical science.

FRENCH BERRIES; Berries of Avignon.

FRICTION, counteraction of; see LUBRICATION.

FRIT; see ENAMEL and GLASS.

FUEL; (_Combustible_, Fr; _Brennstoff_, Germ.).

Such combustibles as are used for fires or furnaces are called fuel, as wood, turf, pitcoal. These differ in their nature, and in their power of giving heat.

I. Wood, which is divided into hard and soft. To the former belong the oak, the beech, the alder, the birch, and the elm; to the latter, the fir, the pine of different sorts, the larch, the linden, the willow, and the poplar.

Under like dryness and weight, different woods are found to afford equal degrees of heat in combustion. Moisture diminishes the heating power in three ways; by diminishing the relative weight of the ligneous matter, by wasting heat in its evaporation, and by causing slow and imperfect combustion. If a piece of wood contain, for example, 25 per cent. of water, then it contains only 75 per cent. of fuel, and the evaporation of that water will require 1/28 part of the weight of the wood. Hence the damp wood is of less value in combustion by 8/28 or 2/7 than the dry. The quantity of moisture in newly felled wood amounts to from 20 to 50 per cent.; birch contains 30, oak 35, beech and pine 39, alder 41, fir 45. According to their different natures, woods which have been felled and cleft for 12 months contain still from 20 to 25 per cent. of water. There is never less than 10 per cent. present, even when it has been kept long in a dry place, and though it be dried in a strong heat, it will afterwards absorb 10 or 12 per cent. of water. If it be too strongly kiln dried, its heating powers are impaired by the commencement of carbonization, as if some of its hydrogen were destroyed. It may be assumed as a mean of many experimental results, that 1 pound of artificially dried wood will heat 35 pounds of water from the freezing to the boiling point; and that a pound of such wood as contains from 20 to 25 per cent. of water will heat 26 pounds of ice-cold water to the same degree. It is better to buy wood by measure than by weight, as the bulk is very little increased by moisture. The value of different woods for fuel is inversely as their moisture, and this may easily be ascertained by taking their shavings, drying them in a heat of 140° F., and seeing how much weight they lose.

From every combustible the heat is diffused either by radiation or by direct communication to bodies in contact with the flame. In a wood fire the quantity of radiating heat is to that diffused by the air, as 1 to 3; or it is one fourth of the whole heating power.

II. _Charcoal._ The different charcoals afford, under equal weights, equal quantities of heat. We may reckon, upon an average, that a pound of dry charcoal is capable of heating 73 pounds of water from the freezing to the boiling point; but when it has been for some time exposed to the air, it contains at least 10 per cent. of water, which is partially decomposed in the combustion into carburetted hydrogen, which causes flame, whereas pure dry charcoal emits none.

A cubic foot of charcoal from soft wood weighs upon an average from 8 to 9 pounds, and from hard wood 12 to 13 pounds; and hence the latter are best adapted to maintain a high heat in a small compass. The radiating heat from charcoal fires constitutes one third of the whole emitted.

III. _Pitcoal._ The varieties of this coal are almost indefinite, and give out very various quantities of heat in their combustion. The carbon is the heat-giving constituent, and it amounts, in different coals, to from 75 to 95 per cent. One pound of good pitcoal will, upon an average, heat 60 pounds of water from the freezing to the boiling point. Small coal gives out three-fourths of the heat of the larger lumps. The radiating heat emitted by burning pitcoal is greater than that by charcoal.

IV. _The coke of pitcoal._--The heating power of good coke is to that of pitcoal as 75 to 69. One pound of the former will heat 65 pounds of water from 32° to 212°; so that its power is equal to nine-tenths of that of wood charcoal.

V. _Turf or peat._--One pound of this fuel will heat from 25 to 30 pounds of water from freezing to boiling. Its value depends upon its compactness and freedom from earthy particles; and its radiating power is to the whole heat it emits in burning, as 1 to 3.

VI. _Carburetted hydrogen or coal gas._--One pound of this gas, equal to about 24 cubic feet, disengages in burning, as much heat as will raise 76 pounds of water from the freezing to the boiling temperature.

In the following table the fourth column contains the weight of atmospherical air, whose oxygen is required for the complete combustion of a pound of each particular substance.

+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Species of combustible. | Pounds of | Pounds of | Weight of |
| |water which| boiling |atmospheric|
| |a pound can| water |air at 32°,|
| | heat from |evaporated | to burn 1 |
| |0° to 212°.|by 1 pound.| pound. |
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|Perfectly dry wood | 35·00 | 6·36 | 5·96 |
|Wood in its ordinary state| 26·00 | 4·72 | 4·47 |
|Wood charcoal | 73·00 | 13·27 | 11·46 |
|Pitcoal | 60·00 | 10·90 | 9·26 |
|Coke | 65·00 | 11·81 | 11·46 |
|Turf | 30·00 | 5·45 | 4·60 |
|Turf charcoal | 64·00 | 11·63 | 9·86 |
|Carburetted hydrogen gas | 76·00 | 13·81 | 14·58 |
|Oil } | | | |
|Wax } | 78·00 | 14·18 | 15·00 |
|Tallow } | | | |
|Alcohol of the shops | 52·60 | 9·56 | 11·60 |
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The quantity of air stated in the fourth column, is the smallest possible required to burn the combustible, and is greatly less than would be necessary in practice, where much of the air never comes into contact with the burning body, and where it consequently never has its whole oxygen consumed. The heating power stated in the second column is also the maximum effect, and can seldom be realized with ordinary boilers. The draught of air usually carries off at least 1/7 of the heat, and more if its temperature be very high when it leaves the vessel. In this case it may amount to one half of the whole heat or more; without reckoning the loss by radiation and conduction, which however may be rendered very small by enclosing the fire and flues within proper non-conducting and non-radiating materials.

It appears that in practice, the quantity of heat which may be obtained from any combustible in a properly mounted apparatus, must vary with the nature of the object to be heated. In heating chambers by stoves, and water boilers by furnaces, the effluent heat in the chimney which constitutes the principal waste, may be reduced to a very moderate quantity, in comparison of that which escapes from the best constructed reverberatory hearth. In heating the boilers of steam engines, one pound of coal is reckoned adequate to convert 7-1/2 pounds of boiling water into vapour; or to heat 41-1/4 pounds of water from the freezing to the boiling point. One pound of fir of the usual dryness will evaporate 4 pounds of water, or heat 22 pounds to the boiling temperature; which is about two-thirds of the maximum effect of this combustible. According to Watt’s experiments upon the great scale, one pound of coal can boil off with the best built boiler, 9 pounds of water; the deficiency from the maximum effect being here 10/57, or nearly one-sixth.

In many cases the hot air which passes into the flues or chimneys may be beneficially applied to the heating, drying, or roasting of objects; but care ought to be taken that the draught of the fire be not thereby impaired, and an imperfect combustion of the fuel produced. For at a low smothering temperature both carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen may be generated from coal, without the production of much heat in the fire-place.

To determine exactly the quantity of heat disengaged by any combustible in the act of burning, three different systems of apparatus have been employed; 1. the calorimeter of Lavoisier and Laplace, in which the substance is burned in the centre of a vessel, whose walls are lined with ice; and the amount of ice melted, measures the heat evolved; 2. the calorimeter of Watt and Rumford, in which the degree of heat communicated to a given body of water affords the measure of temperature; and 3. by the quantity of water evaporated by different kinds of fuel in similar circumstances.

If our object be to ascertain the relative heating powers of different kinds of fuel, we need not care so much about the total waste of heat in the experiments, provided it be the same in all; and therefore they should be burned in the same furnace, and in the same way. But the more economically the heat is applied, the greater certainty will there be in the results. The apparatus, _fig._ 480., is simple and well adapted to make such comparative trials of fuel. The little furnace is covered at top, and transmits its burned air by _c_, through a spiral tube immersed in a cistern of water, having a thermometer inserted near its top, and another near its bottom, into little side orifices _a a_, while the effluent air escapes from the upright end of the tube _b_. Here also a thermometer bulb may be placed. The average indication of the two thermometers gives the mean temperature of the water. As the water evaporates from the cistern, it is supplied from a vessel placed alongside of it. The experiment should be begun when the furnace has acquired an equability of temperature. A throttle valve at _c_ serves to regulate the draught, and to equalize it in the different experiments by means of the temperature of the effluent air. When the water has been heated the given number of degrees, which should be the same in the different experiments, the fire may be extinguished, the remaining fuel weighed, and compared with the original quantity. Care should be taken to make the combustion as vivid and free from smoke as possible.

FULGURATION; designates the sudden brightening of the melted gold and silver in the cupel of the assayer, when the last film of vitreous lead and copper leaves their surface.

FULLER’S EARTH, (_Terre à foulon_, _Argile Smectique_, Fr.; _Walkererde_, Germ.) is a soft, friable, coarse or fine grained mass of lithomarge clay. Its colour is greenish, or yellowish gray; it is dull, but assumes a fatty lustre upon pressure with the fingers, feels unctuous, does not adhere to the tongue, and has a specific gravity varying from 1·82 to 2·19. It falls down readily in water, into a fine powder, with extrication of air bubbles, and forms a non-plastic paste. It melts at a high heat into a brown slag. Its constituents are 53·0 silica; 10·0 alumina; 9·75 red oxide of iron; 1·25 magnesia; 0·5 lime; 24 water, with a trace of potash. Its cleansing action upon woollen stuffs depends upon its power of absorbing greasy matters. It should be neither tenacious nor sandy; for in the first case, it would not diffuse itself well through water, and in the second it would abrade the cloth too much. The finely divided silica is one of its useful ingredients.

Fuller’s earth is found in several counties of England; but in greatest abundance in Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Hampshire, and Surry.

In the county of Surry there are great quantities of fuller’s earth found about Nutfield, Ryegate, and Blechingley, to the south of the Downs, and some, but of inferior quality, near Sutton and Croydon, to the north of them. The most considerable pits are near Nutfield, between which place and Ryegate, particularly on Redhill, about a mile to the east of Ryegate, it lies so near the surface as frequently to be turned up by the wheels of the waggons. The fuller’s earth to the north of the road between Redhill and Nutfield, and about a quarter of a mile from the latter place, is very thin; the seam in general is thickest on the swell of the hill to the south of the road. It is not known how long this earth has been dug in Surry; the oldest pit now wrought is said to have lasted between 50 and 60 years, but it is fast wearing out. The seam of fuller’s earth dips in different directions. In one, if not in more cases, it inclines to the west with a considerable angle. There are two kinds of it, the blue and the yellow: the former, on the eastern side of the pit, is frequently within a yard of the surface, being covered merely with the soil--a tough, wet, clayey loam. A few yards to the west, the blue kind appears with an irony sand-stone, of nearly two yards in thickness, between it and the soil. The blue earth in this pit is nearly 16 feet deep. In some places the yellow kind is found lying upon the blue; there seems, indeed, to be no regularity either in the position or inclination of the strata where the fuller’s earth is found, nor any mark by which its presence could be detected. It seems rather thrown in patches than laid in any continued or regular vein. In the midst of the fuller’s earth are often found large pieces of stone of a yellow colour, translucent and remarkably heavy, which have been found to be sulphate of barytes, encrusted with quartzose crystals. These are carefully removed from the fuller’s earth, as the workmen say they often spoil many tons of it which lie about them. There is also found with the yellow fuller’s earth a dark brown crust, which the workmen consider as injurious also. In Surry the price of fuller’s earth seems to have varied very little, at least for these last 80 years. In 1730, the price at the pit was 6_d._ a sack, and 6_s._ per load or ton. In 1744, it was nearly the same. It is carried in waggons, each drawing from three to four tons, to the beginning of the iron railway near Westham, along which it is taken to the banks of the Thames, where it is sold at the different wharfs for about 25_s._ or 26_s._ per ton. It is then shipped off either to the north or west of England.

The next characteristic stratum, owing to its forming a ridge of conspicuous hills through the country, is the Woburn land, a thick ferruginous stratum, which below its middle contains a stratum of fuller’s earth. This is thicker and more pure in Aspley and Hogstye-end, two miles north-west of Woburn, than in any known place.

Fuller’s earth is found at Tillington, and consumed in the neighbouring fulling mills.

Mode of preparing fuller’s earth:--

After baking it is thrown into cold water, where it falls into powder, and the separation of the coarse from the fine is effectually accomplished, by a simple method used in the dry colour manufactories, called washing over. It is done in the following manner: Three or four tubs are connected on a line by spouts from their tops; in the first the earth is beat and stirred, and the water, which is continually running from the first to the last through intermediate ones, carries with it and deposits the fine, whilst the coarse settles in the first. The advantages to be derived from this operation are, that the two kinds will be much fitter for their respective purposes of cleansing coarse or fine cloth; for without baking the earth they would be unfit, as before noticed, to incorporate so minutely with the water in its native state; it would neither so readily fall down, nor so easily be divided into different qualities, without the process of washing over. When fuel is scarce for baking the earth, it is broken into pieces of the same size, as mentioned above, and then exposed to the heat of the sun.

The various uses of fuller’s earth may be shortly explained. According to the above method, the coarse and fine of one pit being separated, the first is used for cloths or an inferior, and the second for those of a superior quality. The yellow and the blue earths of Surry are of different qualities naturally, and are like the above, obtained artificially, and used for different purposes. The former, which is deemed the best, is employed in fulling the kerseymeres and finer cloths of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, whilst the blue is principally sent into Yorkshire for the coarser cloths. Its effects on these cloths is owing to the affinity which alumine has for greasy substances; it unites readily with them, and forms combinations which easily attach themselves to different stuffs, and thereby serve the purpose of mordants in some measure. The fullers generally apply it before they use the soap.

FULLING; for the theory of the process, see FELTING, and WOOL.

FULLING MILL. Willan and Ogle obtained a patent in 1825 for improved fulling machinery, designed to act in a similar way to the ordinary stocks, in which cloths are beaten, for the purpose of washing and thickening them; but the standard and the bed of the stocks are made of iron instead of wood as heretofore; and a steam vessel is placed under the bed, for heating the cloths during the operation of fulling; whereby their appearance is said to be greatly improved.

_Fig._ 480*. is a section of the fulling machine or stocks; _a_, is a cast-iron pillar, made hollow for the sake of lightness; _b_, is the bed of the stocks, made also of iron, and polished smooth, the side of the stock being removed to shew the interior; _c_, is the lever that carries the beater _d_. The cloths are to be placed on the bed _b_, at bottom, and water allowed to pass through the stock, when by the repeated blows of the beater _d_, which is raised and let fall in the usual way, the cloths are beaten, and become cleansed and fulled.

A part of the bed at _e_, is made hollow, for the purpose of forming a steam box, into which steam from a boiler is introduced by a pipe with a stop-cock. This steam heats the bed of the stock, and greatly facilitates, as well as improves the process of cleansing and fulling the cloths.

The smoothness of the surface of the polished metal, of which the bed of the stock is constituted, is said to be very much preferable to the roughness of the surface of wood of which ordinary fulling stocks are made, as by these iron stocks less of the nap or felt of the cloth is removed, and its appearance when finished is very much superior to cloths fulled in ordinary stocks.

In the operation of fulling, the cloths are turned over on the bed, by the falling of the beaters, but this turning over of the cloths will depend in a great measure upon the form of the front or breast of the stock. In these improved stocks therefore, there is a contrivance by which the form of the front may be varied at pleasure, in order to suit cloths of different qualities; _f_, is a movable curved plate, constituting the front of the stock; its lower part is a cylindrical rod, extending along the entire width of the bed, and being fitted into a recess, forms a hinge joint upon which the curved plate moves; _g_, is a rod attached to the back of the curved plate _f_, with a screw thread upon it; this rod passes through a nut _h_, and by turning this nut, the rod is moved backward or forward, and consequently, the position of the curved plate altered.

The nut _h_, is a wheel with teeth, taking into two other similar toothed wheels, one on each side of it, which are likewise the nuts of similar rods jointed to the back of the curved plate _f_; by turning the central wheel, therefore, which may be done by a winch, the other two wheels are turned also, and the curved plate moved backward or forward. At the upper part of the plate there are pins passing through curved slots, which act as guides when the plate is moved.

The patentees state in conclusion, that steam has been employed before for heating cloths while fulling them, they therefore do not exclusively claim its use, except in the particular way described; the advantages arising from the construction of iron stocks, with polished surfaces in place of wooden ones, together with the movable curved plates described, are in their opinion “sufficiently important to constitute a patent right.”

FULMINATES, or _fulminating powders_. Of these explosive compounds, there are several species; such as fulminating gold, mercury, platinum, silver; besides the old fusible mixture of nitre, sulphur, and potash. The only kind at all interesting in a manufacturing point of view is the fulminate of mercury, now so extensively used as a priming to the caps of percussion locks. Having published a paper in the Journal of the Royal Institution for 1831, upon gunpowder (see GUNPOWDER), the result of an elaborate suite of experiments, I was soon afterwards requested by the Hon. the Board of Ordnance to make such researches as would enable me to answer, in a satisfactory practical manner, a series of questions upon fulminating powders, subservient to the future introduction of percussion musquets into the British army. The following is a verbatim copy of my report upon the subject:--

_To the Secretary of the Board of Ordnance._

“SIR,--I have the honour of informing you, for the instruction of the Honourable the Master General and the Board of Ordnance, that the researches on fulminating mercury, which I undertook by their desire, have been brought to a satisfactory conclusion, after a numerous, diversified, and somewhat hazardous series of experiments. The following are the questions submitted to me, with their respective answers:--

_Question 1._ What proportions of mercury, with nitric acid and alcohol of certain strengths, will yield the greatest quantity of pure fulminate of mercury?

_Answer._ One hundred parts, by weight, of mercury, must be dissolved with a gentle heat, in 1000 parts (also by weight) of nitric acid, spec. gr. 1·4; and this solution, at the temperature of about 130° Fahr. must be poured into 830 parts by weight of alcohol, spec. gr. 0·830.--_Note._ 830 parts of such alcohol, by weight, constitute 1000 by measure; and 1000 parts of such nitric acid, by weight, constitute 740 by measure. Hence, in round numbers, one ounce weight of quicksilver must be dissolved in 7-1/2 oz. measures of the above designated nitric acid, and the resulting solution must be poured into 10 oz. measures of the said alcohol.

_Question 2._ What is the most economical and safe process for conducting the manipulation, either as regards the loss of nitrous gas and residuum, or as respects danger to the operator; also, what is the readiest and safest mode of mixing the fulminate intimately with its due proportions of common gunpowder.

_Answer._ The mercury should be dissolved in the acid in a glass retort, the beak of which is loosely inserted into a large balloon or bottle of glass or earthenware, whereby the offensive fumes of the nitrous gas disengaged during the solution, are, in a considerable measure, condensed into liquid acid, which should be returned into the retort. As soon as the mercury is all dissolved, and the solution has acquired the prescribed temperature of about 130°, it should be slowly poured, through a glass or porcelain funnel, into the alcohol contained in a glass matrass or bottle capable of holding fully 6 times the bulk of the mixed liquids. In a few minutes bubbles of gas will proceed from the bottom of the liquid; these will gradually increase in number and magnitude till a general fermentative commotion, of a very active kind, is generated, and the mixture assumes a somewhat frothy appearance. A white voluminous gas now issues from the orifice of the matrass, which is very combustible, and must be suffered to escape freely into the air, at a distance from any flame. These fumes consist of an ethereous gas, holding mercury in suspension or combination. I have made many experiments with the view of condensing this gas, or, at least, the mercury, but with manifest disadvantage to the perfection of the process of producing fulminate. When the said gas is transmitted, through a glass tube, into a watery solution of carbonate of soda, a little oxide of mercury is, no doubt, recovered; but the pressure on the fermentative mixture, though slight, necessary to the displacement of the soda solution, seems to obstruct or impair the generation of the fulminate; this effect is chiefly injurious towards the end of the operation when the gaseous fumes are strongly impregnated with nitrous gas. When this is not allowed freely to come off, a portion of subnitrate or nitrate of mercury is apt to be formed, to the injury of the general process and the product.

As soon as the effervescence and concomitant emission of gas are observed to cease, the contents of the matrass should be turned out upon a paper double filter, fitted into a glass or porcelain funnel, and washed by the affusion of cold water till the drainings no longer redden litmus paper. The powder adhering to the matrass should be washed out and thrown on the filter by the help of a little water. Whenever the filter is thoroughly drained, it is to be lifted out of the funnel, and opened out on plated copper or stone ware, heated to 212° Fahr. by steam or hot water. The fulminate being thus dried, is to be put up in paper parcels of about 100 grains each; the whole of which may be afterwards packed away in a tight box, or a bottle with a cork stopper. The excellence of the fulminate may be ascertained, by the following characters. It consists of brownish-gray small crystals which sparkle in the sun, are transparent when applied to a slip of glass with a drop of water, and viewed by transmitted light. These minute spangles are entirely soluble in 130 times their weight of boiling water; that is to say, an imperial pint of boiling water will dissolve 67 grs. of pure fulminate. Whatever remains indicates impurity. From that solution beautiful pearly spangles of fulminate fall down as the liquid cools.

It may now be proper to show within what nice and narrow limits the best proportions of the ingredients used in making the fulminate of mercury lie. The following are selected from among many experiments instituted to determine that point, as well as the most economical process.

1. According to the formula given by the celebrated chemist Berzelius, in the 4th vol. of his “Traité de Chimie,” recently published (p. 383.), the mercury should be dissolved in 12 times its weight of nitric acid sp. gr. 1·375; and alcohol of sp. gr. 0·850, amounting to 16·3 times the weight of the mercury, should be poured at intervals into the nitric solution. The mixture is then to be heated till effervescence with the characteristic cloud of gas appears. On the action becoming violent, alcohol is to be poured in from time to time to repress it, till additional 16·3 parts have been employed.

On this process I may remark, that it is expensive, troublesome, dangerous, and unproductive of genuine pure fulminate. One fifth more nitric acid is expended very nearly than what is necessary, and almost four times the weight of alcohol which is beneficial. Of alcohol at 0·83, 8·3 parts by weight are sufficient; whereas Berzelius prescribes nearly 4 times this quantity in weight, though the alcohol is somewhat weaker, being of sp. gr. 0·850. By using such an excess of alcohol, much of the fulminate is apt to be revived into globules of quicksilver at the end of the process, as I showed in my paper on this subject published in the Journal of the Royal Institution two years ago. There is no little hazard in pouring the alcohol into the nitric solution; for at each effusion an explosive blast takes place, whereas by pouring the solution into the alcohol, as originally enjoined by the Hon. Mr. Howard, the inventor of the process, no danger whatever is incurred. 100 parts of mercury treated in the way recommended by Berzelius afforded me only 112 parts of fulminate, instead of the 130 obtained by my much more economical and safe proportions and process from the same weight of quicksilver.

2. If 10 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·375 be used for dissolving 1 of quicksilver, and if 14 parts of alcohol of sp. gr. 0·85 be thereafter mixed with the solution, the product of such proportions will either be not granular, and therefore not fulminating, or it will be partially granular and partially pulverulent, being a mixture of fulminate and subnitrate of mercury ill adapted for priming detonating caps. Instead of 130 parts of genuine fulminate, as I do obtain, probably not more than 10 parts of powder will be produced, and that of indifferent quality. In fact, whenever the ethereous fermentation is defective, or not vigorous, little true fulminate is generated; but much of the mercury remains in the acidulated alcoholic liquid.

3. If the alcohol be poured in successive portions, and of proper strength (sp. gr. 0·83) into a proper nitric solution of mercury, the explosive action which accompanies each effusion dissipates much of the alcohol, and probably impairs the acid, so that the subsequent ethereous fermentation is defective, and little good fulminate is formed. From 100 parts of mercury submitted to this treatment, I obtained in one experiment carefully made, only 51 parts of a powder, which was impalpable, had a cream colour, and was not explosive either by heat or percussion.

4. When, with 100 parts of mercury, 800 of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·375 are employed with 650 of alcohol of sp. gr. 846, no fulminate whatever is generated.

5. When with the proper proportions of mercury, acid, and alcohol, the process is advanced into a proper energy of fermentative commotion, if the matrass be immersed in cold water so as materially to repress that action, the process will be impaired, and will turn out ultimately defective both as to the quantity and quality of the fulminate. It is therefore evident that a certain energy or vivacity of etherization is essential to the full success of this curious process, and that any thing which checks it, or obstructs its taking place, is injurious and to be avoided.

When my proportions are observed in making fulminating mercury, somewhat less than one fourth of the nitric acid used in making the solution remains in the alcoholic mixture along with the fulminate. When other proportions are taken, much more acid remains. This acid is not recoverable to any useful or economical purpose, nor is the alcohol that is associated with it. Many distillations with various reagents have led me to this practical conclusion. In fact, when the process is most complete, as described in the first paragraph, the alcohol is entirely and profitably employed in etherization, and generating fulminic acid.

I have made a series of analytical experiments on the pure fulminate of mercury, with the view of determining its composition, the quantity of quicksilver present in it, and consequently the loss of mercury in the operation. I have stated that my maximum product of fulminate from 100 grs. of quicksilver is 130 grs. Occasionally from slight differences in the temperature of the mixture, or the ambient atmosphere, 2 grs. less may be obtained.

A. I dissolved 130 grs. with a gentle heat in muriatic acid contained in a small matrass, adding a few drops of the nitric to quicken the solution. On evaporating it to dryness, with much care to avoid volatilization of the salt, I obtained 125 grs. of corrosive sublimate or bi-chloride of mercury. But 125 grs. of this bi-chloride contain only 91·1 grs. of quicksilver. Therefore, by this experiment, 130 grs. of fulminate contain no more than 91·1 of mercury, indicating an exhalation of 8·9 parts in the form of fumes, or a retention in the residuary liquid of some of these 8·9 parts, out of the 100 originally employed.

B. In another experiment for analysis, 130 grs. dissolved as above, were thrown down by carbonate of soda. 95 grs. of black oxide of mercury were obtained, which are equivalent to 91·2 grs. of quicksilver; affording a confirmation of the preceding result.

C. 130 grs. of fulminate were dissolved in strong muriatic acid, and the solution was decomposed by crystals of proto-muriate of tin at a boiling temperature. The mercury was precipitated in globules to such amount as to verify the two preceding experiments.

Regarding fulminate of mercury as a bi-cyanate, that is, as a compound of one atom or one equivalent prime of deutoxide of mercury, and two primes of cyanic acid, we shall find its theoretical composition to be as follows, hydrogen being the radix, or 1.

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