Chapter C: D E F are the four printing cylinders, named in the order of their (26)

The brake machines afford a far preferable means of cleaning flax than the above hand tools. The essential part of such a machine, consists in several deeply fluted rollers of wood or iron, whose teeth work into each other, and while they stretch out the flaxen stalks betwixt them, they break the wood or boon, without doing that violence to the harl which hand mechanisms are apt to do. The following may be regarded as one of the best constructions hitherto contrived for breaking flax. _Fig._ 415. is a view of the right side of this machine. _Fig._ 416., the view from behind, where the broken flax issues from between the rollers. The frame is formed by the two side pillars or walls _a_, _a_, which are mortised into the bottom _b_, _b_; and are firmly fixed to it by braces. Two transverse rods _d_, _d_, secure the base, two others _d´ d´´_, the sides. In each of these a lateral arm _e_, is mortised in an oblique direction; a cross bar _f_, unites both arms. _Fig._ 417. shows the inside of the left side of the frame, with the subsidiary parts. The three rollers _g_, _i_, _k_, may be made of red beech, with iron gudgeons, and fluted in their length, each of the flutes being 5/12 of an inch broad, and 4/12ths deep. The large roller _g_, bears upon the right side, a handle _h_, which on being turned, sets the whole train in motion. The side partitions _a_, _a_, are furnished with brasses in whose round holes _l_, _g_, _fig._ 417., the gudgeons _g_ work. For the extremities of the two smaller rollers, there are at _a_ and _e_, slots in brasses, as may be seen in _fig._ 415. Within the partition _a_, there are movable brasses _l_, for the pivots of _i_ and _k_, shewn in _fig._ 417. Each brass slides in a groove, between two ledges. A strong cord made fast at _m_ to the partition _a_, runs over the brass of _i_, next over that of _k_, then descends perpendicularly, and passes over the cross bar _n_, _fig._ 415. and 416. This construction being repeated at both ends of the rollers, the rod _n_, binds both cords. Against the cross bar _d´_ of the frame, a lever _o_ is sustained, which lies upon the rod _n_, and carries a weight _p_. The farther or nearer this weight hangs towards the end of the lever, it stretches the cord more or less, and presses by means of the brasses _l_, the rollers _i_, _k_, towards the main roller _g_. A table _q_, serves for spreading out the flax to be broken, and a second one _r_, for the reception of the stalks at their issuing from between the rollers. Both tables hang by means of iron hooks to rings of the frame _s_, _t_, _fig._ 415. and 417., and are supported by the movable legs _u_, _u_, _u_, _fig._ 415. and 416. In using the machine the operative lays an evenly spread handful of flax upon the table _q_, introduces their root ends with his left hand between the rollers _g_ and _i_, and turns round the handle _h_, with the right. The stems are first broken betwixt _g_ and _i_, then between _g_ and _k_, and come out upon the table _r_. The handle is moved alternately forwards and backwards, in order that the flax may be rolled alternately in the same directions, and be more perfectly broken. The boon falls down in very small pieces, and the harl remains expanded in parallel bands. This should be drawn over the points of a heckle, then laid for a couple of days in a cellar to absorb some moisture, and afterwards worked once more through the machine, whereby the flax acquires a peculiar softness.

The advantages of this brake machine are chiefly the following:--

It takes up little room, and from its simplicity is easily and cheaply constructed; it requires no more power to work, than the ordinary hand-brake; it tears none of the filaments, and grinds nothing except the boon, in consequence of the flutings of the rollers going much less deep into each other, than the sword of the hand-brake; it prevents all entanglements of the flax, whence in the subsequent heckling the quantity of short fibres or tow is diminished; and it accomplishes the cleaning of even the shortest flax, which cannot be well done by hand machines.

The comminution of the boon of the stems, which is the object of the breaking process, can however be performed by threshing or beating, although in this way the separation of the woody matter from the textile fibres is much less completely effected.

It is the practice in Great Britain, instead of breaking, to employ a water-driven wooden mallet, between which and a smooth stone the flax is laid. In that part of Belgium where the preparation of flax has been studied, the brake is not used, but beating by means of the _Bott-hammer_, to the great improvement, it is said, of the flax. The _Bott-hammer_, _fig._ 418., is a wooden block, having on its under face, channels or flutings, 5 or 6 lines deep, and it is fixed to a long bent helve or handle. In using it, a bundle of the dried flax stalks is spread evenly upon the floor, then powerfully beaten with the hammer, first at the roots, next at the points, and lastly in the middle. When the upper surface has been well beat in this way, it is turned over, that the under surface may get its turn. The flax is then removed, and well shaken to free it from the boon.

By the brake or the hammer the whole wood is never separated from the textile fibres, but a certain quantity of chaffy stuff adheres to them, which is removed by another operation. This consists either in rubbing or shaking. The rubbing is much practised in Westphalia, and the neighbouring districts. In this process, the operative lays the rubbing apron on a piece of dressed leather, one foot square, upon her knee; then seizes a bundle of flax in the middle with her left hand, and scrapes it strongly with the _Ribbe-knife_ held in her right, _fig._ 419. This tool, which consists of a wooden handle _s_, and a thin iron blade _r_, with a blunt and somewhat bent edge, acts admirably in cleaning and also in parting the filaments, without causing needless waste in flax previously well broken.

The winnowing, which has the very same object as the rubbing, is, however, much more generally adopted than the latter. Two distinct pieces of apparatus belong to it, namely, the _swing-stock_ and the _swing-knife_. The first consists of an upright board with a groove in its side, into which a handful of flax is so placed that it hangs down over half the surface of the board. While the left hand holds the flax fast above, the right carries the swing-knife, a sabre-shaped piece of wood from 1-1/2 to 2 feet long, planed to an edge on the convex side, and provided with a handle. With this knife the flax is struck parallel to the board, with perpendicular blows, so as to scrape off its woody asperities. The breadth of the swing-knife is an important circumstance; when too narrow it easily causes the flax to twist round it, and thereby tears away a portion of the fibres. When 8 or 10 inches broad, it is found to act best. Knives made of iron will not answer, for they injure the filaments.

_Figs._ 420, 421. show the best construction of the swing-stock. The board _a_ has for its base a heavy block of wood _b_, upon which two upright pins _e e_, are fixed. The band _f_, which is stretched between the pins, serves to guide the swing-knife in its movements, and prevent the operative from wounding his feet. The under edge of the groove _c_, upon which the flax comes to be laid, is cut obliquely and rounded off (see _d_ in _fig._ 420.); thus we perceive that the swing-knife can never strike against that edge, so as to injure the flax.

_Fig._ 422. exhibits the form of a very convenient implement which is employed in Belgium instead of the swing-knife. It is a sort of wooden hatchet, which is not above two lines thick, and at the edge _g h_ is reduced to the thickness of the back of a knife. The fly _k_ gives force to the blow, and preserves the tool in an upright position. The short flat-pressed helve _i_ is glued to that side of the leaf which in working is turned from the swing-stock; and is, moreover, fastened with a wooden pin.

The rubbing and swinging throw off the coarsest sort of tow, by separating and shaking out the shortest fibres and those that happen to get torn. That tow is used for the inferior qualities of sacking, being mixed with many woody fibres.

We may in general estimate that 100 pounds of the stalks of retted flax, taken in the dry state, afford from 45 to 48 pounds of broken flax, of which, in the swinging or scutching, about 24 pounds of flax, with 9 or 10 pounds of scutch tow are obtained. The rest is boon-waste. The breaking of 100 pounds of stalks requires, in the ordinary routine of a double process by hand, about 20 hours; and with the above described machine, from 17 to 18 hours. To scutch 100 pounds of broken flax clean, 130 hours of labour are required by the German swinging method.

Mr. Bundy obtained a patent in 1819, for certain machinery for breaking and preparing flax, which merits description here. _Fig._ 423. A A A A, is the frame made either of wood or metal, which supports the two conical rollers B and C. These revolve independently of each other in proper brass bearings. A third conical roller D is similarly supported under the top piece E of the machine. All these rollers are _frusta_ of cones, made of cast iron. Whatever form of tooth be adopted, they must be so shaped and disposed with regard to each other as to have considerable play between them, in order to admit the quantity of flax stem which is intended to be broken and prepared. The upper piece E of the machine which carries the upper conical roller D, is fixed or attached to the main frame A A A A by strong hinges or any other moveable joint at G, and rods of iron or other sufficiently strong material; H H is attached at its upper end by a joint to the top piece E, through a hole near I, and is fixed at its lower end by another joint K to the treadle or lever K L, which turns upon the joint or hinges M. A spring or weight (but the former is preferable for many reasons) is applied to the machine in such manner, that its action will always keep the upper piece E, and consequently the upper roller D, in an elevated or raised position above the rollers B and C, when the machine is not in action; and of course the end L of the treadle will also be raised, which admits of the flax to be worked being introduced between the rollers, viz. over the two lower rollers B, C, and under the upper roller D; such a spring may be applied in a variety of ways, as between the top piece E, and the top or platform of the machine at N; or it may be a strong spiral wire spring, having its upper end fastened to the platform while its lower extremity is fixed to the rod H H, round which it coils as shown at O, or it may be placed under the end L of the treadle; but in every case its strength must be no more than will be just sufficient to raise the upper roller D about two inches from the lower rollers, otherwise it will occasion unnecessary fatigue to the person working the machine.

The manner of using it is as follows: the upper and lower rollers being separated as aforesaid, a small handful of dried flax or hemp stems is to be introduced between them, and held extended by the two hands, while the rollers are brought together by the pressure of the foot upon the treadle L. This pressure being continued, the flax or hemp is to be drawn backwards and forwards by the hands between the rollers, in a direction at right angles to their axes, and eventually withdrawn by pulling with one hand only. The foot is now to be removed until the flax or hemp is again replaced, and each end is this way to be drawn several times through the machine, until such ends are respectively finished.

By a succession of these operations, using the pressure of the foot upon L, each time that the flax or hemp is introduced between the rollers, and regulating such pressure according to the progress of the work, the flax or hemp will soon be sufficiently worked, and the fibre brought into a clean and divided state fit for bleaching; or if it be required to spin it in the yellow state, it may be made sufficiently fine by a longer continuation of the same process, particularly if worked between the smaller ends of the rollers.

Indeed, the operation may be commenced and continued for some time, with the larger part of the rollers, and finished with their smaller ends; and, in this point of view, the invention of conical rollers will be found both convenient and useful; for as the flutes, grooves, or teeth, vary in their distance from each other at all points between the large and small ends, so it becomes almost impossible for the workman to draw the flax or hemp through such rollers in the same track; and thus the breaking of the boon must be much more irregular, and the fibre will be much more effectually cleansed than it can be by the flutes, grooves, or teeth of cylinders, or other such contrivances formerly employed; because they would probably fall frequently upon the same points of the fibres. If it is intended that the flax shall be bleached before it is spun, then the second part of Mr. Bundy’s invention may be had recourse to, which consists in moving certain trays or cradles in the water, or other fluid used for bleaching the flax or hemp, in the manner following, viz.: The flax or hemp, after having been broken and worked in the machine, should be divided into small quantities of about one ounce each, and these should be tied loosely in the middle with a string, and in this state laid in the trays or cradles, and then be soaked in cold soft water for a day or two, when each parcel should be worked separately, while wet, through a machine, precisely similar to that already described, except only that the rollers should be cylindrical, and made entirely of wood with metal axles, and the teeth, which will be parallel, should be similar in form to those shown in section at Q, _fig._ 423*. Such operation will loosen the gluten and colouring matter, for the rinsing and wringing which must follow. The flax must then be again disposed in a flat and smooth manner, in such trays or cradles, and once more set to soak in sufficient soft water to cover it, in which a small quantity of soap, in the proportion of about seven pounds of soap to each hundred weight of flax, has been previously dissolved, and in this state it should remain for two or three days longer, and then be finally worked through the machine, rinsed with clear water, and wrung; which will render it sufficiently white for most purposes.

III. _The Heckling._--We have already stated that, by the operation of heckling, a three-fold object is proposed: 1. the parting of the filaments into their finest fibrils; 2. the separation of the short fibres which are unfit for spinning; 3. the equable and parallel arrangements of the long filaments. The instrument of accomplishing these objects is a comb-fashioned tool, called the _heckle_ or _hackle_; a surface studded more or less thickly with metal points, called heckle teeth; over which the flax is drawn in such a way that the above three required operations may be properly accomplished.

The common construction of the heckle is the following: (see _fig._ 424.) _Fig._ 424. is the ground plan, and _fig._ 425. is the section. Upon an oblong plank _a b_, two circular or square blocks of wood _c_ and _d_ are fixed, in which the heckle teeth stand upright. To give these a firmer hold they are stuck into holes in a brass or iron plate, with which the upper surface of _c_ and _d_ is covered. Both heckles may be either associated upon one board or separated; and of different finenesses; that is, the teeth of the one may be thinner, and stand closer together; because the complete preparation of the flax requires for its proper treatment, a two-fold heckling; one upon the coarse, and one upon the fine heckle; nay, sometimes 3 or 4 heckles are employed of progressive fineness. The heckle teeth are usually made of iron, occasionally of steel, and from 1 to 2 inches long. Their points must be very sharp and smooth, all at an equal level, and must all graduate very evenly into a cylindrical stem, like that of a sewing needle, without any irregularity. The face of the heckle block must be uniformly beset with teeth, which is done by different arrangements, some persons setting them in a circle, and others in parallel rows; the former being practised in Germany, the latter in England. The coarse heckle is furnished with teeth about one tenth of an inch thick, one and a quarter of an inch long, and tapering from the middle into a very fine point. In the centre of the circular heckle is a tooth planted; the rest are regularly set in 12 similar concentric circles, of which the outermost is 5-3/4 inches in diameter. The fine heckles contain no fewer than 1109 teeth. Instead of making the points of the teeth round, it is better to make them quadrangular, in a rhombus form, in which case the edges serve to separate or dissect the fibres.

The operation of heckling is simple in principle, although it requires much experience to acquire dexterity. The operative seizes a flock of flax by the middle with the right hand, throws it upon the points of the coarse heckle, and draws it towards him, while he holds the left hand upon the other side of the heckle, in order to spread the flax, and to prevent it from sinking too deeply among the teeth. From time to time the short fibres or tow sticking to the teeth are removed. Whenever one half of the length of the strake of flax is heckled, it is turned round to heckle the other half. This process is repeated upon the fine heckle. From 100 pounds of well-cleaned flax, about 45 or 50 pounds of heckled flax may be obtained by the hand labour of 50 hours; the rest being tow, with a small waste in boony particles and dust. The process is continued, till by careful handling little more tow is formed.

Many contrivances have been made to heckle by machinery, but it may be doubted whether any of them as yet make such good work with so little loss as hand labour. In heckling by the hand, the operative feels at once the degree of resistance, and can accommodate the traction to it, or throw the flax more or less deep among the teeth, according to circumstances, and draw it with suitable force and velocity. To aid the heckle in splitting the filaments, three methods have been had recourse to; beating, brushing, and boiling with soap-water, or an alkaline lye.

Beating flax either after it is completely heckled, or between the first and second heckling, is practised in Bohemia and Silesia. Each heckled tress of flax is folded in the middle, twisted once round, its ends being wound about with flaxen threads; and this head, as it is called, is then beat by a wooden mallet upon a block, and repeatedly turned round till it has become hot. It is next loosened out, and rubbed well between the hands. The brushing is no less a very proper operation for parting the flax into fine filaments, softening and strengthening it without risk of tearing the fibres. This process requires in tools, merely a stiff brush made of swines’ bristles, and a smooth board, 3 feet long and one foot broad, in which a wooden pin is made fast. The end of the flax is twisted two or three times round this pin to hold it, and then brushed through its whole length. Well heckled flax suffers no loss in this operation; unheckled, only a little tow; which is of no consequence, as the waste is thereby diminished in the following process. A cylindrical brush turned by machinery might be employed here to advantage.

The boiling of flax with potash lye alone, or with lye and soap, dissolves that portion of the glutinous cement which had resisted the retting, completes the separation of the fibres, and is therefore a good practical means of improving flax. When it is performed upon the heckled fibres, a supplementary brushing is requisite to free it from the dust, soapy particles, &c.

_Can flax be prepared without retting?_--The waste of time and labour in the steeping of flax; the dyeing of the fibres consequent thereon, which must be undone by bleaching; the danger of injuring the staple by the action of putrescent water; and, lastly, the diminished value of flax which is much water-retted, are all circumstances which have of late years suggested the propriety of superseding that process entirely by mechanical operations. It was long hoped, that by the employment of breaking machines, the flax merely dried could be freed from its woody particles, while the textile filaments might be sufficiently separated by a subsequent heckling. Experience has, however, proved the contrary. The machines, which consisted for the most part of fluted rollers of iron or wood, though expensive, might have been expected to separate the ligneous matter from the fibres; but, in the further working of the flax no advantage was gained over the water-retting process.

1. Unretted flax requires a considerably longer time for breaking than retted, under the employment of the same manipulations.

2. Unretted stalks deliver in the breaking and heckling a somewhat greater product than the same weight of flax which has been retted; but there is no real advantage in this, as the greater weight of the unretted flax consists in the remainder of ligneous or glutinous matter, which being foreign to the real fibre, must be eventually removed. In the bleaching process, the water and the alkaline lyes take away that matter, so that the weight of the bleached fibre is not greater from the unretted than the retted flax.

3. The parting of the fibres in the unretted stalks is imperfectly effected by the heckling, the flax either remains coarser as compared with the retted article, and affords a coarser thread, or if it be made to receive greater attenuation by a long continued heckling, it yields incomparably more torn filaments and tow.

4. The yarn of unretted flax feels harder, less glossy, and rougher; and, on account of these qualities, turns out worse in the weaving than the retted flax. Nor is the yarn of unretted flax, whether unbleached or bleached, in any degree stouter than the yarn of the retted flax.

5. Fabrics of unretted flax require for complete bleaching about a sixth less time and materials than those of the retted. This is the sole advantage, but it is more than counterbalanced by the other drawbacks above specified.

In Mr. Wordsworth’s improved apparatus for heckling flax and hemp, a succession of stricks is subjected to the operation of several series of revolving heckles of different degrees of fineness, for the purpose of gradually separating or combing the long fibres, and dressing them smooth; while at the same time, the tow or entangled refuse portions of the material taken off from the stricks by the heckle points are removed from the heckles by rotatory brushes and rollers covered with wire cards, and discharged into suitable receivers, whence it may be taken to a carding engine, to be worked in the ordinary way.

The accompanying figures represent in plan and section, the heckling machine which is made double, for the purpose of allowing two series of stricks of flax to be acted upon at one time. _Fig._ 426. is a horizontal view of the machine; _fig._ 427. is an end view, the whole being represented in working order, and the respective letters of reference pointing out corresponding parts of the machine.

A A are two large barrels or drums, upon the surfaces of which are fixed longitudinally several series of brass ribs _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _i_, holding heckle points. These ribs are placed at small distances apart round the barrels, all the heckle points standing radially from the axes, and the barrels are mounted upon axles supported by pedestals, with plummer blocks bearing on the rails of the end frames. B B, are two horizontal wheels or pulleys turning upon vertical shafts, which pulleys conduct an endless chain C C C C, carrying the holders, whereon the stricks of flax or other material intended to be heckled are suspended.

At one end of the axle of each of the barrels a toothed wheel D D, is made fast, and these are connected by a similar wheel E, and a pinion F, _fig._ 427., the latter being fixed upon the axle of the driving rigger G.

The power of a steam engine, or any other first mover, being applied by a band and rigger, or otherwise to the axle of G, the pinion F, is driven round, which, being in geering with the toothed wheels E and D D, causes the heckle barrels A A to revolve simultaneously in opposite directions, as shown by the arrows in _fig._ 427.

The stricks of flax intended to be operated upon are severally confined between pairs of clamps _k_, fastened together, which clamps, with the stricks, are then suspended in their respective holders H H, attached to the endless chain C: the lower portion of the flax hanging down for the purpose of being acted upon by the rotatory heckles, while the upper portions are turned up in loops and confined by spring levers attached to each carrier.

The respective holders of the clamps consist of a forked frame, with hooks at the lower parts of their arms, which receive the ends of the clamps _k_, that confine the strick of flax. From the upper part of each forked frame, a perpendicular pin extends, which pins when inserted into the sockets _l l l_, in front of the chain, form axles for the frames to turn upon at certain periods of the operation.

On the upper end of each pin, a small arm or tappet piece _m_, _fig._ 427., is fixed, standing at right angles to the face of the forked frame of the holder H. Those tappets as the endless chain conducts the holders along at certain periods, come in contact with stationary pins or wipers _n n_, fixed to the guide rails _o_, on which the chain C slides; and these wipers acting against the tappets as they pass, cause the holders to be turned round at those periods for the purpose of bringing the reverse side of the strick of flax on to the heckle points.

Let it now be supposed, that all the holders connected to the endless chain have been furnished with stricks of flax, or other material to be heckled, and that the barrels A A, are put in motion in the way described, revolving in the direction of the arrows shown in _fig._ 427. A pinion on the end of the axles of one of the barrels A, will drive a train of toothed geer J K L M and N, on the axle of the latter, of which there is a bevelled pinion taking into a bevelled wheel, turning horizontally at the lower end of the perpendicular shaft of one of the chain pulleys. It will hence be perceived that as the barrels go round, such rotatory motion will be communicated to the pulley B, as will cause it to drive the chain C forward, and by that means conduct the several stricks of flax progressively along the barrel.

When each successive holder, with its strick of flax or other material, is brought to the part _z_, _fig._ 426., the fibres come in contact with the rotatory barrel, and first strike upon the series of coarse heckles _a a_, placed upon an inclined or conical surface of the barrel, by which means the lower ends of the flax in each strick are first acted upon; and as it advances, the upper part, and ultimately the whole length of the long fibres of the suspended strick are gradually brought on to the heckles, which progressive operation prevents the long fibres from being broken, and causes a smaller quantity of tow to be produced than is usually taken off in any of the ordinary modes of heckling.

After the strick of flax or other material has been carried by the travelling chain past the first inclined or conical surface _a_, of the heckling barrel, it then comes upon the cylindrical part _b_, of the barrel, which is also furnished with coarse heckles that penetrate and comb down the whole pendant lengths of the fibres. But in order that both sides of the strick of flax may be equally operated upon, the holder is now to be turned round upon its pin or pivot, which movement is effected by one arm of the lever or tappet _m_, (as the carrying chain moves onward), coming against the stationary pin or wiper _n_, which changes the position of the holder, as shown at _p_, in the horizontal view _fig._ 426.

The under part of the guide rail _o_, upon which the chain slides, is at this part cut away, for the purpose of allowing the holder to turn round horizontally; and a pin or projection at the under side of the guide rail, as the chain continues moving, acts against the side of the carrier frame, and forces it into a position parallel with the chain. The other side of the strick of flax is by these means brought on to the heckles of the second inclined or conical surface of the barrel at _c_; and the travelling chain proceeding onward, the fibres of the material are in succession passed over and combed by the heckles of increasing fineness, _d_, _e_, and _f_, on the cylindrical part of the revolving barrel, until the strick having arrived at the second wiper _n_, the frame or holder is at _q_, turned round as before, and the reverse side of the strick, or that first operated upon by the heckles _a_ and _b_, is brought progressively on to the heckles of increasing fineness, _g_, _h_, and _i_; and having passed the last series of rotatory heckles, the holders are in succession to be removed from the machine, the material having been sufficiently dressed.

The clamps of the holders are now opened by the attendant, and the stricks of flax or other material are taken out, and again placed between the clamps in reversed positions, in order that the other ends of the fibres may be operated upon. The clamps, with the stricks, are then suspended again in the holders, the uncombed ends of the fibres hanging down upon the heckle barrel.

In order to avoid interrupting the continual operation of the machine, it is proposed that the strick, on its second introduction, shall be placed in the holders on the opposite side at _y_, which is one of the reasons for constructing a double machine, and the strick being thence carried along by the travelling endless chain in the way already described, the fibres will be first brought under the operation of the coarse heckles on the inclined or conical surface of the second revolving barrel, and then of the other heckles increasing in fineness on the cylindrical part of the barrel, until having reached the end, as in the former instance, the fibres of the flax may be considered to be sufficiently dressed, and may then be withdrawn.

It may be necessary here to remark, that as different kinds and qualities of material will require different degrees of working by the heckles, this can be effected by varying the comparative speeds of the travelling holders and the heckle barrels. These comparative speeds, it will be perceived, depend upon the diameters of the wheels and pinions by which the pulley B is driven from the rotation of the heckle barrel. These wheels and pinions are therefore intended to be removed and changed for others of different diameters, as circumstances may require. It will be perceived that the faster the stricks travel through the machine compared to the rotatory speed of the heckle barrels, so much the less will the material be acted upon by the rotatory heckles; but as different qualities of material must be differently operated upon, according to circumstances, it is impossible to set out any definite speeds or proportions of speed: that will, however, be readily perceived by competent workmen when working at the machine.

In the process of opening the fibres of the material by the rotatory heckles, a quantity of short or loose fibres, as tow, will be taken off the stricks by the heckle points, and will remain adhering to the barrel between the points of the heckles: in order, therefore, to remove this tow, or other loose entangled materials from the heckles, several series of brushes, or blocks, with bristles, are affixed longitudinally to rotatory barrels Q Q.

These brush barrels are mounted parallel to the heckle barrels upon axles, supported in plummer blocks affixed to brackets extending from the end frames of the machine. Those parts of the brush barrels which are opposite to the cylindrical portions of the heckle barrel are cylindrical, and those parts which are opposite to the bevels are contra-bevelled, or made as frustums of cones reversed, or in an opposite angle, as _r_, _s_, so as to run parallel to the inclined surfaces of the heckle barrels _a_ and _c_.

Upon the periphery of these barrels Q Q, ribs or blocks, with bristles or brushes, are fixed longitudinally, at suitable distances apart, the bristles all standing radially from the axle, and taking into the points of the heckles.

Rotatory motions are given to the brush barrels Q Q, by bands passing from the riggers at G, over pulleys R R, fixed at the end of each of the axles of the brush barrels. Hence, it will be perceived, that the barrels Q Q will revolve in opposite directions to the heckle barrels, and with sufficient speed to enable the brushes to pass through between the points of the heckles, and in so doing, to remove the tow or other loose matter therefrom.

The tow or other loose fibrous material collected upon the brushes is transferred thence on to wire cards placed round the periphery of the barrels S S, which barrels are mounted upon axles parallel to the brush rollers, and turn in plummer blocks upon brackets, extending from the end frames of the machine.

These barrels are cylindrical, and covered with sheets of wire cards at those parts which are opposite to the cylindrical portions of the brush barrels, but those portions of the barrel S, which are opposite to the bevelled points _r_ and _s_, of the brush barrels, are bevelled or made conical at _t u_, to fit or correspond with the inclined surfaces _r_ and _s_; these are covered with sheets of wire card also.

Rotatory motions are communicated to the card barrels S S, by bands from the pulley T, fixed on to the side of the toothed wheel M, (see _fig._ 427.) which band drives similar pulleys V V, mounted upon studs fixed in the end frame. Upon the side of each of these pulleys V V, a pinion _t_ is fixed, which pinion takes into the teeth of the wheel W, on the end of the axle of each of the card barrels S S; by which means such slow motions are given to the barrels S, as will allow the brushes of the barrels Q to comb off, and deposit the tow or other fibrous material upon the wire cards as they revolve, and from whence it is to be removed by a doffing comb, and let fall into any convenient receptacle below, in the same way as in ordinary carding engines.

The doffing combs, X X X, are formed to the shape of the card barrels, and are attached to straight bars extending along the machine on both sides, which are supported at their extremities by levers Y Y, vibrating upon fulcrum pivots at _w w_. To these levers perpendicular rods Z Z are connected by joints, and the lower end of each of these rods is attached to an eccentric disk, roller or crank _x x_, on the axle of the brush barrel; whence it will be perceived that by the rotation of the eccentrics _x_, the levers Y will be made to vibrate and strike off, or doff the tow or other material from the card barrels, in a similar manner to the operations of the doffing comb of an ordinary carding engine.

Mr. Evans’ patent improvements in machinery for preparing and dressing flax and hemp apply, first, to the operation of scutching, swingling, or beating away the boom or woody particles of the rind which covers the flax, or hemp, in its rough state; and, secondly, to the subsequent operation of heckling, combing, or opening of the fibres of the material preparatory to spinning it into yarns.

_Fig._ 428. represents the scutching or swingling machine, in different positions. _Fig._ 428. is an end view of the machine in operation; _fig._ 429. is a front view of the same. The essential parts of the machine, and those in which the invention especially consists, are two pairs of revolving beaters or scutchers, each formed by long ribs or blades mounted upon arms. The blades of the beaters _a a_, may be made of ribs of hard wood, or other suitable material, broad but thin, and slightly rounded on their edges, to prevent their cutting the fibres of the flax or hemp when they strike it. The two blades are placed parallel to each other, and mounted upon a hexagonal frame, the arms _b b_ inclining or forming obtuse angles with the blades, and from the middle of the arms short axles _c c_, extend, upon which the beaters revolve.

The axles of both pairs of beaters are mounted in plummer boxes, bearing upon horizontal rails at the ends of the machine, as shown in _fig._ 428., and are at such distance apart as will allow of the arms and the beaters of each pair passing alternately within those of the other pair as they revolve in opposite directions, which they are enabled to do without coming in contact, in consequence of the inclination of the arms.

On the axle at one end of each pair of beaters a toothed wheel _d_, is affixed, and these wheels being of similar diameters, and taking into each other, cause the beaters to revolve with similar speed in opposite directions, rotatory motion being given to them by a band and rigger fixed upon one of the axles; and in order that the beaters in revolving may not come in contact as they pass, the positions of the two pairs are so arranged that the blades of one shall be in a perpendicular situation, while those of the other are horizontal.

The rind of the flax or hemp having been previously broken by any of the ordinary modes of performing that operation, small bunches or stricks of the material are spread out, and their ends confined between the jaws of clamps or holders.

These clamps or holders differ considerably from the clamps which are commonly used. I shall therefore particularly describe their construction, before showing them in operation. _Fig._ 430. and 431. are views of the clamp in two different positions; _a_ and _b_ are two boards united together by a hinge _c_, at top, which of course allows them to shut and open. The lower parts, forming the jaws of the clamps, are made with teeth or indentations, between which parts the ends of the flax or hemp are securely held when the clamps are brought together; _d d_, are two pieces projecting from the board _b_, at the end of each of which is an eye shown by dots, and at the back of the board _a_, (see _fig._ 430.,) there is a double armed lever _e_, turning upon a fixed pin _f_, which lever carries two circular wedges _g g_. These wedges pass into the eyes of the pieces _d d_, when the clamps are closed, and hold them fast. There is a segment ratchet _h_, at the upper part of the board _a_, which turns upon a stud _i_, and is pressed downward by a spring _k_. This ratchet receives the end of the lever _e_, and consequently keeps the circular wedges firm in the eyes, which hold the clamps securely together, and prevents their opening by the shaking of the machine.

When it is required to open the clamps, the ratchet _h_ must be raised, and the lever _e_ pushed aside by its handle _l_, which draws the circular wedges _f_ from the eyes of the pieces _d d_, and the boards of the clamps immediately separate. For the convenience of suspending the holders in the machines, a piece of sheet iron _m_, is bent at right angles, and fastened to the back of the board _b_, as seen in _fig._ 431., forming a groove by means of which the holders are enabled to slide into the machine and hang there.

These clamps or holders are, when charged with the material, placed in the scutching machine, as shown at _e e e_ in _figs._ 428. and 429., bearing upon the edge-rail or bar _f_. The beaters are now made to revolve in the manner already described, by which the edges of the blades will strike against the pendent stricks of flax or hemp alternately on each side, and beat off, scutch or swingle the boom from the material, and render it fit for the operation of heckling which is to follow.

The whole machine is encased with boards, to prevent the inconvenience arising from dust, and an apparatus might be adapted with a blower to conduct away the dust created by the machine, and to discharge it out of the building.

In introducing these stricks of flax or hemp into the machine, the holder is placed upon the projecting end of the bar or edge-rail _f_, and is thence slidden into the machine; and after the material has been sufficiently scutched or swingled, the holders with the stricks are removed through the top of the machine, and others successively introduced at the end, and pushed along the rail.

If, however, it should be thought desirable, the stricks may be progressively carried through the scutching machine, and delivered into a similar edge-rail in the heckling machine, there to be operated upon in the way about to be described, by which means the whole process of scutching and heckling may go on without interruption.

_Fig._ 432. represents the heckling or combing machine by which the fibres of the material are to be opened, and the tow removed. It is a transverse section, taken nearly through the middle, in a vertical direction. Perpendicular standards form the ends of the machine, which are connected together by longitudinal rods or bars secured by nuts. The heckle points intended to act upon the flax are mounted in the frames _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, and the stricks of flax held in the clamps _e_, _e_, _e_, as described, are suspended from the bar or edge-rail extending through the machine.

In order to render the principles of this machine and its mode of working evident, it may be desirable to show in an abstract form the manner in which the heckles are brought into operation upon the flax, and for this purpose two diagrams are delineated in _figs._ 433, 434.

Suppose two sets of combs or heckle points be mounted upon frames _a_ and _b_, as in these figures, each frame being moveable by means of cranks _c_, _c_, and _d_, _d_, connected in such manner that they both turn with the same speed in opposite directions, it is evident that every part of the frames and combs will move in circles corresponding to those described by the cranks; the points of the combs travelling in the directions of the arrows, and in circles represented by dots.

During this movement, whilst performing the first descending quarter of the circle, the cranks bring the frames together as in _fig._ 433. They begin after this to separate in describing the second descending quarter, and come to the position _fig._ 434., when, continuing to revolve, they move further from each other in describing the first ascending quarter of the circle, and arrive at the position where the distance is the greatest; lastly, they describe the second ascending quarter returning to the third position. If, therefore, a strick of flax be suspended between the two sets of combs as in _fig._ 433., and the rotatory motion be continued for a sufficient length of time, the flax will be combed in the whole length which is submitted to the actions of the combs, although the points severally have only operated in very small space.

Such a system of combs or heckles would make a very good and simple heckling engine, if it were not for the inconvenience experienced by the points dragging some of the fibres with them when withdrawing from the flax, which would produce a great waste of material; and to obviate this it would be necessary to introduce some contrivance for clearing the points, which must be attended with considerable complication. The plan, however, of the present improved engine, affords the means of producing the same effect by more simple and efficient means.

There are two series of combs, see _fig._ 435., attached to two movable frames represented at _a_ and _b_. Each frame is formed by vertical bars _a b_, with lateral branches or arms, which carry the heckle points. The branches or arms are parallel, and at equal distances apart, but fixed in such positions in each frame that they may occupy the intervening space when the frames are brought together as _fig._ 436. The frames are put in motion by means of revolving cranks to which they are attached, as shown in _fig._ 436., and when the cranks turn upon their axes, the branches of one frame pass between those of the other without touching. This forms what may be called a set of combs; but one of the improved machines contains two such sets, the points of the combs of one set being opposed to the points of the combs in the other set.

The way in which the series of combs that compose one set act upon the flax, is shown in the side view, _fig._ 435. When the cranks are nearly vertical, the points of both frames are away from the flax, but as the cranks move round in the direction of the arrows, the frames come into another position, and it is then that the points or heckles of one of the frames _a_, begin to penetrate the flax, and descending they comb or divide its fibres. The rotation of the cranks continuing, the two frames _a_ and _b_ come into the position shown at _fig._ 435., the points of the frame _a_, withdrawing from the flax, and those of the frame _b_, approaching and pushing the fibres off from the former, which are now combed by the descending stroke of the points.

It will hence be perceived that as the combs of the frame _a_ and _b_, respectively advance, they will push forward the whole of the strick of flax, and render it impossible for the fibres to be raised and entangled, as each frame in advancing clears the fibres from the points which preceded it.

A single set, however, of such combs or heckles acting only on one side of the flax, would but imperfectly perform the operation of opening its fibres; it is therefore necessary, in order to accomplish the desired object in the most effectual way, that two such sets of combs or heckles should be brought to act on opposite sides of the strick of flax, which may be done in the manner shown in the figures. The cranks of the two opposite sets of comb-frames or heckles _a_, _b_, and _c_, _d_, are connected by a pair of toothed wheels _e_, _f_, as _fig._ 437., or by four toothed wheels, by which the heckles are actuated at once, the two sets moving in opposite directions, but with similar speeds, and the combing or heckling of the material will go on in the way shown in the figure last indicated.

Thus far I have considered only two frames of combs or heckles constituting a set, as acting upon each side of the strick of flax; but in order to perform a greater quantity of work, several sets may be mounted in one machine, working alongside of each other, extending over the breadth of the machine. The combs may then be supported upon three frames, of which the middle one may have branches or arms extending upon both sides, and the other two frames branches extending inwards only. To drive the frames so arranged they must be connected to treble cranks.

Such is the principle of the improved machine for combing or heckling, exhibited in the several figures of which I now proceed to describe the particular construction. The machine or engine, _fig._ 432., has four sets of combs, acting both at the back and front of the flax; _a b_ are the front set of combs, and _c d_, the back set of combs; _e e e_, are the clamps holding the stricks of flax previously scutched, which clamps hang upon the edge-rail. The comb frames are attached at top and bottom to the cranks _g g_, which are all connected by toothed geer, and driven by a band and rigger.

The combs or heckles being put in motion in the way described, act upon the suspended stricks of flax, and upon their fibres, as explained; which stricks are progressively conducted through the machine by their clamps sliding upon the edge-rail through the agency of the endless chain, to which the clamps are severally attached, by a hook falling into one of the links. The chain is driven by a spur wheel upon the axle of a bevel wheel, which receives a slow rotatory motion through a bevel pinion on the axis of a similar wheel, actuated by another pinion on the end of the upper crank axle. By these means, clamps, with the stricks of flax placed on the edge-rail, are slowly carried through the machine, when the flax will be gradually acted upon first by heckle points of a coarse kind, set wide apart, and ultimately by finer points set near together; after which, the clamp with the strick of flax is discharged from the machine, at the reverse end of the edge-rail. But should the workman neglect to remove the holder or clamp, when it arrives at the end of the rail, the machine would be stopped by means of a jointed lever, having a fork at its end, which pushes the band from the fast rigger on to the loose one, and throws off the driving power.

As the combs or heckles, in acting upon the flax to divide its fibres, tear parts of the fibres, and reduce them into tow, the downward motion of the heckles brings the tow with them out of the flax, which is deposited between two fluted rollers _p p_, _fig._ 432., and is by them conducted down to the large drum _q_, where it becomes lapped in two endless sheets round the periphery of the drum; the one of coarse tow, the other of fine, the adhesion being assisted by a pressing roller _r_; and when a quantity of the tow has been thus accumulated round the periphery of the drum, it may be removed thence by cutting it off in sheets. The fluted rollers, and also the large drum, are driven by geer bands.