Chapter III: Part II

Before the beginner makes the attempt to ski, he should see that his complete outfit is perfectly suited to his purpose. The shoes should be nicely adjusted to fit snugly between the metal toe plates of the binding, and new holes should be punched in the straps wherever needed to adjust the harness snugly and comfortably to the feet. Many of the positions required in executing the various turns and swings may be practiced at home, that the novice may get some idea of the correct position of the feet and body assumed by expert skiers. For the initial practice outside, it is a good plan to select a frosty day when the snow is old and settled by the wind. This will introduce the novice to the sport under favorable conditions, while if the first trials are made shortly after a heavy snowfall, or upon a mild day when the snow is thawing, only discouragement will be experienced. Begin with one stick--or two if timid--and pick out an easy-sloping hill with a gradual run to the level ground. A few scattered trees and rocks will do no harm, for it is a good plan to learn how to avoid them from the beginning.

How to Turn on Skis

This and the correct manner of standing on skis are easily mastered if the beginner will but remember that the weight of the body should rest largely upon the advanced foot without bending the body at the ankle too much, or raising the heel from the ski. This is the correct position to assume when standing for a rest and for sliding, and this as well as turning should be practiced on the level. To make the kick turn, simply raise the point of the ski until the heel rests on the snow, as shown in Fig. 1. Swing the ski around by turning the point out and back until the two skis are point to heel, as shown in Fig. 2. When this, the most difficult position of the three, is assumed, raise the point of the other ski as high as convenient to avoid tripping, keep the heel down and swing the ski around over the heel of the other until both are facing in the same direction, as shown in Fig. 3. A little practice will make it possible for the novice to turn quickly, and if all turns are made with the advanced foot, when practicing on the level, no trouble will be experienced later on in attempting to turn on a steep slope. The stick is really indispensable for this practice, and while two may be used, the single stick will be found assistance enough for any active person.

When skiing on level ground the correct movement is rather more of a slide than the motion used in walking or skating. The body is thrown forward on one ski and the slide is made with both feet, most of the body weight being thrown on the advanced ski, while the rear foot is slid forward without stopping the forward travel, as shown in Fig. 4. The expert skier moves forward in long gliding steps without raising the ski, but bending the knees slightly to slide the ski ahead. The feet should be kept as close together as possible to make a narrow track and the stick used to lengthen the slide. At the beginning it is a good plan to endeavor to make a long slide with each advancement of the foot, rather than strive to take long steps. The speed of level running depends, of course, upon the condition of the snow. On hard, well-packed snow, sliding is easiest and greater speed obtained, while in deep and soft snow less speed is the rule. When skiing on the hard snow of a road, four miles an hour is the average speed, and for average level running, the skier will cover about the same distance as when walking along a good path.

FIG. 1

Raise the Point of the Ski until the Heel Rests on the Snow

FIG. 9

The Skier Runs Straight Downhill on One Ski and Uses the Other as a Brake

FIG. 2

Swing the Ski Around by Turning the Point Out and Back

FIG. 8

On Hard Snow the Edges of the Skis may be Used to Check the Speed

FIG. 3

Raise the Point of the Other Ski as High as Convenient to Avoid Tripping

FIG. 7

When Running Downhill One Ski should Be in Advance of the Other a Few Inches

FIG. 4

The Body is Thrown Forward on One Ski and the Slide is Made with Both Feet

FIG. 6

The Herringbone is Much Used When the Skier Wishes to Travel up a Short and Steep Incline

FIG. 5

The Skier Naturally Places His Skis at Right Angles Rather than Permit the Slipping Backward]

When traveling uphill, the regular sliding gait will suffice if the slope is gradual, but when a steep grade is encountered and the ski slips backward, the skier stands quite erect, raises the point of his ski about 3 in., and slaps it down smartly, without pulling it backward or making any attempt to push his body forward with the stick. This slap of the ski makes the smooth surface of the runner adhere better than when the runner is slid forward in the usual manner. If the hill is very steep, the skier will naturally place his skis at right angles rather than permit the slipping backward. This is known as “side-stepping,” and is shown in Fig. 5. In doing this, the heel of the ski must be raised clear of the snow and the upper foot lifted uphill, then the lower foot brought up to the last step of the upper foot, hence it is extremely tiring for other than a short distance.

A variation of this movement, which is known to skiers as the “half side step.” and which is made by advancing the foot with the legs somewhat wider apart, and the skis placed at not quite so acute an angle with the hill, is more useful when climbing the ordinary steep grade and is far less laborious. If the skier knows how to handle his implements, side-stepping may be done backward when necessary.

The “herringbone” is another step which is much used when the skier wishes to travel up a short and steep incline. This step is made by stretching the legs rather wide apart and pointing the toes out, as shown in Fig. 6, at a decided angle, so that the knees are bent inward and the inside edges of the skis cut into the snow. A variation of this is the “half herringbone,” the skis being turned out at a less acute angle. These special steps for special purposes are all useful now and then in mountain climbing, but when a long distance is to be covered, the skier will conserve his energy by mounting the hill in a zigzag fashion rather than attempting to climb straight up. The track of the skier will then resemble the course of a boat tacking through a narrow inlet against a head of wind, and while more ground is covered than when going straight up the steepest part of the hill, progress is faster and much hard work is avoided.

When running straight downhill, one ski should be in advance of the other a few inches, and the skis must be held quite close together so that they touch, or nearly so, as shown in Fig. 7. To make a narrow track, most expert skiers hold the knees together with the back knee slightly bent. However, the body should be perfectly and easily balanced. This is done, more or less, intuitively, by beginning the run with the body thrown on the advanced foot, and when full speed is attained the weight automatically shifts to the rear foot. The novice will find it difficult at first to keep the skis together, there being an almost uncontrollable desire to separate them to gain a better balance. A good track will come with a little practice, but if the skis are too short, or made without a groove, even an expert would be compelled to keep his feet a trifle apart and make a double track in order to keep from falling.

The Christiania Swing is Accomplished by Pressing with Both Heels at the Same Time While the Stick Digs Well into the Snow Above]

When making the start preparatory for coasting downhill, the novice may, if the slope is moderately steep, face in the desired direction and assume the proper position by supporting himself with the stick. On most very steep slopes, where the best coasting is to be had, this is quite out of the question, and the skier must step around quickly by moving the lower ski first. This will be somewhat difficult to do until the novice gains more confidence, which will quickly come after a little practice, and it is a good plan to practice starting from the slope without the aid of the stick to anchor the body. Owing to the fact that the skis do not reach much speed at the start of the coast, even the slow novice will have plenty of time to make the turn and face in the right direction before much speed is attained. A comparatively crouching position, secured by bending the knees and the body at the waist, will much lessen the liability of a fall forward. This position enables the skier to control the balance of his body with more certainty, and especially when coasting on a hill where patches of ice, or crusted snow, and soft spots of unpacked snow are encountered, a condition usually found wherever skiing is enjoyed. When coasting, the stick, or sticks, should be firmly grasped at the upper end with the looped thong, or strap, over the wrist, and the end dragging behind. Balancing is done entirely at the waist, and for straightaway running, the weight of the body will rest largely upon the rear ski. The long running surface of the ski will carry the skier over many bumps and hollows without disturbing the balance of the body or causing a fall, providing the novice does not lose his nerve. It is necessary to practice on rough and uneven ground if the skier desires ever to attain much expertness, and plenty of falls must be expected, but not dreaded by the beginner. A fall on skis is by no means fraught with danger, and one may fall with impunity providing all muscles are relaxed. Many beginners find falling the easiest manner of stopping, but this should not be necessary, providing the hints given are well understood and practiced. However, the novice should have no fear of falling if he wants to become proficient on skis, and to offset any timidity, which so very often causes the novice to lean backward and fall in this direction, it is a good plan to lean well forward to check this natural tendency. Getting up after a fall is easily enough managed if the head is pointing up the slope, but when the position is reversed much floundering is necessitated. It would seem that this would be obvious to all, yet the majority of beginners often forget it altogether.

Braking with the stick is only effective when the body is properly balanced, and the stick is kept well forward and as nearly vertical as possible. Straddling the stick, sitting upon it, or leaning backward on it held at an angle, are slovenly methods which every novice should avoid.

The “snowplow” is most largely used by all good skiers for braking, stopping, and turning. This is accomplished by stretching the legs wide apart and at the same time turning the toes in as much as possible, thus presenting the side of the ski to the snow and retarding the speed. Aside from straddling the legs wide apart, the novice will have no trouble in learning this useful knack. For the first practice, pick out a fairly steep hill road, or a hillside where the snow is old and not soft. Begin the run as for coasting, and when good speed has been attained, spread the legs wide apart, turn the toes in and endeavor to control the speed with the skis rather than depend upon the stick. On hard snow the edges of the ski may be used to check the speed, but on ordinary soft and well-packed snow, the runner may be kept quite flat. This is well shown in Fig. 8.

The knack of “stemming” is a variation of the snowplow, inasmuch as the skier runs straight downhill on one ski, and turns the heel of the other ski outward and downward and uses it as a brake, as in Fig. 9. This is a very useful movement, and is largely used when coasting down steep slopes, and when one has learned the knack of it, stemming will serve for braking and steering, and is useful for stopping by turning the skiing course uphill. To earn it, select a steep hillside, coast down at an angle, with the feet a trifle part, and endeavor to retard the speed with the stick and turn the heel of the lower ski outward. This makes the turn and the skier faces uphill and comes to a stop. By turning the heel of the lower ski outward and the heel of the upper ski inward, the skis will travel downhill with a sort of snowplow movement. When practicing these movements, the beginner should endeavor to use the stick as little as possible and learn to depend upon the skis for controlling the speed.

The “side slip” is useful on steep slopes, and is done by turning the skis so that the runners are at a decided angle to the course traveled. This affords the maximum braking by the skis alone, and is especially effective when combined with the braking done with the stick. Side-slipping may, of course, be done while the skier is traveling forward, by keeping the skis close together so that the edges almost touch. While this movement checks the speed in much the same manner as stemming, side-slipping is less tiresome, since the weight of the body gives the required braking effect, while, in stemming, the muscles are called upon to keep the heel pressing outward.

The Swing is Made upon One Ski Instead of Using Both as in the Christiania Swing]

Closely akin to side-slipping is the Christiania swing with the stick, which is accomplished by pressing with both heels at the same time, while the stick digs well into the snow above. This variation of the side slip is easily done, and the skier is turned sharply uphill to come to a quick stop. When a sharp hill is met with, that is considered a bit too steep to take straight, this swing with the stick may be made by taking a zigzag course down grade steering clear of any obstacles by snowplowing, stemming, or side-slipping; and turning the corners, or “tacking,” by making use of the Christiania swing and the stick, as shown in Fig. 10.

The “S”-turn may likewise be used for turning corners, without the necessity for stopping to make the ordinary kick turn. A good way to learn this useful movement is to run straight downhill in a snowplow position, reduce the speed to a comfortable walking pace with the stick, and stem with the ski. If this is done with the right ski, the “S”-turn is made by throwing practically the whole weight of the body on the right ski, at the heel, and pressing it outward while the stick is carried ahead and below the skier. If the heels are kept well apart, and the toes close together, the skier will have no trouble about swinging around in a curve and be off on the other tack. About the only difficulty in making the “S”-turn is the position of the body, which must be thrown somewhat out and away from the hill. To the novice this at first seems to invite a fall, but a few trials will soon prove that the weight of the body must be thrown on the foot which circles on the outside of the curve, hence the apparently unnatural position of the body is essential for a good turn. By bringing the stick well forward and downhill, the skier uses his staff as a pivot upon which the turn is made.

The Christiania swing, made without the stick, is a favorite with expert ski runners when running on rough and steep ground and is a good way of stopping. The swing may be made both to the right and left. To make it to the right, keep the skis close together, the right a trifle in advance, with the weight of the body equally on both feet and with knees slightly bent. Now throw the weight more forward and upon the toes, while the heels are carried forward and outward to the left. The body must lean to the right--the direction in which the swing is made--and twisted somewhat at the waist; and the sharper the turn, the more the body must lean sideways to keep the balance. The swing to the left is made in the, same fashion, only the left ski should be a trifle advanced and the body thrown to the left.

To Make the Jump the Skier Assumes the Easy Position Required for Coasting Downhill]

The Telemark swing is more difficult to master than the Christiania swing, because it is done on one foot, or ski, instead of using both, and as it is less powerful than the latter, it is of far less use for stopping. To make the Telemark swing to the right, assume the regular position for downhill coasting, and, advancing the left foot, turn the ski so that it rests on its edge as when making the snowplow, throw the body to the right and lean in toward the slope to keep the balance. To make the swing to the left, advance the right foot, turn the body to the left and lean as before. This is shown in Fig. 11. The Telemark turn is, in fact, made in the same manner as stemming, and the sharpness of the swing rests altogether upon the quickness with which the heel is thrown outward and the body turned in the direction the skier desires to swing. The swing is made upon one ski, and the key to the whole swing is the knack of raising the heel of the other foot off its ski until it rests upon the toes. That this is hard to do goes with the telling, and the novice should first acquire the knack of balancing by running straight downhill with the weight thrown on one foot. When this can be done, and not before then, the skier is ready to practice the turn. The Telemark swing, like all other turns, is easily acquired at slow and moderate speeds, and becomes more and more difficult to make as the speed is increased and the turn is made more sharply and quickly.

Jumping on skis is one of the most exhilarating winter sports, and it is a pity that it is not more popular wherever a medium-heavy fall of snow occurs. While touring on skis across a hilly country, there will be many natural jumps to encounter, for drifts, stumps, rocks, and other rises in the ground, when well covered and padded with snow, make good jumping-off places. While but a few skiers may have attempted such high leaps as the famous Holmenkollen, Fiskertorpet, or Foldberg, all who have done much ski running have done a little jumping, since, when running downhill, an unexpected dip is often encountered, and a rise in the ground causes the skier to leave the ground for a short distance and alight several feet below. Doubtless the skier has enjoyed the flying-like sensation of this brief moment, and very likely he has climbed the hill to repeat the jump. Moreover, this has very likely demonstrated that the distance of the jump depends upon the height of the dip, the speed of the skier passing over it, and likewise upon the spring of the body on the take-off. In making a jump of any height, the take-off may be level, pointing up or even downhill, and constructed with framework extending out from the hillside, or consist merely of a large boulder, or a pile of logs, well padded with snow. The height of the slope chosen will, of course, regulate the distance of the jump, and the place where the jumper alights should be fairly steep, since, if the skier lands upon a level place great difficulty will be experienced in keeping the balance, therefore the usual jumping hill, where jumping competitions are held, is provided with a 30°, or steeper, landing place, and this merges gradually into the outrun, or slope, connecting the hill with the level ground below.

Each Member of the Party should be Provided with a Ruck Sack of Good Capacity]

For the safety of the skier, the snow should be firm but not icy or hard, and this is easily done by packing the snow down well by means of the skis. A good, thick padding of snow is of course essential, and a thickness of 2 ft. is really needed at the landing place and at the take-off. In our more northerly sections, plenty of snow usually falls, but wherever a few sportsmen get together, it is an easy matter to shovel sufficient snow to prepare a good and safe jumping hill.

To gain confidence and acquire some useful experience in jumping, the novice should practice leaping from a 2-ft. rise and gradually increase the height of the take-off by piling more snow upon it to increase its height. One or two packing cases firmly placed upon a smooth, steep hillside, and well padded with 2 ft. of well-trodden snow, will make a nice take-off. For the beginning the take-off may point slightly downhill or be fashioned level, and as the skier becomes more proficient, snow may be added to the edge so that the take-off will send the jumper well up into the air.

The knack of jumping is nothing more than balancing the body upon alighting, and the steeper the landing place the easier it is to keep the balance. To make the jump in good form, the skier assumes the easy position required for coasting downhill, as shown in Fig. 12. When within a dozen yards of the take-off the body is lowered until the skier is in a crouching position with the arms extending back as in the act of jumping. Arriving within a couple of yards of the dip the body and arms are thrown forward, which transfers the weight of the body upon the toes, and the body is straightened up and the arms are raised not unlike the wings of a bird, to keep the perfect balance of the body. The straightening up of the body, known to skiers as “the sats,” is the leap proper and must be timed so that the body assumes an erect position when the jumper is not less than 12 ft. from the edge of the take-off. The beginner will invariably jump too late, but after a little practice, and profiting by numerous mistakes, the take-off will be timed correctly. Alighting after a jump is best done by advancing one ski a trifle to keep the balance, and bending the knees a bit to lessen the impact. The jumper ends with the Telemark or Christiania swing.

When taking tours of any length on skis, each member of the party should be provided with a ruck sack of good capacity. That of the expanding type, made with two outside pockets, and with gores at the sides, is a good, sensible pack. It should be made of 8-oz. waterproof khaki and fitted with shoulder straps of good width, to prevent chafing the shoulders. Leather ruck sacks are sometimes used, but are heavier in weight and more expensive but no better. One member of the party should carry some kind of repairing outfit, consisting of an awl, a length of leather thong, a few spare straps and a stout cord, or string. These sacks are shown in Fig. 13.

Knife, Fork, and Spoon Holder

The holder is made of a piece of sheet copper of sufficient thickness to support the number of pieces of cutlery used. The piece is notched to admit the different pieces, and its back edge is bent at right angles to provide means of fastening it to a support, a wall or the back of the kitchen cabinet. It will save space, as well as time, since it is much easier to grasp one of the articles when wanted than if they are kept in a drawer.--Contributed by L. E. Turner, New York City.

Making Round Rods for Fish Poles

In looking forward to the enjoyment that may be had in the spring, it is well to prepare and overhaul the fishing apparatus or the shooting equipment. In doing so, it may be necessary to make a joint for the fish rod or perhaps a rod for the gun. These can be easily cut if they are sized and run through holes made in a piece of thin metal as follows: Make several holes of the desired sizes in a steel plate, and ream them out with a rather dull taper reamer, so as to leave a bur on one side. This bur should be filed down almost level with the surface of the metal, leaving the edges flat and sharp. If a rod of wood from which the article is to be made is put in a hole and drawn through from the opposite side to the bur, a nice round rod will result. As the rod becomes smaller, use a smaller hole until the required diameter is obtained. A saw plate that is not too thin is about the proper thing to use for the steel plate. It will be necessary to draw the temper to make the holes, but it is not necessary to retemper it after the holes are made.

* * * * *

¶Celery keeps well in a small box of dry sand.

A Ski Sled

BY GEORGE J. EGELBERG

The sled is built low and wide so that it will not tip easily. The skis, or runners, are cut 10 ft. long and 6 in. wide, from 1-in. ash boards that are straight-grained. At the points where the curve is to be formed, plane off about ¹⁄₄ in. on the upper side, but do not plane off any at the very tip end. This will allow the skis to be more easily bent. If it is not handy to steam the skis, put them in boiling water, and be sure that at least 1¹⁄₂ ft. of the points are covered. Provide a cover for the vessel, so that only very little steam may escape. Let them boil for at least one hour. A good method of bending the points is shown. When the skis are taken from the water, put them as quickly as possible in the bending blocks, side by side, and bend them with a slow, even pressure. Weight the extending ends and leave the skis in the blocks 8 or 10 hours to dry. Sharpen the points after they are bent.

The sled will run easier if the skis have a slight rocker curve. To make this curve, have the center block 6 in. while the two end blocks are 5¹⁄₂ in. high. A ¹⁄₄-in. flat-head bolt is run through the ski, the block, and the cross strip. The holes are countersunk in the surface for the heads of the bolts. The top is made of three 6-in. boards, fastened to the crosspieces. It is a good plan to brace the tips of the skis with a 2-in. strip.

Clocks for the Craftsman

Three designs of clocks are shown, which can be easily made in oak, or other wood, that will match other furniture. The sizes of the pieces required are given by the dimensions in the drawings.

The clock is a matter of choice. Prices in most stores range from 75 cents up and the works are of the ordinary alarm-clock variety. After selecting the clock the small legs as well as the back plate are removed. The hole cut in the wood for the clock must be a snug fit, and after placing it in position, the back plate is replaced.

The finish may be a wax or gloss, as desired, and directions for applying it will be found on the can containing the material.

A Compact Galvanometer

A small portable galvanometer is one of the most useful instruments to the electrical experimenter. There are continually arising instances where it is necessary to test through and identify certain wires, for which purpose a small galvanometer and a dry cell are quite sufficient. For comparing the resistances by the well-known Wheatstone-bridge method, a galvanometer is, of course, indispensable. If the winding is made suitable, or by placing a shunt across the terminals to reduce the deflection, a small galvanometer will roughly indicate the current passing and thus enable one to compare his dry cells and eliminate the weak ones. Rough voltage comparisons may also be made by placing a resistance in series with the galvanometer.

For constructing this instrument, a good pocket compass, of about 2-in. diameter, must be procured. Prepare a neat little box with the four edges accurately beveled off. On the under side of this, carefully cut a channel, about ¹⁄₂ in. wide and 2¹⁄₂ in. long, to a depth that will bring the bottom of the slot within ¹⁄₈ in. of the top of the base block. Place two binding posts on the base, as indicated, and secure the compass in place with cement, or by two very small nails put through the bottom. If the glass cannot be removed, it will be necessary to solder the nail heads to the bottom of the compass box, after having carefully removed the lacquer.

The correct wiring will depend on the strength of the current handled. It is, however, very easy to get an idea of what the deflection will be under certain conditions by merely making a preliminary trial, after winding a few turns of any magnet or bell wire at hand around a small piece of wood, and slipping the coil so formed into the slot on the under side of the base block. The winding may be from two or three turns of heavy wire up to several hundred turns of fine magnet wire, but after one or two trials, the maker will have no trouble in determining his particular requirements.

The final coil should be wound lengthwise on a wood core, and the whole packed neatly into the slot. Connect up the ends to the binding posts, and then glue in a thin piece to hold the coil in place.

By drilling a small horizontal hole through the base, as indicated by the two dotted lines in the top view of the working drawings, and inserting a small bar magnet, ¹⁄₈ in. in diameter, or less, the instrument may be rendered independent of the earth’s magnetism and used without reference to the north point. Such a controlling magnet reduces the time required to bring the needle to rest after it has been violently reflected.

* * * * *

¶Woodwork about a house, when primed with white lead made quite thin
in raw linseed oil, will never blister unless moisture gets back of
it. Yellow-ocher priming will cause blistering at any time up to 20
years.

A Perpetual Calendar

It is only necessary to set this calendar the first of each month, by sliding the insertions up or down, to get the proper month or week. The calendar, as it is shown, is set for January, 1916. Saturday is the first day and Friday the seventh, and so on. It is not confusing and can be read either by the day or date. If the day is known it will show the date, and if the date is known it will show the day. The illustration clearly shows the parts, which can be cut from heavy paper or cardboard.

Heater for the Experimenter

A convenient small heater for heating liquids in experimental work, and even in making a hot drink where there is no gas, can be readily made from an ordinary oil lamp and a small round can, having a crimped-on head or bottom. The can should be of such diameter that the prongs of the lamp burner will hold it firmly in place. A hole should be made in the bottom of the can. It is then placed, upside down, on the lamp burner. If the top comes too far from the flame, cut off a strip around the edge.--Contributed by Clarence S. H. Anderson, Worcester, Massachusetts.

A Folding Ice Sled

On a smooth ice surface, or on hard snow, the sled shown will run easily, and a skater can push another with surprising speed by a light push on the shoulders while the rider rests his feet on the front of the runners. The sled is light, and it can be folded up and carried under the arm. It is also handy for putting on the skates, or for use in a crowded car.

Any camp stool will do for the main part of the sled. Holes are bored in the ends of the legs to receive the lugs on the runners snugly. If the builder is not equipped with a forge, a blacksmith will make the runners cheaply. The sliding surfaces of the runners are smoothed with a file.--Contributed by Thomas Lappin, Portland, Ore.

* * * * *

¶A column of water 27.6 in. will have a pressure of 1 lb. per square
inch.

Cleaning Tinware with Milk

Some housewives advise a system of dry-cleaning for tinware for the reason that it insures a surface free from rust which is less liable to burn. Where washing is preferred, however, a little milk added to the water proves more satisfactory than either soap or soda, its peculiarly solvent effect upon grease obviating all necessity for hard scouring, which latter will wear the tin coating and gradually cause the article to become useless for holding food and more apt to rust into holes.--Contributed by J. E. Pouliot, Ottawa, Can.

Proper Way to Wrap Papers for Mailing

In using a homemade paper wrapper for mailing purposes cut a triangular section from each end of it before applying the paste or mucilage. This prevents the adhesive from oozing out at the edges and sticking to the paper it incloses. This also permits the easy withdrawal of the paper.

Groove Cutter for Wood

Having occasion to cut some grooves in a board and not being properly equipped for such work, I made the tool shown in the sketch. Although rather crude in appearance it will do good work if properly made. It consists of a handle, A, shaped to afford a comfortable grip for the hand, and a cutter, B, made of a short piece of hacksaw blade, clamped along the left side of the handle by the strip C, which is held with screws. A pin, D, driven into the handle and allowed to project about ¹⁄₁₆ in., prevents the blade from sliding back under the clamp. For guiding the blade, the arrangement F is employed. An extension, E, is nailed on the right side of the handle, and holes made near each end for two screws having round heads, such as may be obtained from discarded dry batteries. These screws are for securing the sliding stop F, which is a flat piece of hardwood with slots cut near the end for screws to pass through to provide for adjustment.

In use, the guide F is adjusted until it is the desired distance from the cutter and then secured by the screws. The tool is handled like a plane, care being taken not to bear down too hard, as the cutter may bind and cause it to be pulled from the clamp. In cutting a groove, two slots are cut and the stock between them removed with a chisel.

A One-Runner Sled

Just an ordinary barrel stave, with a center post and a crossboard for a seat, makes a good one-runner sled. Select a good, smooth stave for the runner and securely fasten the upright, which is 1 ft. long, to it in the center. The seat is made of a board, about 1¹⁄₂ ft. long, nailed to the upper end of the upright.

Substitute for a Gas-Stove Oven

Wishing to bake a nice loaf cake one afternoon for dinner, and finding that the fire in my range had gone out, I remembered an oven shown me at one time for use on a small gas plate, which consisted of a cover, a bottom piece, and a support for the pan. The thought came to me that with all my pots and pans I ought to be able to get some results by the combination of two pie tins, a cake pan, and a stew pan, and on trial it baked as fine a cake as anyone could wish.

A small pie tin was placed in a larger one, as shown; on this was placed the cake pan filled with the cake batter, and over the whole was placed the stew pan, which acted as a heat retainer or oven. A good hot flame was used at first, and was then gradually turned lower until the cake was finished.--Contributed by Mrs. Anna M. B. Romig, Allentown, Pa.

Box Cover without Hinges

Two ordinary boxes may be fitted together as one without using hinges, if nails or screws are inserted at points along the edges so that they will slip into holes bored at corresponding points in the edges of the other box. The nail heads or screw heads should be filed off or cut off after being placed in position.

* * * * *

¶All metal patterns should be thoroughly cleaned with a stiff brush
having plenty of beeswax on it and dipped in powdered plumbago. Brush
the pattern well, and it will draw easily and make a smooth casting.

Sanitary Holder for Thread and Dental Floss

A simple and convenient method of protecting a spool of thread, or dental floss, from collecting dirt and germs is shown in the illustration. A small glass jar, with a metal screw top, is procured, of such a size that it will easily accommodate the spool of thread desired to protect, with at least ¹⁄₈ in. clearance all around the edge of the spool. Procure a short piece of stiff wire, not more than ¹⁄₁₆ in. in diameter, and make a frame similar in form to the one shown. The center portion of this frame should be just a little longer than the spool, so that a small wood key may be placed through the eye formed in the wire and thus hold the spool firmly on the frame. The outside portions of the frame should be such a distance apart that they will rest against the sides of the jar and of such a length that they will reach from the bottom to the top of the jar when the lid is screwed down tightly. If these dimensions are observed, the spool and frame will remain in a fixed position in the jar.

A small opening, just a little larger than the thread, is made in the center of the lid, through which the thread is to pass. The edges of this opening are smoothed off so that they will not cut the thread when it is being drawn out. A small cutter may be made by forming a V-shaped opening in the lid, through which the thread is to pass. The edges of the V-shaped piece are sharpened to serve as a cutting edge. The end of the thread will be held under the V-shaped piece after it is cut, thus preventing it from falling back into the jar.

* * * * *

¶The word “diameter” when applied to gears is always understood to
mean the pitch diameter.

and How to Use It

by Stillman Taylor]

Sportsmen are interested in rifles and rifle shooting largely from the hunting standpoint, although target shooting is a favorite sport with many of them. This discussion of the sporting rifle will be concerned, therefore, principally with the hunting aspects, other forms of shooting being considered as good methods of practice, and the development of skill in the use of hunting weapons. The novice, as well as the good shot, must have a suitable weapon, and should have at least a general knowledge of the types of rifles available, and their common uses. A number of representative types of rifles are shown in Fig. 1, and the details of the breech mechanisms and sights in Fig. 2. Targets and a homemade device for backing them are shown in Fig. 3. The full-page illustration shows several positions in the use of the rifle; a moving-target arrangement, to be constructed by the ambitious shot; a diagram of the trajectory of a rifle bullet, and several diagrams of the vital shots, in hunting common big game.

The single-shot rifle, shown at A, Fig. 1, has been largely supplanted by the repeater and the automatic, so far as hunting is concerned. For use exclusively in indoor shooting, a heavy rifle of the “Schuetzen” type is best suited. A high-grade ornamented rifle of this type is shown in the headpiece of this article.

The most popular type of American rifle is the repeater of the lever-action variety, shown at B. The lever action embodies many good points: quickness of fire, ease of operation, freedom from jamming at a critical moment, strength, and plenty of stopping power. The mechanism of the lever-action repeating rifle is shown in detail at J, Fig. 2, and that of the falling-breech-block type of single-shot rifle, at K. Several other types of lever-action rifles are shown in Fig. 1.

Almost all lever-action repeaters are of the tubular-magazine type, the magazine extending under the barrel, sometimes the full length--full magazine; or halfway--half magazine. Rifles of these types are shown at B and C, and a hammerless repeater at D.

The trombone, or pump-action, repeating rifle, shown at E, has a mechanism similar to that used in the repeating shotgun, the sliding forearm loading and ejecting the cartridge. The merit of the military bolt-action rifle lies in its great strength and simplicity. A weapon of this type was used by Roosevelt in Africa, and by other big-game hunters. It is shown at F.

The chief advantages of the automatic rifle, shown at G, which is a comparatively new weapon, are its speed in firing and its almost noiseless action. This rifle has a recoil-operated action of the blow-back type. That shown at H has a box magazine, and the automatic action is based on the sliding of the barrel within a steel jacket. The rifle shown at I may be used either as an automatic or as a pump-action weapon.

The subject of stock and trigger adjustment is one to which every experienced rifleman devotes considerable attention. The regular stock rifle is built to standard dimensions, and often the stock is found a trifle short. For the man of average reach, a 13³⁄₄-in. stock, with a 1⁷⁄₈-in. drop at the comb, and about 3 in. drop at the heel, will be found satisfactory.

Various Types of Rifles in Common Use: A, English Model, Single-Shot, with Open Sights and Shotgun Butt; B, Lever-Action Repeater, Tubular Half Magazine; C, Lever-Action Repeater, Box Magazine; D, Hammerless, Lever-Action Repeater; E, Pump-Action, High-Power Repeater; F, Military Bolt-Action, Sporting Model; G, Automatic, Blow-Back Action; H, Automatic, Box Magazine; I, Automatic, Combination Pump-Action]

Rifle sights are of several types, of which there are in turn many variations. Only the essentials of the standard types will be considered. The regulation open sights, with which most rifles are fitted at the factory, are the buckhorn rear and the Rocky Mountain front sight. For a hunting rifle the most satisfactory sights are a gold-bead front sight of about ³⁄₃₂-in. diameter, as shown in Fig. 2 at L; a folding-leaf rear sight, shown at O, P, and Q, and a combination rear aperture sight, at M and N, mounted on the tang of the rifle. An arm so sighted is useful for all kinds of shooting. The combination rear sight is used in deliberate shots at a target or at game, and the folding-leaf sight is better than the buckhorn for quick snap shooting.

The sportsman who wishes to master the use of a rifle must have a knowledge of the trajectory of such weapons, and particularly of the rifle he uses regularly. He must know, also, how to aline the sights correctly to get satisfactory results. The trajectory is the path which the rifle bullet takes in passing from the muzzle of the rifle to its mark. The force of gravity acts upon the bullet in flight and the result is that the trajectory is curved, as indicated in the diagram at the bottom of the page illustration. A relatively low trajectory is, of course, desirable in a hunting rifle. The black-powder, or slow-speed, cartridge has a relatively high trajectory, while the high-power smokeless cartridges have relatively low trajectories.

The adjustment of the sights of a rifle is also of much importance. Every rifle is targeted at the factory, but this may be done by a fair shot, using the following method: Arrange three boxes, so that the rifle barrel may rest upon one, and the arms of the marksman upon the other two. Place a bag of sand upon the box, so that the barrel may rest upon it, about 6 in. from the muzzle. Put the target into place, and adjust the sights for 100 yd. If the sights are properly lined up, the shots should fall quite regularly within a 10-in. circle. With peep, or other target, sights, much finer results will be obtained. In moving the sights it must be remembered that to move the rear sight to the right will bring the shot to the right, and vice versa, while if the front sight is moved to the right, the arm will shoot to the left. In making the test, first adjust the front sight so that it is in exact alinement with the center of the barrel, and then all corrections may be made by moving the rear sight.

The proper way to sight a rifle is to hold the front sight just clear of the notch in the rear sight, with the front bead barely touching the outer ring of the bull’s-eye, at the extreme bottom. This is shown at R, Fig. 3. It is the rule of good rifle shot to “see daylight between the sight and the bull’s-eye.” In any event, do not cover up the front sight by drawing it down into the notch of the rear sight, so that only the top of the bead is visible. Another frequent error is to hold the front sight to cover the bull’s-eye.

The sportsman who wishes to become a practical rifle shot should learn how to handle the rifle in the several useful positions, so that he may be able to sight accurately under different conditions. Several of the most widely used positions are shown in the page illustration. The off-hand position, with arm extended, is the most commonly used and best position for the sportsman to practice, for use in the woods. The off-hand, with body rest, or elbow resting on the hip, is good for target shooting. The “Schuetzen” style of holding the rifle, with palm rest, is used only in fine match shooting.

The knee-rest position is often useful for the sportsman in stalking game, when it is desirable to expose oneself as little as possible. A steadier aim may be secured, especially if a strong wind is blowing. The prone position is much used by military riflemen, but they are not permitted the muzzle rest, whereas the hunter often uses it. It is easy to learn, and more accurate shooting may be done in this position than in the off-hand or knee-rest positions.

For indoor practice at a target, the .22-caliber rifle is best. By fitting up a suitable backstop, shooting may be done safely in the cellar or attic. A satisfactory backstop may be made by fastening a plate of iron into a packing box, 3 ft. square, as shown in Fig. 3. The plate must be set at an angle so that the bullets will be deflected to the bottom of the box.

In order that the rifleman may check up his work, it is desirable that a standard target be used. The American standard target, shown in Fig. 3, has been adopted by practically all rifle clubs, and, as the majority of records are made upon it, the sportsman should become familiar with it. The paper targets are inexpensive, and it is easy to draw accurate homemade targets from the original. By the use of disks of black and white paper--known as gummed target pasters--one target may be used several times.

If convenient to do so, the novice should shoot a string of shots every day, in the various positions. Do not try to hurry, but shoot deliberately at first, aiming to secure a good average, rather than a few bull’s-eye shots and many wild ones. With reasonable practice, it is not difficult to score eight bull’s-eyes out of ten shots, when using the prone position. Having attained this proficiency, the sportsman may be regarded as a fair shot, and is ready to take up outdoor target practice with the high-power rifle.

J, Mechanism of Lever-Action Repeating Rifle; 2, Breechblock; 7, Cocking Lever; 19, Firing Pin, Front; 21, Firing Pin, Rear; 29, Guard Finger Lever; 34, Hammer; 36, Lifter; 37, Locking Slide; 45, Mainspring Plunger; 46, Mainspring Plunger Seat; 63, Trigger

K, Mechanism of Falling-Breechblock, Single-Shot Rifle; L, Gold-Bead Front Sight; M and N, Combination Rear Aperture or Tang Sight, Raised and Folded; O, P, Q, Folding-Leaf Rear Sight, Used as V-Crotched Sight, Straight-Bar Sight, and Folded Flat to Barrel]

For outdoor target shooting the .22-caliber, long-rifle cartridge will give very accurate results up to 100 yd. The standard target has a bull’s-eye measuring 6 in. in diameter for 150 yd. Shooting may be tried for a while at a fixed range, then the target may be moved to an unknown distance and angle, and the marksman can try his hand at estimating distance. Instead of changing his sights at varying distances, the sportsman should learn how to estimate the distance of the mark and the approximate elevation of the sights to land the bullet within the circle. This is valuable practice for good shooting in the woods.

After considerable practice at the stationary target, quick firing may be varied by rigging up a sliding trolley arrangement, like that shown in the page illustration. It is easily made by setting up two poles, properly braced, one about 30 ft. tall, and the other about 10 ft., spaced 30 ft. apart. Between the poles, about 8 ft. from the ground, stretch a length of stiff telephone wire, and make a wooden target block W, with a metal sheave wheel, so that it may slide freely along the wire. On the tallest post, a little above the wire, fasten a metal pulley, Z, and at the top of the pole place a sash pulley. Then attach a stout cord to the target block, reeve it through the two pulleys, and attach a sandbag, or other weight, to the end of the cord, On the shorter post, a latch, or trigger, Y, is fastened to hold the target, which is released by pulling a string. With this easily constructed device, much valuable practice may be had, for if the pole is fairly high, the weight will cause the target to slide as rapidly as the average game bird travels. In using this moving target, just as good practice is obtained with a .22-caliber repeater as with a high-power gun. In fact, the high-velocity ammunition should be used only on a regular range, or where a suitable backstop is erected to stop the high-power bullets. Such a backstop may be constructed of heavy lumber, like old railroad ties, in the form of a crib, which is filled in with sand or earth. When a natural background, such as a mound or hill, is at hand, this may be used with safety, but a rocky hillside is not satisfactory, for it is likely to deflect the bullets, and may cause injury through stray shots.

As our antlered game, like the moose, the Virginia deer, the caribou, and the elk, are held in higher esteem than other American big-game animals, a few practical hints on where to sight, may serve to bring better luck to the sportsman who has yet to bring in his first head. The shoulder shot, shown in the rectangular sketch at S, T and U, is taken by the experienced hunter whenever possible, in preference to any other. It is the object of this shot to break the shoulder joint, and thus prevent use of the forelegs. It is a vital shot, also, because there is a good chance of the bullet passing through either the heart or lungs, which will drop the game in its tracks. This is the most effective of all shots, and as the hunter more often draws a bead while the game is running away, the shoulder shot is used more than any other. The exact spot, at which the aim should be taken, depends upon the distance of the animal, and its rate of movement. If on the run and the range of 100 yd. or more, the sight should be taken at the point S. If less than this distance, sight at T, and, if the animal is standing still, take deliberate aim at U, within the dotted inclosure. This area represents what big-game hunters call the vital zone, and a soft-nose bullet, placed anywhere within this spot, will be certain to stop the game, often dropping it on the spot. It is possible to land a bullet in a vital spot at distances up to 500 yd. with a high-power rifle, but it is very likely that the game will be wounded only, and may escape to die a lingering death. In taking long shots at big game on the run, the sight should be taken well forward and a trifle higher than the marks given, since the hunter must allow for the trajectory of his arm and the time the bullet takes to reach its mark.

The front shot, shown at the right, has as its object to hit the heart or lungs. It is a useful shot, and the sight is taken at the cross indication on the breast. The head shot, shown in the circle, is a brain shot, and is used only by the experienced hunter, when it is difficult to land a shoulder or front shot. As the brain is well up to the top of the head, the best point of aim is shown at V, midway between the eyes and a trifle higher than their centers. This shot is most effective when the hunter stands a trifle above the game, or shoots when the game is charging head down. If on a level, aim just above the eye, and if close to the game, land the bullet just below the eye. The ear shot, as indicated by the cross, is taken at close quarters, and the point to sight for is the inside of the ear at its base.

A good rifle will give a lifetime of service, and the sportsman should take care of it. The best time to clean a firearm of any kind is as soon after shooting as possible, for the powder residue is then fresh and moist, and is more easily and quickly removed. Black powder can be removed with a wet rag, but smokeless powder not only leaves a little powder residue, but also a film of gummy residue on the steel which is not apparent to the eye. Common washing soda, dissolved in water to make a saturated solution, is used to remove it. Any of the ready-prepared nitro solvents are good for cleaning the rifle. A good way to clean a rifle is to use strips of cotton flannel, cut into squares of such size that they will fit snugly, but may be easily pushed through the barrel on the head of the metal cleaning rod. Always clean a rifle from the breech, if possible, by resting the muzzle on a few folded papers on the floor. Push a couple of dry wipers down to the floor to remove the carbon residue. Then saturate another square of cloth with the nitro solvent, and carefully swab out the barrel, turning the rod so that it will follow the spiral rifling. Repeat the operation two or three times; then take a clean wiper, moistened with the solvent, and repeat until the barrel is well lubricated with the cleaning fluid. The barrel should be well oiled with any good, thick oil, or liquid vaseline. The lock mechanism of the arm should be kept clean and very lightly lubricated with any good thin oil, and the gunstock polished with linseed oil.

Camera for Taking Pictures from a Kite

BY CHARLES I. REID

When watching a kite flying at a considerable height one frequently wonders how the landscape appears from such a viewpoint as would be possible from a kite. Few of us can have the experience of a ride in an aeroplane, but it is quite possible to obtain a view from the kite, by proxy as it were, through the use of a kite camera. A kite of large dimensions would be necessary to carry an ordinary camera taking pictures of fair size, hence it is necessary to devise one of lighter construction, so that a kite of moderate size may carry it to a height of several hundred feet. Such a camera is shown in the illustration attached to a box kite. Details of construction are shown in the smaller sketches.

A camera consists, briefly, of a light-proof box, with a lens at one end and a sensitive plate or film at the other. For a kite camera, a single achromatic lens will suit the purpose. Such a lens is not expensive and may be taken from a small camera. It must be obtained before the camera is begun, since the size of the latter is dependent upon the focal length of the lens and the size of the picture to be made. A camera taking pictures 2 in. square is satisfactory for kite photography, and if it is desired to enlarge the pictures, this may be done in the usual manner.

The box of the camera is made cone-shaped in order to reduce the weight and air resistance. Its sides are of light-weight, stiff cardboard, reinforced at the corners to insure that no light will enter. The back of the camera is a tight-fitting cover of cardboard, having the same measurements as the picture to be taken. The lens is fitted to an intermediate partition, as shown in the sketch. It is necessary to determine the focal length of the lens and to set it at a distance from the inner side of the cardboard back of the camera--the film surface--so that it will focus properly for photographing distant objects.

The front is provided with a circular opening of a size large enough not to obstruct the view of the lens. A shutter made of thin pressboard is fitted over the opening, as shown in the sketch at the right. A slit is cut in the shutter through which light is admitted in making the exposure as the shutter is drawn back. The size and width of the slit regulates the exposure, and a few trials must be made to determine the most suitable speed of exposure for the lens used. The shutter is pivoted at its lower end and drawn back by a rubber band. A string, to which a time fuse is attached, controls the releasing of the shutter to make the exposure. The string holds the shutter closed against the pull of the rubber band until the fuse burns up to the string, severing it. The fuse must be long enough to enable the kite to attain a suitable height before the string is burned. When the shutter has been set, and the fuse attached ready for lighting, the camera may be taken into the dark room for loading. A piece of film, cut to the proper size, is placed carefully into the light-proof sliding cover, as with a film pack, the sensitive side, of course, being placed nearest the lens.

The camera is attached to the kite securely at the middle, as shown, so that when the kite is in flight a view nearly straight down will be obtained. When all is in readiness the fuse is lighted and the kite started on its flight. By timing experimental flights, the required length of fuse may be determined in order to permit the kite to attain the desired height at the time of exposure.

The kite used for taking pictures from the air should be large enough to carry the kite easily. One of the box type illustrated is satisfactory, although other types may be used. A kite camera for the amateur has great possibilities for experimentation, but requires care in construction and a reasonable knowledge of photography. To the person willing to master the details, kite photography offers a pleasurable diversion as well as practical uses in photographing plots of ground, groups of buildings, manufacturing plants, and other subjects which cannot be photographed by other methods.

How to Make a Canteen

Two sheet-metal plates that are well nickelplated may be joined and provided with a suitable opening, to form a useful canteen for the camper or hiker. The illustration shows such a convenience fitted with a shoulder strap ready for use.

It was made as follows: Two good-quality pie plates were soldered at their edges to form a water-tight container. An opening was cut into the edge and a screw cap, taken from a metal-polish can, was fitted carefully and soldered over the opening. A wire was soldered at each side of the screw cap, providing loops for the snap buckles of the shoulder straps.--J. R. Townsend, Itasca, Texas.

Mixing Stick That Breaks Up Lumps

In mixing paint, or paste, it is desirable that all lumps be broken up quickly, and that the forming of lumps be prevented as much as possible. A mixing stick that will aid in this process is made as follows: Procure a stick of wood, that will take nails without cracking, and cut it about 1 in. square and 12 in. long. On one side, beginning ¹⁄₂ in. from the end, drive five 8-penny finishing nails, 1 in. apart. On the next side, repeat the process, beginning the nails 1 in. from the end. Place similar nails on the other two sides, spacing them to offset those on the other sides. The nails cause a thorough mixing of the paste, or paint, prevent the forming of lumps of any considerable size, and by careful stirring will break up all lumps in the mixture.--Edwin R. Mason, Danville, Ill.

Tin Can on Rod for Picking Fruit

The best apple is usually a little beyond reach, as every boy knows, so I fitted a tin can, cut as shown in the sketch, to a pole and can easily pick the apple that I want. The device is useful for picking many varieties of fruit, and prevents damaging it by a fall. For picking apples or other fruit from the upper branches of trees, where it is almost impossible to reach by the use of a ladder, the tin-can fruit picker is especially handy. The small sketch shows how the edges of the can should be cut to afford the best grip on the stem, making it possible to cut the twig from above or below.--T. A. Charles, Hamilton, Ont.

The Shotgun and How to Use It

BY STILLMAN TAYLOR