Chapter XIV: Part 14

+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
| Name. | Formula. | Oxygen | Hydrogen |
| | | = 100. | = 1. |
+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
| | | | |
| Oxygen | O | 100.000 | 16.026 |
| | | | |
| Hydrogen | H | 6.2398 | 1.000 |
| | 2H | 12.4796 | 2.000 |
| | | | |
| Nitrogen | N | 88.518 | 14.186 |
| | 2N | 177.086 | 28.372 |
| | | | |
| Phosphorus | P | 196.155 | 31.436 |
| | 2P | 392.310 | 68.872 |
| | | | |
| Chlorine | Cl | 221.325 | 35.470 |
| | 2Cl | 442.650 | 70.940 |
| | | | |
| Iodine | I | 768.781 | 123.206 |
| | 2I | 1537.562 | 246.412 |
| | | | |
| Carbon | C | 76.437 | 12.250 |
| | 2C | 152.875 | 24.500 |
| | | | |
| Boron | B | 135.983 | 21.793 |
| | 2B | 271.966 | 43.586 |
| | | | |
| Silicon | Si | 277.478 | 44.469 |
| | | | |
| Selenium | Se | 494.582 | 79.263 |
| | | | |
| Arsenic | As | 470.042 | 75.329 |
| | 2As | 940.084 | 150.659 |
| | | | |
| Chromium | Cr | 351.819 | 56.383 |
| | 2Cr | 703.638 | 112.766 |
| | | | |
| Molybdenum | Mo | 598.525 | 95.920 |
| | | | |
| Tungstenium | Tu or W | 1183.200 | 189.621 |
| | | | |
| Antimony | Sb | 806.452 | 129.243 |
| | 2Sb | 1612.904 | 258.486 |
| | | | |
| Tellurium | Te | 806.452 | 129.243 |
| | | | |
| Tantalum | Ta | 1153.715 | 184.896 |
| | 2Ta | 2307.430 | 369.792 |
| | | | |
| Titanium | Ti | 389.092 | 62.356 |
| | | | |
| Gold (aurum) | Au | 1243.013 | 199.207 |
| | 2Au | 2486.026 | 398.415 |
| | | | |
| Platina | Pt | 1215.220 | 194.753 |
| | | | |
| Rhodium | R | 750.680 | 120.305 |
| | 2R | 1501.360 | 240.610 |
| | | | |
| Palladium | Pd | 714.618 | 114.526 |
| | | | |
| Silver (argentum) | Ag | 1351.607 | 216.611 |
| | | | |
| Mercury (hydrargyrus) | Hg | 1265.822 | 202.863 |
| | 2Hg | 2531.645 | 405.725 |
| | | | |
| Copper (cuprum) | Cu | 395.695 | 63.415 |
| | 2Cu | 791.390 | 126.829 |
| | | | |
| Uranium | U | 2711.360 | 434.527 |
| | 2U | 5422.720 | 869.154 |
| | | | |
| Bismuth | Bi | 1330.376 | 213.208 |
| | 2Bi | 2660.752 | 426.416 |
| | | | |
| Tin (stannum) | Sn | 735.294 | 117.839 |
| | | | |
| Lead (plumbum) | Pb | 1294.498 | 207.458 |
| | 2Pb | 2588.996 | 414.917 |
| | | | |
| Cadmium | Cd | 696.767 | 111.665 |
| | | | |
| Zinc | Zn | 403.226 | 64.621 |
| | | | |
| Nickel | Ni | 369.675 | 59.245 |
| | | | |
| Cobalt | Co | 368.991 | 59.135 |
| | 2Co | 737.982 | 118.270 |
| | | | |
| Iron (ferrum) | Fe | 339.213 | 54.363 |
| | 2Fe | 678.426 | 108.725 |
| | | | |
| Manganese | Mn | 355.787 | 57.019 |
| | 2Mn | 711.575 | 114.038 |
| | | | |
| Cerium | Ce | 574.718 | 92.105 |
| | 2Ce | 1149.436 | 184.210 |
| | | | |
| Zirconium | Zr | 420.238 | 67.348 |
| 2Zr | 840.476 | 134.696 |
| | | | |
| Yttrium | Y | 401.840 | 64.395 |
| | | | |
| Beryllium (glucinum) | Be | 331.479 | 53.123 |
| | 2Be | 662.958 | 106.247 |
| | | | |
| Aluminum | Al | 171.167 | 27.431 |
| | 2Al | 342.234 | 54.863 |
| | | | |
| Magnesium | Mg | 158.353 | 25.378 |
| | | | |
| Calcium | Ca | 256.019 | 41.030 |
| | | | |
| Strontium | Sr | 547.285 | 87.709 |
| | | | |
| Baryum | Ba | 856.88 | 137.325 |
| | | | |
| Lithium | L | 127.757 | 20.474 |
| | | | |
| Natrium (sodium) | Na | 290.897 | 46.620 |
| | 2Na | 581.794 | 93.239 |
| | | | |
| Kalium (potassium) | K | 489.916 | 78.515 |
| | | | |
| Ammonia | 2N 2H^3 | 214.474 | 34.372 |
| | | | |
| Cyanogen | 2NC | 329.911 | 52.872 |
| | | | |
| Sulphuretted hydrogen | 2HS | 213.644 | 34.239 |
| | | | |
| Hydrochloric acid | 2HCl | 455.129 | 72.940 |
| | | | |
| Hydrocyanic acid | 2HNC | 342.390 | 54.872 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Water | 2H | 112.479 | 18.026 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of nitrogen | 2N | 277.036 | 44.398 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Deutoxide of nitrogen | N | 188.518 | 30.212 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Nitrous acid | 2N | 477.036 | 76.449 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Nitric acid | 2N | 677.036 | 108.503 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Hydrosulphuric acid | S | 301.165 | 48.265 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Sulphurous acid | S | 401.165 | 64.291 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Hyposulphuric acid | 2S | 902.330 | 144.609 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Sulphuric acid | S | 501.165 | 80.317 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Phosphoric acid | 2P | 892.310 | 143.003 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Chloric acid | 2Cl | 942.650 | 151.071 |
| | | | |
| | ::: | | |
| Perchloric acid | 2Cl | 1042.650 | 167.097 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Iodic acid | 2I | 2037.562 | 326.543 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Carbonic acid | C | 276.437 | 44.302 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxalic acid | 2C | 452.875 | 72.578 |
| | | | |
| | ::: | | |
| Boracic acid | 2B | 871.966 | 139.743 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Silicic acid | Si | 577.478 | 92.548 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Selenic acid | Se | 694.582 | 111.315 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Arsenic acid | 2As | 1440.084 | 230.790 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Protoxide of chrome | 2Cr | 1003.638 | 160.840 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Chromic acid | Cr | 651.819 | 104.462 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Molybdic acid | Mo | 898.525 | 143.999 |
| | | | |
| Tunstic, or | ... | | |
| wolfram acid | W | 1483.200 | 237.700 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of antimony | 2Sb | 1912.904 | 306.565 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Antimonious acid | Sb | 1006.452 | 161.296 |
| | | | |
| | .... | | |
| | 2Sb | 2012.904 | 322.591 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Antimonic acid | 2Sb | 2112.904 | 338.617 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Oxide of tellurium | Te | 1006.452 | 161.296 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Tantalic acid | 2Ta | 2607.430 | 417.871 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Titanic acid | Ti | 589.092 | 94.409 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of gold | 2Au | 2786.026 | 446.493 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Oxide of platina | Pt | 1415.220 | 226.086 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of rhodium | 2R | 1801.360 | 228.689 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of palladium | Pd | 814.618 | 130.552 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of silver | Ag | 1451.607 | 232.637 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of mercury | 2Hg | 2631.645 | 421.752 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Peroxide of mercury | Hg | 1365.822 | 218.889 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of copper | 2Cu | 801.390 | 142.856 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Peroxide of copper | Cu | 495.695 | 79.441 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of uranium | U | 2811.360 | 450.553 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of uranium | 2U | 5722.720 | 917.132 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of bismuth | 2Bi | 2960.752 | 474.49 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of tin | Sn | 835.294 | 133.866 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Peroxide of tin | Sn | 935.294 | 149.892 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of lead | Pb | 1394.498 | 223.484 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Minium | 2Pb | 2888.996 | 462.995 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Brown oxide of lead | Pb | 1494.498 | 239.511 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of cadmium | Cd | 796.767 | 127.691 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of zinc | Zn | 503.226 | 80.649 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of nickel | Ni | 469.675 | 75.271 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of cobalt | Co | 468.991 | 75.161 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of cobalt | 2Co | 1037.982 | 166.349 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of iron | Fe | 439.213 | 70.389 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of iron | 2Fe | 978.426 | 156.804 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of manganese| Mn | 455.787 | 73.045 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of manganese | 2Mn | 1011.575 | 162.117 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Peroxide of manganese | Mn | 555.787 | 89.071 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Manganesic acid | 2Mn | 1211.575 | 194.169 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of cerium | Ce | 674.718 | 108.132 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of cerium | 2Ce | 1449.436 | 232.289 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Zirconia | 2Zr | 1140.476 | 182.775 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Yttria | Y | 501.840 | 80.425 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Glucina, or beryllia | 2Be | 962.958 | 154.325 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Alumina | 2Al | 642.334 | 109.492 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Magnesia | Mg | 258.353 | 41.404 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Lime | Ca | 356.019 | 57.056 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Strontia | Sr | 647.285 | 103.735 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Baryta | Ba | 956.880 | 153.351 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Lithia | L | 227.757 | 36.501 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Natron, or soda | Na | 390.897 | 62.646 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of sodium | 2Na | 881.794 | 141.318 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Kali, or potassa | K | 589.916 | 94.541 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of potassium | K | 789.916 | 126.593 |
| | | | |
| | . ... | | |
| Sulphate of potassa | KS | 1091.081 | 174.859 |
| | | | |
| | . ... | | |
| Protosulphate of iron | FeS | 940.378 | 150.706 |
| | | | |
| | ... ... | | |
| Persulphate of iron | 2FeS^3 | 2481.906 | 397.754 |
| | | | |
| Protochloride of iron | Fe2Cl | 781.863 | 125.303 |
| | | | |
| Perchloride of iron | 2Fe2Cl^3 | 2006.376 | 321.545 |
| | | | |
| Protochloride | | | |
| of mercury | 2Hg2Cl | 2974.295 | 476.666 |
| | | | |
| Perchloride of mercury| Hg2Cl | 1708.472 | 273.803 |
+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+

+---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+
| | | | |
| Ferrocyanide | Fe2NC + 2K2NC | 2308.778 | 370.008 |
| of iron | | | |
| | . ... ... ... . | | |
| Alum | KS + 2AlS^{3} + 24 2H | 5936.406 | 951.378 |
| | | | |
| | . ... ... ... | | |
| Felspar | KSi + 2Al Si | 3542.162 | 567.673 |
+---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+

Berzelius’s Symbols of all the Elementary Substances.

Elements. Symb. Elements. Symb.

Aluminum Al Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg
Antimony (Stibium) Sb Molybdenum Mo
Arsenic As Nickel Ni
Barium Ba Nitrogen N
Bismuth Bi Osmium Os
Boron B Oxygen O
Bromine Br Palladium Pd
Cadmium Cd Phosphorus P
Calcium Ca Platinum Pl
Carbon C Potassium (Kalium) K
Cerium Ce Rhodium R
Chlorine Cl Selenium Se
Chromium Cr Silicium Si
Cobalt Co Silver (Argentum) Ag
Columbium (Tantalum) Ta Sodium (Natrium) Na
Copper (Cuprum) Cu Strontium Sr
Fluorine F Sulphur S
Glucinium G Tellurium Te
Gold (Aurum) Au Thorium Th
Hydrogen H Tin (Stannum) Sn
Iodine I Titanium Ti
Iridium Ir Tungsten (Wolfram) W
Iron (Ferrum) Fe Vanadium V
Lead (Plumbum) Pb Uranium U
Lithium L Yttrium Y
Magnesium Mg Zinc Zn
Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr

* * * * *

Degrees of Oxidation are indicated by Dots placed over the Symbol.

:.:
Nitric Acid N
...
Sulphuric do. S

Fluoric do. HF
..
Carbonic do. C
:.:
Phosphoric do. P_

Muriatic Acid HCI
...
Boracic do. B
:.:
Arsenic do. As_
.
Water H

Table of the principal Groups of the Isomorphous Substances at present observed by Chemists.

1. Silver Ag

Gold Au

...
2. Arsenious Acid (usual form) A͟
...
Sesquioxide of Antimony Sb͟

...
3. Alumina Al͟
...
Peroxide of Iron Fe͟

:.:
4. Salts of Phosphoric Acid P͟
:.:
Arsenic do. A͟

...
5. Salts of Sulphuric Acid S
...
Selenic do. Se
...
Chromic do. Cr
...
Manganic do. Mn

:.::
6. Salts of Perchloric do. Cl
:.::
Permanganic do. Mn͟

.
7. Salts of Potassa K

Ammonia with 1 eq. of .
Water H^3N + H

.
8. Salts of Soda Na
.
Oxide of Silver Ag

.
9. Salts of Baryta Ba
.
Strontia Sr
.
Lime (in Arragonite) Ca
.
Protoxide of Lead Pb

.
10. Salts of Lime Ca
.
Magnesia Mg
.
Protoxide of Iron Fe
.
Manganese Mn
.
Zinc Zn
.
Nickel Ni
.
Cobalt Co
.
Copper Cu

Lead (in
Plumbo .
Calcitie) Pb

...
11. Salts of Alumina Al͟

...
Peroxide of Iron Fe

...
Oxide of Chromium Cr

...
Sesquioxide of Manganese Mn

* * * * *

Professor Whewell in an Essay on the Employment of Notation in Chemistry, observes, “I have no hesitation in saying, that in mineralogy it is utterly impossible to express clearly, or to reason upon, the chemical constitution of our substances, without the employment of some notation or other. Every one who makes the trial will find that, without a notation, his attempts to compare the composition of different minerals will be confused and fruitless, and that, by employing symbols, his reasonings may easily be made brief, clear, and systematic.”

After criticising the foreign notation as being grossly anomalous and defective, he adds the following list, which he hopes he has shown to be mathematically consistent and chemically useful. He has used the atomic composition adopted by Dr. Turner in his Chemistry.

_ka_ = potassium _ka_ + _o_ = K = Potassa.

_na_ = sodium _na_ + _o_ = N = Soda.

_li_ = lithium _li_ + _o_ = L = Lithia.

_ba_ = barium _ba_ + _o_ = B = Baryta.

_sr_ = strontium _sr_ + _o_ = S_r_ = Strontia.

_ca_ = calcium _ca_ + _o_ = C = Lime (calcia).

_ma_ = magnesium _ma_ + _o_ = M = Magnesia.

_zi_ = zirconium _zi_ + _o_ = Z = Zirconia.

_gl_ = glucinum _gl_ + _o_ = G = Glucina.

_al_ = aluminium _al_ + _o_ = A = Alumina.

_si_ = silicium _si_ + _o_ = S = Silica.

_mn_ = manganese _mn_ + _o_ = M_n_ = Protoxide.

_mn_ + (3/2) _o_ = M_ns_ = Deutoxide.

_mn_ + 2 _o_ = M_nn_ = Peroxide.

_mn_ + 3 _o_ = M_n`_ = Manganesious Acid.

_mn_ + 4 _o_ = M_n´_ = Manganesic Acid.

_fe_ = iron _fe_ + _o_ = F_e_ = oxide.

_fe_ + (3/2) _o_ = F_es_ = peroxide.

_zi_ = zinc _zi_ + _o_ = Z_i_ = oxide.

_cd_ = cadmium _cd_ + _o_ = C_d_ = oxide.

_sn_ = tin _sn_ + _o_ = S_n_ = oxide.

_sn_ + 2 _o_ = S_nn_ = peroxide.

_ce_ = cerium _ce_ + _o_ = C_e_ = oxide.

_ce_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_es_ = peroxide.

_cb_ = cobalt _cb_ + _o_ = C_b_ = oxide.

_cb_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_bs_ = peroxide.

_ni_ = nickel _ni_ + _o_ = N_i_ = oxide.

_ni_ + (3/2) _o_ = N_is_ = peroxide.

_bi_ = bismuth _bi_ + _o_ = B_i_ = oxide.

_ti_ = titanium _ti_ + _o_ = T_i_ = oxide.

_cu_ = copper _cu_ + _o_ = C_u_ = oxide.

_cu_ + 2 _o_ = C_uu_ = peroxide.

_ur_ = uranium _ur_ + _o_ = U_r_ = oxide.

_ur_ + 2 _o_ = U_rr_ = peroxide.

_pb_ = lead _pb_ + _o_ = P_b_ = oxide.

_pb_ + (3/2) _o_ = P_bs_ = deutoxide.

_pb_ + 2 _o_ = P_bb_ = peroxide.

_hg_ = mercury _hg_ + _o_ = H_g_ = oxide.

_hg_ + 2 _o_ = H_gg_ = peroxide.

_ag_ = silver _ag_ + _o_ = A_g_ = oxide.

_au_ = gold _au_ + _o_ = A_u_ = oxide.

_pt_ = platinum _pt_ + _o_ = P_t_ = oxide.

_pd_ = palladium _pd_ + _o_ = P_d_ = oxide.

_ir_ = iridium

_rh_ = rhodium _rh_ + _o_ = R_h_ = oxide.

_rh_ + (3/2) _o_ = R_hs_ = peroxide.

_om_ = osmium

_cr_ = chromium _cr_ + _o_ = C_r_ = oxide.

_cr_ + (5/2) _o_ = _cr´_ = chromic acid.

_mo_ = molybdenum _mo_ + _o_ = M_o_ = oxide.

_mo_ + 2 _o_ = M_oo_ = deutoxide.

_mo_ + 3 _o_ = _mo´_ = molybdic acid.

_tu_ = tungsten _tu_ + 2 _o_ = T_uu_ = oxide.

_tu_ + 3 _o_ = _tu´_ = tungstic acid.

_cm_ = columbium

_an_ = antimony _an_ + _o_ = oxide.

_an_ + (3/2) _o_ = deutoxide.

_ar_ = arsenic _ar_ + (3/2) _o_ = _ar`_ = arsenious acid.

_ar_ + (5/2) _o_ = _ar´_ = arsenic.

_p_ = phosphorus _p_ + (3/2) _o_ = _p`_ = phosphorous acid.

_p_ + (5/2) _o_ = _p´_ = phosphoric.

_s_ = sulphur _s_ + _o_ = hyposulphurous acid.

_s_ + 2 _o_ = _s`_ = sulphurous.

_s_ + 3 _o_ = _s´_ = sulphuric.

_se_ = selenium _se_ + 2 _o_ = _se`_ = selenious acid.

_se_ + 3 _o_ = _se´_ = selenic.

_te_ = tellurium _te_ + _o_ = oxide.

_b_ = boron _b_ + 2 _o_ = _b´_ = boracic acid.

_c_ = carbon _c_ + _o_ = _c`_ = carbonic oxide.

_c_ + 2 _o_ = _c´_ = carbonic acid.

_n_ = nitrogen _n_ + _o_ = oxide.

_n_ + 2 _o_ = deutoxide.

_n_ + 3 _o_ = hyponitrous acid.

_n_ + 4 _o_ = _n`_ = nitrous acid.

_n_ + 5 _o_ = _n´_ = nitric acid.

_n_ + 3 _h_ = A_m_ = ammonia.

_fl_ = fluorine _fl_ + _h_ = _fl´_ = hydrofluoric acid.

_cl_ = chlorine _cl_ + _h_ = _cl´_ = muriatic acid.

_io_ = iodine _io_ + _h_ = _io´_ = hydriodic acid.

Berzelius represents water (_aqua_) by _Aq_; for the sake of simplicity Whewell says he has used _q_. He also observes, “In the notation of Berzelius, the atoms of oxygen are indicated by dots placed over the symbol of the base. Thus, _[..]fe_, _[...]fe_ are the protoxide and peroxide of iron, which he considers as having two and three atoms of oxygen respectively. This notation is compact and simple, but it is not consistent with algebraical rule, so far as the oxygen is concerned; and I conceive that, if this element be explicitly expressed, it ought to be done in the manner I have recommended, _fe_ + 2 _o_, _fe_ + 3 _o_, &c.”--_Journals of Royal Institution._

I have omitted Professor Whewell’s reasons, which he gives to show the superiority of his notation over those of foreign nations and that of Berzelius, as they are not of practical utility in printing; but I have given his list, which will be useful in printing mineralogical works in cases where the copy may be bad.

FORTY-EIGHTMO.

A sheet of paper folded into forty-eight leaves, or ninety-six pages.

FORTYMO.

A sheet of paper folded into forty leaves, or eighty pages.

FOUL PROOF.

When a proof has many faults marked in it.--_M._ Pressmen are also in the habit of calling the first proof a _Foul Proof_; and frequently they pull it so as to justify the epithet.

FOUL STONE.

After imposing or correcting, if a compositor leave any thing upon the imposing stone, except the mallet, shooting stick, and planer, it is termed a foul stone; which in many houses subjects him to a fine.

FOUNT,

is the whole number of letters that are cast of the same body and face at one time.--_M._ Moxon says this word is properly Fund.

FOUNT CASES.

Cases of larger proportions than those used to compose from, which are kept to contain the surplus sorts of a fount until they are required for use. In these cases they are more accessible than when put into coffins and baskets according to the old plan, and are not so likely to be mislaid.

FRACTIONS.

A fraction is part of a unit, and is written with two figures, one above the other, with a line between them: thus, ¼, ⅚, ⅜. The upper figure is called the numerator, and the lower figure the denominator. The denominator shows how many parts the unit is divided into; and the numerator, how many of those parts the fraction represents. A proper fraction is when the numerator is less than the denominator. An improper fraction is when the numerator is equal to, or greater than the denominator.

A compound fraction is the fraction of a fraction, and is known by the word, of, between the parts; as, ½ of ⅔ of 7/9 of 8/17. A mixed number is composed of a whole number and fraction; as, 8-3/7, 17½. A mixed fraction is when the numerator or denominator has a fractional part; thus, 7⅔/4, 4/7⅔; or, when both of them have fractional parts; as 5⅓/7⅕.

The fractions cast in one piece to a fount are ⅛, ¼, ⅜, ½, ⅝, ¾, ⅞.

Fractions are also cast in two pieces, from Brevier to English; when wanted larger, they may be formed of figures of small proportionate size, with a rule between the numerator and denominator.

This rule in separate fractions is now generally cast on the piece containing the denominator, above the figure, thus, 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 7̅ 8̅ 9̅ 0̅; but in improper fractions, where the numerator contains more figures than the denominator, as 3848/21, this rule will not cover the whole of the numerator, therefore it would be necessary, to be able to compose fractions in a perfect manner, to have the rule also cast under the numerator, according to the old plan, so as to meet both cases, otherwise either the proper fraction or the improper fraction must be deficient 21/3848.

FRAGMENTS.

After the body of a work, and the index are composed, the title, preface, contents, &c. are proceeded with. If there be any pages beyond the concluding sheet, they are now imposed together to save presswork, and also warehouse work; and these pages are called _Fragments_.

FRAME.

Made of deal wood, on which the cases are placed to be composed from.

By the annexed engraving it will be perceived, that the upper and lower cases are placed upon the frame, not in a horizontal, but sloping position, as two inclined planes, the upper case being at a greater angle than the lower, which brings the more distant boxes nearer to the compositor and thus expedites the work: this arrangement occupies less room, and allows a greater number of frames to stand in a given length.

The cases rest on a rail at each end, and in the middle there are generally two rails, six or seven inches apart, for the inside end of each case to rest on. There is frequently a piece of board nailed to the bottom of these rails, which thus forms a depository for page cords, copy that is not in use, and other small matters: this is called a _Well_.

Frames are always placed with one end next the window, so that the compositor when at work may stand with his left hand to the light; thus he enjoys the full benefit of the light in picking up the letters with his right hand. They are usually made to contain two cases in length, which are generally a pair of Roman and a pair of Italic cases, so that the compositor has not to go out of his frame when he wants to compose a few words in Italic.

There is a rather strong nail driven into each end rail and each middle rail for the bottom of the upper cases to rest upon, leaving sufficient room for the lower cases to be lifted out when necessary.

The dimensions of a frame are--height of back, 4 feet 6 inches; height of front, 3 feet 6 inches; width, 1 foot 10 inches; length, 4 feet 10 inches.

In a composing room, where there was plenty of room, I have seen the frames made to contain three cases in length; this is a convenience, as it allows the compositor to have up an additional pair of cases for his notes.

FRENCH RULES.

Pieces of Brass, letter high, of different lengths and thicknesses, on which are filed various dashes, swelling in the middle. They are used to separate parts of a discourse; or are placed after certain lines of capitals in titles and jobs, &c. They are also called _Swell Rules_.

FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES. _See_ PHRASES.

FRIAR.

When some parts of a ball or roller do not take the ink, so that it does not adhere to the surface, the parts of the form that come in contact with them will be deficient of ink, and the paper when printed will, in those places, be either white or of a pale colour: these white or pale patches are called _Friars_, as the black patches, from too great a quantity of ink on particular places, are called _Monks_.

FRISKET.

A thin iron frame, covered with paper, and connected temporarily with the tympan, by means of joints attached to it and the headband of the tympan, having iron pins to slip into them. The parts that are to be printed are cut out of the paper covering; it turns down upon the paper to be printed, which is laid upon the tympan, keeps it flat to its place, preserves the margin clean, and raises it from the form after it is printed. _See_ FRISKET BUTTON.

Each press in a printing office should have five or six friskets attached to it, of at least three sizes--Demy, as the standard size of paper; a size smaller; and a size sufficient for the largest form the press will print, for it is very inconvenient, and a loss of time, when the pressmen have to cover a frisket and cut it out for every form they lay on: and more particularly when regular work is in the house, and the same frisket will answer for many succeeding forms. It is adviseable, where it is practicable, to have the frisket joints at all the presses of one pattern, so that every frisket may be available at any of the presses.

A pressman should never pull an impression from a form, without being certain that the frisket is large enough, and that it does not rest on the edges of the types, which would be destructive to them.

FRISKET BUTTON.

A button screwed on the offside of the tympan near the bottom, to turn over the frisket and keep it close to the tympan in turning down.

This button is only used when superior work is printing: it prevents the sheet from touching the form partially, and also from slipping, by confining it flat to the tympan, and thus tends to make better work, and prevent waste; but it cannot be used where despatch is required.

FRISKET JOINTS.

Two joints of the simplest construction, by which the frisket is attached to the tympan by means of two pins, made with a head to each, so that they can easily be taken out with the fingers; they are inserted between the joints, and thus the heads face each other.

It is customary to place these joints on the flat part of the headband of the tympan, which, when a large form is on the press, and the rim of the chase is broad, rest upon, and prevent the form receiving the effect of the pull. I have known great inconvenience arise from this cause, in very superior work, where the chase filled the press, and could not be moved to get rid of this grievance. The joints should be taken off, and fixed to the extreme edge of the headband, by which means they will extend beyond the chase, and the evil be completely remedied. Where the frisket is fixed on centres this inconvenience does not exist.

FRISKET PINS.

Two iron pins that pass through the frisket joints and connect it with the tympan. They are made to slip in and out of the joints easily with the fingers, and are put in from the inside of the joints, so that the heads are opposite to each other. It is a common practice with pressmen, when they have occasion to take off the frisket, to lay the pins on the form. This ought never to be done; for I have known an impression pulled under these circumstances, at a good wooden press, without the frisket, and where the pins were forgot. The consequence was, the destruction of types, and the bedding in of the pins into the platen:--there was loss of types--loss of time in replacing them--the platen to be taken off and planed, with the expense of doing it, in addition to which it was reduced in thickness full a quarter of an inch, and the further loss of time while it was doing and hanging again, and justifying the head. They may always be safely laid within the chase between the quoins, where they can do no harm, and cannot roll off.

FRISKET STAY.

A slight piece of wood, generally fastened to the ceiling of the press room, and hanging down to the fore end of each press, for the frisket to rest against when it is turned up.

FROZE OUT.

In winter when the paper is froze, and the letter froze, so as the workmen cannot work, they say, _they are froze out_.--_M._ In consequence of greater care in warming printing offices in winter than in the time of Moxon, the workmen are not now “froze out;” for there would be no excuse admitted for the non-execution of parliamentary work, newspapers, reviews, magazines, and other periodical works.

FRY, EDMUND.

A celebrated type founder, whose foundery was rich in Oriental and other types for foreign languages, the forms of the characters of which varied from the Roman character. Dr. Fry sold the whole of his foundery to Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley, and which is now incorporated with their previously extensive variety of types.

FUDGE.

To execute work without the proper materials, and where the workman is obliged to substitute one article for another, and by contrivance make his work passable: when such cases occur, they show the skill and ingenuity of the compositor or pressman, in making his production look well.

FULL CASE.

A case full of letters, wanting no sorts.

FULL FACED LETTER.

Types, in which the capitals, and the ascending letters of the lower case, fill the whole square of the shank, so that the descending letters project beyond the bottom of the shank. A full faced letter is considerably larger in proportion than a letter of the regular face upon the same body: they are convenient in jobs, as they produce the effect of larger types, and take up less space.

FULL FORM,

or PAGE. A form or page with few or no breaks or white lines.--_M._ In a full form there are no short pages, nor blank pages.

FULL PAGE.

A page containing its full complement of lines.

FULL PRESS.

When two men work at the press, it is called a _Full Press_.--_M._

FURNITURE.

The term furniture includes all those pieces of wood that are used in branching out pages, or jobs; in making margin for the folding of books; and in locking up forms when they are imposed: it is generally classed as reglet, furniture, side sticks, foot sticks, and quoins. The height of it is five eighths of an inch, and ought to be the same as that of quadrats; but the letter founders and the joiners vary them both.

What is usually called furniture is in lengths of a yard each, and commences with narrow, which is equal to a narrow quotation; broad, which is equal to a broad quotation; double narrow; broad and narrow; double broad; broad and double narrow; and narrow and double broad. These are used for gutters, heads, and backs; to branch out large jobs; to fill up with when a chase is too large, and to put round a job when imposing, to keep the letter from the iron of the chase. The bottom and two sides are flat, and the top has a groove planed in it lengthways, the arc of a circle; this groove is said to be designed for carrying the water off when the form is washed, but I cannot see the utility of the groove for this purpose; its more obvious use is to lower that part, so that the balls or rollers shall not touch it in inking the form, which prevents the frisket tearing from its pressure upon the inky furniture and from being continually lifted up.

G.

GAELIC.

The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the rest consonants.--_Stewart’s Gaelic Grammar._ 8vo. 2d. edit. 1812.

“It may be explanatory to mention, that the syllable _Kil_ is supposed to mark the residence (the _Cella_), in ancient times of an ecclesiastical recluse; and that _Kin_, _Ken_ (_Cean_) means head. _Ken_-loch-Spelvie, &c. the Head of Loch Spelvie, &c. The letter _C_ is always pronounced _K_ in Welsh and Gaelic”--_Sixth Report of Commissioners for Building Churches in the Highlands of Scotland. Appendix_, 1831. Note.

GALLEY.

Pieces of thin boards of different sizes, with ledges about three fifth parts of the height of the letter on one end and one side, for the types to rest against; others are made with a slice to slide out, and keep a large page on without disturbing it, the coffin having several slices fitted to it.--_M._ The use of the galley is to receive the matter as it is composed, and to afford a level on which to make up the pages.

Galleys are made of different sizes to suit the different works on which a compositor may be employed; if it be a reprint, page for page, he avoids encumbering his cases with large galleys, but takes one that will hold a page comfortably, completes his page, ties it up, and slips it upon a page paper, and thus proceeds; but if the work be not a mere reprint, and is done in a companionship, then, as each compositor must be setting at random, the work will require different sorts of galleys, which must contain more matter; in the latter case he will take one of the proper width for the page, but that will contain two pages or more, in length, or one double that width with a ledge down the middle, so as to hold two pages in width.

For works in quarto or folio he must have galleys of a greater width, so as to enable him to have a quantity of matter at random till he gets the making up; in doing this, where the page is in folio and large, it is safer to make up on a slice galley, when he draws the slice out with the page on it and places it under his frame, and thus proceeds till he has made up a sheet, when he slides his pages off the slice upon the stone to impose them; he must in this case have four slices at least. The following is a representation of a slice galley:

For newspaper work brass galleys are employed, the bottoms thin, and the ledges of brass which are on both sides and one end, while the other end has a moveable ledge which fits into mortises in the sides; by this means the compositor is enabled, when a galley full is composed, to put a sidestick and footstick to it and quoin it, and pull a proof in the galley.

Galleys are generally made of mahogany: those made of the old panels of coaches are held to be the best, as the wood, being well seasoned, is less apt to split or bend, and keeping their flat level surface is requisite.

GALLEY SLAVE. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

GALLOWS.

In wooden presses, a frame made of two pieces of wood and a transverse piece, placed behind the tympans, to support them at a proper angle when they are turned up. The transverse piece is nearly as long as the tympans are wide, so that the frame can rest upon it: they are inclined towards the tympans and form an abutment, and are placed in sockets so as to be easily taken out when necessary.

GALLOWS SOCKETS.

Two pieces of wood with square mortises in them, to receive the ends of the gallows; they are nailed or screwed upon the plank behind the tympans. The mortises are inclined towards the tympans.

GALVANISM.

Another great discovery has been published, in addition to those important ones of Sir Humphry Davy, which he made at the Royal Institution, of the decomposing powers of galvanism, the brilliant effects of which, I well remember, excited wonder and astonishment in the crowded audiences that assembled in the lecture room of that establishment.

The one that is the subject of the present article, promises to be of great utility in the arts, by giving the means of obtaining facsimiles of engraved copper plates, of engravings on wood, of coins, medals, embossings, in short, of any engraved article, whether in cameo or intaglio. The productions by this process have been named _Electrotype_.

This is effected by placing the object to be copied in a solution of any metal, when the galvanic action precipitates the metal from the liquid that held it in solution, upon the engraving that is to be copied. This precipitation or deposition assumes the form of a cake of pure metal, with every line, however delicate, and every inequality, however minute, on its surface, so as to form a matrix or mould in the highest state of perfection.

When the matrix is thus formed, the engraving is withdrawn from the solution of metal, and the matrix substituted; the galvanic action is again renewed; a deposition of the metal upon the matrix now takes place; and the result is, a perfect facsimile of the original.

This is a short sketch of the principle of this discovery. It belongs to chemistry rather than to printing, to explain why the metal is precipitated in a solid mass and not in a fine powder; but such is the fact. The discovery has been applied to the production of facsimiles of engraved copper plates with the most complete success; and as it is now in a state of progress to produce copies of engravings on wood, and pages of types, so as to be applicable to letterpress printing, I will endeavour to give the present state of knowledge with respect to this application of the discovery, the process, and also specimens.

It is said that the discovery of this application of galvanism originated in perceiving a thin deposition of copper at the bottom of a galvanic battery, which, on being removed, displayed on its under surface a perfect cast of the bottom of the cell, and suggested an extended application. Be this as it may, the fact was noticed by Mr. Warren De la Rue, of Bunhill Row, in a communication to the Philosophical Magazine of September, 15, 1836, (vol. 9. p. 484,) where he says, “The zinc plate is always partially covered with a coating of copper, which, however, is not detrimental to the power of the battery: the copper plate is also covered with a coating of metallic copper, which is continually being deposited; and so perfect is the sheet of copper thus formed, that on being stripped off, it has the polish and even a counterpart of every scratch of the plate on which it is deposited.” The discovery of the application is claimed by two persons, M. Jacobi, a Russian, and Mr. Thomas Spencer of Liverpool. The latter presented a pamphlet containing the results of his discovery, and an account of his experiments, to the British Association in 1839, at which time M. Jacobi’s specimens were present and exhibited at the same meeting. Mr. Spencer has since prosecuted his experiments, and liberally given the details and the results to the public, in different publications; so that it is in fact to this latter gentleman that we are indebted for our information on the subject; but as it is now in the hands of a number of persons of ingenuity and ability, who are prosecuting experiments on it, there is little doubt but that it will soon be brought to a state approaching nearly to perfection.

As copper is usually employed for engravings, and is equally applicable to letterpress printing as to that of the rolling press; as it is easily obtained in solution, and is not an expensive article for this purpose, the process as here described is with that metal; other metals have been used for experiments, and it has been stated that articles in silver or gold may be produced with equal facility where facsimiles of them may be required, but the production of them in gold is doubtful.

In the process there are various things to be considered. Among which may be particularly mentioned the fact, that the solidity of the deposited metal entirely depends on the weakness or intensity of the electric action. This action may be regulated by increasing or decreasing the thickness of the plaster of Paris which separates the two metals, and by the coarseness or fineness of the material. Mr. Cooper states, “I made three similar experiments, altering the texture and thickness of the plaster each time, by which I ascertained that if the plaster partitions were thin and coarse, the metallic deposition proceeded with great rapidity, but the crystals were friable and easily separated; on the other hand, if I made the partition thicker, and of a little finer material, the action was much slower, and the metallic deposition was as solid and ductile as copper formed by the usual methods; indeed the action was exceedingly slow. I have made a metallic deposition apparently much harder than common sheet copper; but more brittle.”

A friend of mine used a common garden pot, with a cork in the perforation through the bottom, which answered very well, the copper deposited being fine and tough. I think a wine cooler would be a good vessel for that purpose, being porous; and either may be at hand, when there is not a suitable glass, or any plaster of Paris.

Mr. Crosse has stated, in the account of his experiments on the crystallization of metals, that he succeeded best when the solutions were kept at a boiling temperature; and Mr. Spencer informs us, that by keeping the solutions he employed at a temperature of from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty degrees of Fahrenheit, he was able to abridge the time otherwise required, three or four fold.

In all scientific experiments, care and attention are requisite for a successful result: in this instance, let an uninterrupted circuit be maintained for the electricity, and let the wire have a perfect metallic contact with the plates which it connects; when it is an engraving on wood, bore a hole in the side of the block, and insert the wire in it. The zinc may be with advantage occasionally taken out of the saline solution during the operation, and cleaned in water. In the choice and application of the plates, it is better that they should be, as nearly as possible, of the same size, and it is of importance that the zinc should be as thick as the required deposition of copper, but it is easy when necessary to renew the zinc again and again. That the solution of the sulphate of copper may be continued in the necessary state, crystals of that substance should be occasionally added. When the process is long continued, the solution should be changed, for the sulphuric acid, which is set free by the deposition of the metallic copper, prevents the further action.

This was the first method; the plan now practised, to prevent any stoppage of the galvanic action by an excess of sulphuric acid occasioned by the decomposition of the sulphate of copper and the deposition of its copper in a metallic state, is to put into the acid a piece of copper in connexion with the positive pole, and thus, as the acid is set free by the galvanic action, it forms a new combination with the copper, and continues the supply of the sulphate without the necessity of changing the contents of the vessel.

In obtaining casts by this process, it must be borne in mind, that no metallic deposition can be made by voltaic electricity without the presence of a metallic surface or nucleus upon which to deposit: but this metallic surface should be given only to the part which is to be copied; the sides and bottom of the block may be covered with a varnish composed of shell lac dissolved in spirit of wine, which will prevent any metallic deposition from taking place upon those parts, as also the moisture from penetrating into the wood, and the deposition will in consequence be confined to the engraved surface.

In the management of the simple apparatus which is employed in electrotype, it is necessary to have the binding-screws, wires, and all the metallic surfaces, quite clean and bright, as also to avoid touching with the fingers that part on which the metal is to be deposited.

With regard to the first application of galvanism to the production of facsimiles of engravings on wood, Mr. Spencer states, after the publication of his pamphlet, “The wood engraving being given, take a piece of lead the required size; let its superfice be about one-eighth of an inch larger all round than that of the wood block. The lead must now be planed, just as a piece of soft wood; (the tool termed by a joiner _a try plane_ does best;) a clear bright surface is thus obtained, such as I have been unable to get by any other means. The engraved surface of the wood must now be laid on the planed surface of the lead, and both put carefully in a press; should the engraving have more than two inches of superfices, a copying press is not powerful enough. Whatever press is used, the subject to be copied must be cautiously laid in the centre of the pressure, as a very slight lateral force will in some degree injure the process; the pressure to be applied regularly, and not with a jerk. When the pressure is deemed complete, they may be taken out, and if, on examination, the lead is not found to be completely up, the wood engraving may be neatly relaid on the lead, and again submitted to the press, using the same precaution as before. When the lead is taken out, a wire should be soldered to it immediately, and it should then be put into the apparatus without loss of time, as the less it is subjected to the action of the atmosphere the better: care should also be taken not to touch the surface with the fingers.”

Mr. Spencer also states that plumbers, who have handled lead for the greater portion of their lives, are astonished to find it so susceptible of pressure. On the contrary, wood engravers did not, until now, imagine that their blocks would stand the pressure of a screw press on a lead surface without injury; but such is the fact in both instances. In the manner in which box wood is used for wood engravings, being in horizontal sections, it will sustain a pressure of 8,000 lbs. without injury, provided the pressure is perfectly perpendicular.