Chapter XLIII: Part 43

19. No person to take sorts from the frames or cases of another without leave; nor to hoard useful sorts, not immediately wanting them.

20. No person (except the Master or Overseer) to call off the errand boy while he is sweeping his rooms.

21. No candle to be left by any one, except in charge of some proper person; and the boundaries of the office to be considered, in all cases, the open air.

22. Jobs to be cleared away immediately after notice having been given by the Overseer.

23. These regulations, in cases of extreme hurry of business, by leave from the Master or Overseer, may be suspended; but, when that has ceased, to be immediately resumed.

24. No Compositor to throw for money or liquor.

25. Not to throw letters, quadrats, quoins, or furniture at each other.

_Pressmen._

1. All proofs to be pulled within five minutes after notice, by the Pressmen who are in proofs.

2. Immediately after pulling a proof, the Pressmen to rub over the forms and chases with a lye brush, and place them against the Compositor’s frame to whom they belong, where they are to leave the proof.

3. Not to work without a figure unless particularly ordered.

4. As soon as a form is wrought off, the pressman to carry it to the lye trough, and there completely rub it over with lye, rinse it, and then carry it to the wrought-off place, or to the end of the Compositor’s frame it belongs to.

5. Not to leave the lye jar uncovered.

These rules may be varied to suit the business of the office in which they may be adopted, or the size of the establishment; in practice it will be found essentially necessary to have established rules and regulations, that the business may be carried on with method and good order.

RULES. _See_ BRASS RULE. METAL RULES.

RUN IN THE CARRIAGE.

Running the form under the platen, by turning the rounce.--_M._ This corroborates my opinion that the coffin, plank, &c., and not the long ribs, constitute the carriage, and that it was so understood in the seventeenth century. _See_ CARRIAGE.

RUN OUT.

The running of the carriage from under the platen, by turning the rounce.

RUN OUT FROM COPY.--_M._ _See_ DRIVE OUT. This term is not now used.

RUNIC.

“Authors are much divided, as to the antiquity of the Runic characters; some suppose them to be very ancient, whilst others contend, that they are more modern than the ancient Gothic. Several writers affirm, that they were brought from Asia by the celebrated Woden. Olaus Wormius and Rudbeck contend, that they are older than the Greek. Mr. Wise says, that the Runic letters are found on coins, and on stone monuments, some of which may be near two thousand years old. He also supposes this alphabet to have been exceedingly ancient, and that it was formed from some alphabet of the Greeks, whilst it consisted of sixteen letters only, and before they had left the Eastern way of writing, from the right hand.

“The judicious Celsius was of opinion, that the Runic letters were nothing more than Roman letters, with the curves changed into straight lines, for the ease of engraving on hard substances. The learned and ingenious author of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire says, that the oldest _Runic_ inscriptions are supposed to be of the third century; and he adds, that the most ancient writer, who mentions the Runic characters, is Venantius Fortunatus, who lived towards the end of the sixth century. Our opinion on the evidence before us, is, that the report of Woden having brought the _Runic_ letters from Asia is entirely fabulous; that the tales of Rudbeck and Olaus Wormius, do not deserve the least attention; that Mr. Wise, though a respectable writer, is mistaken as to the antiquity of the Runic letters; that the opinion of the learned Celsius is nearly true, and that the Runic characters are composed partly of ancient Gothic and Greek letters, and partly of Roman, deformed and corrupted, probably by the Necromancers of the north, who used them in their spells and incantations, to which they were greatly addicted. The forms of several Runic letters, compared with the Greek and Gothic alphabets, sufficiently prove this observation. For instance, the Runic F or Fei, is a rude imitation of the Roman F, with the same vocal powers. The O or Oys, is an inverted digamma, with the power of the Roman U, that is of _ou_ or _W_. R or Ridhur, is evidently the Roman R, with the same powers. I or Iis, is the Gothic and Roman I. S or Sol, is a resemblance of the ancient Greek Σ, with the same power. T or Tyr is an imitation of the Greek Tau, or Roman T. B or Biarkan is the Greek Beta, or Roman B; and L or Lagur appears to have been taken from the Grecian Lambda. We are of opinion, that the resemblances above pointed out, sufficiently evince, that the Runic characters are derived from the Greek, Gothic, and Roman letters.

“In the year 1001, the Swedes were persuaded by the Pope to lay aside the Runic letters, and to adopt the Roman in their room. In the year 1115, the Runic letters were condemned in Spain, by the council of Toledo. They were abolished in Denmark in the beginning of the fourteenth century, and in Iceland soon after.

“The order of the old Runic alphabet, which consisted of sixteen letters, was as follows: F, U, D, O, R, K, H, N, I, A, S, T, B, L, M, YR. It is not known when the order of the Runic alphabet was confounded, but we do not suppose that it is of greater antiquity upon that account.”--_Astle._

Milman has the following remarks on the opinion of Gibbon quoted above by Mr. Astle: “The obscure subject of the Runic characters has exercised the industry and ingenuity of the modern scholars of the north. There are three distinct theories; one, maintained by Schlözer (Nordische Geschichte, p. 481, &c.), considers their sixteen letters to be a corruption of the Roman alphabet, post-Christian in their date, and Schlözer would attribute their introduction into the north to the Alemanni. The second, that of Frederick Schlegel (Vorlesungen über alte und neue Literatur), supposes that these characters were left on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Northern Seas by the Phœnicians, preserved by the priestly castes, and employed for purposes of magic. Their common origin from the Phœnician would account for their similarity to the Roman letters. The last, to which we incline, claims a much higher and more venerable antiquity for the Runic, and supposes them to have been the original characters of the Indo-Teutonic tribes, brought from the East, and preserved among the different races of that stock. See Über Deutsche Runen, von W. C. Grimm, 1821. A Memoir by Dr. Legis. Fundgruben des alten Nordens. Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. ix. p. 438.”--_Gibbon, chap._ ix. _note_ ^{16}.

The University of Oxford are in possession of the matrices of a Pica Runic, which is the only one in England.

RUNNING TITLE. _See_ HEAD LINE.

RUNS ON SORTS.

When matter runs much on some few sorts of letters, they say it runs on sorts. _See_ SORTS.--_M._

RUSSIAN.

In the Russian alphabet there are thirty-four letters.

The English letters, made use of in explaining the sound of the Russian characters, are to be pronounced as follows:

ā as in fate.
a as in far.
ē as in me.
é as in met.
e as e mute.
ō as in no.
o as in not.
oo as in mood.
u as in pure.
g as in game.
j as the French j.
z as in zephyr.
ch as the Scotch pronunciation of ch in loch, och! &c.
tch as in fetch.
sh as in shame.

_The Russian Alphabet._

+-----+---------+------------------------------------------------+
| А а | ah, | ex. ба́ба, an old woman, _baba_. |
| | | |
| Б б | bā, | ба́бочка, a butterfly, _babotchka_. |
| | | |
| В в | vā, | вода́, water, _voda_. |
| | | |
| Г г | gā, | годъ, a year, _goad_. |
| | | |
| Д д | dā, | домъ, a house, _dōm_. |
| | | |
| Е е | ā, | ведро́, a pail, _védrō_. |
| | | |
| Ж ж | jā, | жена́, a woman, _jéna_. |
| | | |
| З з | zā, | зо́лото, gold, _zolotō_. |
| | | |
| И и | ē, | видъ, a view, _vēēdd_. |
| | | |
| І і | ē, | used before a vowel only, ex. мнѣніе, opinion, |
| | | _mnānēā_. |
| | | |
| К к | ka, | ex. Коро́ль, a king, _Korole_. |
| | | |
| Л л | él, | ма́ло, little, _malō_. |
| | | |
| М м | ém, | мра́моръ, marble, _mramor_. |
| | | |
| Н н | én, | нашъ, our, _nash_. |
| | | |
| О о | o, | окно́, a window, _oknō_. |
| | | |
| П п | pā, | пе́пелъ, ashes, _pépéll_. |
| | | |
| Р р | r, | ра́но, early, _ranō_. |
| | | |
| С с | s, | спасе́ніе, salvation, _spasānēā_. |
| | | |
| Т т | tā, | тве́рдость, hardness, _tvérdoste_. |
| | | |
| У у | oo, | у̀тро, morning, _ootrō_. |
| | | |
| Ф ф | éf, | флагъ, a flag, _flagg_. |
| | | |
| Х х | kha, | a guttural sound, resembling the Scotch |
| | | pronunciation of ch in loch, &c., ex. |
| | | хитрость, cunning, _chēētroste_. |
| | | |
| Ц ц | tsā, | (a combination of т and с,) ex. Царь, a king, |
| | | _tsar_. |
| | | |
| Ч ч | tcha, | ex. человѣкъ, a man, _tchélovayk_. |
| | | |
| Ш ш | sha, | шерсть, wool, _schārste_. |
| | | |
| Щ щ | sh-tcha,| (a combination of ш and ч) ex. ще́дрость, |
| | | bounty, _sh-tchédroste_. |
| | | |
| ъ | yerr, | used at the end of words terminating in a |
| | | consonant, to which it gives a hard sound, |
| | | ex. столъ, a table, stoll. |
| | | |
| ы | uē, | guttural, ex. рыба, a fish, _rue͡ba_. |
| | | |
| ь | yāre, | used at the end of words terminating in a |
| | | consonant, to which it gives a soft sound, |
| | | nearly corresponding to the English e mute, |
| | | ex. ра́дость, joy, _radoste_. |
| | | |
| Ѣ ѣ | yā, | ex. рѣка́, a river, _rāyka_. |
| | | |
| Э э | ē, | эконо́мъ, a land-steward, _ékōnom_. |
| | | |
| Ю ю | you, | ю̀ноша, a youth, _younosha_. |
| | | |
| Я я | ya, | я̀рость, fury, _yaroste_. |
| | | |
| Ө ө | fā, | ариөме́тика, arithmetic, _arēfmétēka_. |
+-----+---------+------------------------------------------------+

Most of the above letters invariably retain their proper sound, the following however are subject to slight variations.

Г, gā. In some instances bears the sound of a strongly aspirated h: герои, a hero, _héroy_; генералъ, a general, _héneral_; Господь, Lord, _Hospod_, and in the terminations of adjectives and pronouns, in the genitive case, may be pronounced either as v or h, его, yāho or _yāvo_; что новаго? what news, tchtō nōvahō, or _nōvavō_?

Е, ā. At the commencement of words bears the sound of yā, ex. есть, it is, _yaste_; едва, scarcely, _yādva_. When it precedes two consonants, or a consonant followed by the hard sign, ъ, it generally bears the sound of yeo, as in yeoman, the accent falling upon o, ex. медъ, honey, _meo͡dd_; ленъ, flax, _leo͡nn_; орелъ, an eagle, _oreo͡ll_.

ѣ, yā. Is pronounced like yā at the commencement of a word, and like ā in the middle or at the end, ex. ѣхать, to ride, _yachat_; лѣнорть, idleness, _lānoste_; на столъ, on the table, _na stollāy_.

There are eleven vowels in the Russian alphabet, which are divided into hard and soft.

Hard а, о, у, э, ы. Soft я, е, ю, и, ѣ.

In the combination of vowels with consonants, they are subject to the
following variations:

The letter ы following г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, or щ changes into u
-- я -- г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- a
-- ю -- г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- y
-- о -- ж, ч, ш, щ, or ц -- e
-- е -- г, к, or х -- o
-- и before another vowel -- i

The only diphthongs in the Russian language are those formed by the combination of и with the other vowels: ай, ей, ій, ой, ый, яй. When и occurs without the ̆ it must be pronounced separately from the vowel, which precedes it, ex. воиин, a warrior, _vo-een_. Whenever two vowels occur together in a word (excepting the above-mentioned diphthongs) each bears its full and separate sound, ex. воображеніе, imagination, _vō-ob-ra-jā-nē-ā_--_A Practical Grammar of the Russian Language, by James Heard._ _2 Parts, 12mo._ _St. Petersburg_, 1827.

RUTHVEN’S PRESS.

Ruthven’s patent press differs materially from all others. Instead of the form of types being rolled under the platen, and back again when the impression has been made, the type form remains stationary upon the iron table, the platen is drawn over it, and the impression is obtained by means of a lever working vertically like the handle of a pump, and acting by connecting levers upon both sides of the platen, so as to draw it down with ease and effect. It is a good and powerful press, but the head and platen are heavy and require exertion to push them back off the form, and more particularly as the ribs, if the grooves in which the wheels attached to the head and platen travel may be so called, form an inclined plane, which causes the platen to come forward over the form with but little exertion.

S.

SAMARITAN.

It is the opinion of many of the most eminent Hebrew scholars, that this alphabet is the one made use of by the ancient Hebrews, and with which Moses himself wrote the Pentateuch; and that the Hebrew letters at present in use are those of the Chaldees of Babylon, introduced by Ezra in consequence of the Jews having forgotten their own characters during the Captivity. It agrees with the Hebrew and Syriac, in respect to the number and power of the letters, though it differs as to their forms, as may be seen from the annexed table:

+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+
| | | | | Hebrew |
| Figure. | Name. | Power. | Number. |Characters.|
+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+
| ࠀ | Alaph | Spiritus lenis. | 1. | א |
| ࠁ | Beth | B _or_ Bh. | 2. | ב |
| ࠂ | Gamal | G _or_ Gh. | 3. | ג |
| ࠃ | Dalath | D _or_ Dh. | 4. | ד |
| ࠄ | He | H. | 5. | ה |
| ࠅ | Vau | V _or_ U. | 6. | ו |
| ࠆ | Zain | Z. | 7. | ז |
| ࠇ | Cheth | Hh. | 8. | ח |
| ࠈ | Teth | T. | 9. | ט |
| ࠉ | Jud | J. | 10. | י |
| ࠊ | Caph | C _or_ Ch. | 20. | כ |
| ࠋ | Lamad | L. | 30. | ל |
| ࠌ | Mim | M. | 40. | מ |
| ࠍ | Nun | N. | 50. | נ |
| ࠎ | Semchat | S. | 60. | ס |
| ࠏ | Ain | Gn. | 70. | ע |
| ࠐ | Pe | P _or_ Ph. | 80. | פ |
| ࠑ | Tzade | Tz. | 90. | צ |
| ࠒ | Kuph | K. | 100. | ק |
| ࠓ | Risch | R. | 200. | ר |
| ࠔ | Schin | S _or_ Sch. | 300. | שׂ שׁ |
| ࠕ | Thau | T _or_ Th. | 400. | ת |
+---------+---------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+

It will be readily perceived that this is one of the most simple of the Oriental alphabets, as there are no initials or medials, as is the case with the Arabic and Syriac; there are no letters lengthened for the sake of ornament, as in the Hebrew and Chaldee; and there are no finals.

With respect to pronunciation, ࠀ ࠇ and ࠏ seem to differ very little from each other, if we may judge from their frequent permutation.

In writing the numbers, they follow the Hebrew system of notation, with this exception, that for 15 they use both ࠄࠉ (10 and 5) with the Syrians, and ࠅࠈ (9 and 6) with the Jews.

The Samaritans are altogether destitute of vowel points, and their power is to be collected from the cognate languages.

The quiescents are the same in Samaritan as in Hebrew and Chaldee, namely, four, ࠀ, ࠄ, ࠅ, ࠉ. The situations and the points, by which each becomes quiescent, are the same as in Hebrew.

The Samaritans use also certain points and lines in writing, partly for the sake of distinction, and partly of abbreviation. The points are as follow:--

1. A thick point placed near the top of the letter distinguishes
one word from another, thus ࠰ࠄࠄࠋࠀ ࠰ࠓࠌࠀࠅ _and God said_.

2. An imperfect sentence is indicated by two transverse points,
in this manner, ࠰࠰ࠌࠉࠌࠋ _saying_--

3. A period or perfect sentence is marked by two perpendicular
points, thus, ࠱ࠄࠌࠅࠄࠕ ࠰ࠉࠐࠀ ࠰ࠋࠏ _upon the face of the deep_.

4. The beginning of every verse is marked by an asterisk, as,
-¦-ࠅࠀࠌࠓ࠰ࠀࠋࠄ࠰ _And God said_.

5. In long paragraphs a third point is added to the period, thus,
¦-, and in order to point off sections various lines are made
use of,as :>-, ¦-—, in which much is left to fancy.

A line drawn above a letter denotes:--

1. That words with two meanings must not be received in their
more general signification, as, ࠓࠓࠓ̅ࠓ bedebher, _in pestilence_,
not ࠓࠓࠓࠓ bedabhar, _in a word_; ࠌࠔ̅ _Sem_, for a proper name,
not an appellative; ࠋࠀ̅ _El_, for the name of God, and not the
preposition.

2. Apocope, or elision of a letter, as, ࠕ̅ࠀ for ࠄࠕࠀ atta,
_thou_; ࠏ̅ࠔࠉࠅ for ࠄࠏࠔࠉࠅ _and he looked back_.

3. The mark of a quiescent letter, as, ࠉࠅ̅ࠔ _he placed_.

4. The substitution of one letter for another, as, ࠕ̅ࠌࠔ for
ࠔࠌࠄ _his name_.

The preceding observations are abridged from the “Synopsis Institutionum Samaritanarum” of George Otho, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1707.

_Samaritan in the British Founderies._

_English._ Oxford.

_Pica._ Caslon. Grover, to James, to Fry, to Thorowgood and
Besley; cut for Walton’s Polyglot.

_Small Pica._ Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.

SANSKRITA. The term _Sanskṛita_ seems to have been given to the language so called by way of pre-eminence, and to distinguish it from the vulgar dialects called _Prākṛita_. The former is an epithet implying elegance and perfection, and the latter the contrary.

Several of the provinces of India have alphabets distinct from each other, in which they not only write their particular dialects, but even _Sanskṛita_. Indeed most of the alphabets, properly Indian, agree in the number, order, and power of their letters, with the _Dēva-nāgari_, the one here used, because it is that in which _Sanskṛita_ is most commonly written, and which is the most elegant and approved.

All languages of the Hindu class are read from left to right.

THE ALPHABET.

अ _a_, आ _ā_; इ _i_, ई _ī_; उ _u_, ऊ _ū_; ऋ _ri_, ॠ _ṛī_; ऌ _ḷri_,

ॡ _ḷrī_; ए _ē_, ऐ _ai_; ओ _ō_, औ _au_; ं _am_, ः _ah_.

+------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+
| क _ka_, | ख _kha_; | ग _ga_, | घ _gha_; | ङ _nga_. |
| | | | | |
| च _cha_, | छ _ch’ha_; | ज _ja_, | झ _jha_; | ञ _ṇya_. |
| | | | | |
| ट _ṭa_, | ठ _ṭha_; | ड _ḍa_, | ढ _ḍha_, | ण _ṇa_. |
| | | | | |
| त _ta_, | थ _tha_; | द _da_, | ध _dha_; | न _na_. |
| | | | | |
| प _pa_, | फ _pha_; | ब _ba_, | भ _bha_; | म _ma_. |
| | | | | |
| य _ya_, | र _ra_; | ल _la_, | व _va_. | |
| | | | | |
| ष _ṣa_, | श _sha_; | स _sa_, | ह _ha_. | [#] _ksha_. |
+------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+

In speaking of the letters individually, it is the practice to use the term कार: _kārah_ (make, form) after each of their names as here exhibited: thus the vowel अ _a_, is called अकार: _a-kārah_; and the consonant क _ka_, ककार: _ka-kārah_.

OF THE VOWELS.

The simple vowels are reckoned five; for which there are ten characters: अ _a_, इ _i_, उ _u_, ऋ _ṛi_, ऌ _ḷri_, to denote the short sounds; and आ _ā_, ई _ī_, ऊ _ū_, ॠ _ṛī_, ॡ _ḷrī_ their corresponding long sounds, which are directed to be held twice the time of the short.

Most of the vowels, occasionally, assume a very different shape from that exhibited in the alphabet, which the following arrangement may serve to explain.

_As Initials._

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ॠ ऌ ॡ ए ऐ ओ औ

_As Medials and Finals._

ऻ ि ी ु ू ृ ॄ ॖ ॗ े ै ो ौ

_Initials, Medials, and Finals, in composition with a Consonant._

अक _aka_, आका _ākā_, इकि _iki_, ईकी _īkī_, उकु _uku_, ऊकू _ūkū_, ऋकृ _ṛikṛi_, ॠकॄ _ṛīkṛī_,

ऌकॢ _ḷrikḷri_, ॡकॣ _ḷrīkḷrī_, एके _ēkē_, ऐकै _aikai_, ओको _ōkō_, औकौ_aukau_.

In this manner the vowels may be combined with any other consonant.

As the letters have the same powers in composition which are given to them in the alphabet, and do not, as in our language, change their sound with their situation, a few observations on the pronunciation of each character in due order, may enable a person to read with tolerable accuracy and ease.

अ _a_, the first letter in the alphabet, has that obscure short sound which the French give to _e_, in the particle _le_, and which is very common in our language, though there be no distinct character for it; as in the words _money_, _honey_, and some others, where it is represented by _o_; and in _but_, _shut_, and the like, where _u_ is the substitute. The letter अ never makes its appearance but as an initial; for when the sound of it is required after a consonant, as a medial or final, it is pronounced with it as in the alphabet; it being an invariable rule, that every open consonant, not followed by another vowel, must be pronounced as if अ _a_ were written after it.

आ _ā_ should have the same sound as is given to the former, held twice the length. It occurs, as a medial, in the word काला _kāla_, Time, the first syllable of which is pronounced nearly like the English word _call_. As a medial and final its character is [#].

इ _i_, and ई _ī_, are two characters to note the sound which the Italians give to the vowel _i_. The former is to be pronounced short, like _ee_ in _meet_ (encounter), and the latter long, like the same letters in _meet_ (fit). After a consonant, as a medial and final, as has been already observed, they are changed to ि and ी , which are placed as in the words मणि: _manih_, A jewel, and देवी _dēvī_, A goddess.

उ _u_, and ऊ _ū_, are to be articulated like _oo_ in the English words _foot_, and _fool_. After a consonant they are usually subjoined; as in पुत्र: _putrah_, A son, and भू: _bhūh_, The earth; but occasionally, particularly after र _r_, on the side, thus रु _ru_, रू _rū_.

ऋ _ṛi_, and ॠ _ṛī_. The first of these sounds short, somewhat like _ri_ in _rit_; and the second is the same held twice as long. ॠ _ṛi_ short occurs in ऋत _ṛita_, Right, True. The other is very rarely used, except it be in the oblique cases of some nouns. In our characters a dot under the _ṛ_ may serve to distinguish them from the syllables रि _ri_ and री _rī_. As medials or finals they are always placed under their consonants, in this form, नृ _nṛi_, नॄ _nṛī_.

ऌ _ḷri_, and ॡ _ḷrī_. The short power is found in the word कॢप्त _kḷripta_, which the learned of Bengal soften into _kḷipta_, and which, probably, is the true pronunciation of it. The long form seldom, if ever, occurs but in grammars. Here too a dot under the _ḷ_ will serve as a distinction, when we would explain them.

ए _ē_, though classed among diphthongs, differs not from the simple sound of _e_ in _where_; and so it is pronounced in [###] _dēvah_, A god. It is said to be a compound of अ _a_ and इ _i_.

ऐ _ai_ is a diphthong, and is always sounded as the letter _i_ in our alphabet; but it will be better to represent it by _ai_. There is an example of it in the word रै: _raih_, Wealth.

ओ _ō_ differs not from our o held long, as in _stone_; though it is said to be a diphthong composed of अ _a_ and उ _u_.

औ _au_ is decidedly a diphthong, having the power of _ow_ in the word _how_; which in these letters would be written thus, हौ _hau_.

Here properly end the vowels, for ं _am_, and : _ah_, are, correctly speaking, rather substitutes for the nasals, and ह _ha_, when silent, at the end of a syllable. They are called अनुस्वार: _anuswārah_, and विसर्ग: _visargah_. The one occurs in the pronouns अहं _aham_, I, and त्वं _twam_, Thou, and the other in स: _sah_, He.

OF THE CONSONANTS.

The first five-and-twenty consonants are distributed into five classes, in the plural number called वर्गा: _vargāh_; in speaking of which, they are named after the first letter of each class: the first class being called कवर्ग: _ka-vargah_, the class of क _ka_; the second चवर्ग: _cha-vargah_, the class of च _cha_; and so for the rest. Some grammarians use the first letter of each class combined with उ, to denote all the letters in each class respectively, as, कु _ku_, for the first; चु _chu_, for the second; टु _ṭu_, for the third; तु _tu_, for the fourth; and पु _pu_, for the fifth class.

_The First Class, or Gutturals, क ख ह घ ङ._

क _ka_ has the precise sound of hard _c_, but is better expressed by _k_, the power of which not being liable to change.

ख _kha_ has the same sound uttered with greater force, as if combined with the letter ह _ha_. Ignorant transcribers are very apt to confound it with the letter श _sha_.

ग _ga_ is the hard _g_, as sounded in _gun_.

घ _gha_ is the same aspirated.

ङ _nga_ is equivalent to _ng_ in _king_. Generally speaking, every other nasal is resolved into this, before any letter of this class; or, at least, to be pronounced like it. In Dēva-nāgari manuscripts, it is, when silent, for the most part represented by the single dot [ं] अनुस्वार: _anuswāra_.

च छ ज छ ञ _The Second Class, or Palatals, च छ ज छ ञ._

च _cha_ has the exact power we express by _ch_, as in _church_.

छ _ch’ha_ is the former aspirated.

ज _ja_ has the power of _g_ soft, as in _Giles_; but will be more certainly expressed by _j_, as in _James_.

छ _jha_ is the aspirate of the former.

ञ _ṇa_. This is the proper nasal of this class, which in composition is sounded rather softer than ङ _nga_, It seems to be formed by pressing the whole breadth of the tongue into the hollow of the palate, the tip turned downwards, and forcing the sound through the nose, with the mouth open. It is chiefly used before letters of its own class; but in Dēva-nāgari manuscripts, as is the case with the other nasals, it is generally expressed by [ं] _anuswārah_. It seldom appears with another consonant immediately before, or a vowel after it: indeed there are but few instances of it, (except in grammatical compositions,) one of which is in the root ज्ञा _jnā_, signifying _know_, and its derivatives, where the character ज्ञ is said to be a compound of ज _ja_ and ञ _ṅa_, the just articulation of which is found so difficult, and the sound so harsh, that it is frequently softened into _gyā_, as if written ग्या. As the sound of ण before another consonant approaches nearer to that of _n_ than any other letter, it may be represented by it, with a mark over it, thus, _ṅ_.

_The Third Class, or Cerebrals, ट ठ ड ढ ण._

This series of consonants is pronounced by turning and applying the tip of the tongue far back against the palate; which producing a hollow sound, as if proceeding from the head, it is distinguished by the term मूर्द्धन्य _mūrddhanya_, which Mr. Halhed, in his Grammar of the Bengal Language, has translated _cerebral_.

ट _ṭa_ has the sound of _t_, articulated as above directed.

ठ _ṭha_ is the same aspirated.

ड _ḍa_ differs from the common _d_ only in the above particular. In Bengal it is generally pronounced like a very obtuse _r_.

ढ _ḍha_ is the same aspirated.

ण _ṇa_ is distinguished from the common _n_ by the manner of producing it, as above.

In our letters those of this class may be conveniently expressed by a dot under ṭ, ḍ, ṇ.

_The Fourth Class, or Dentals, त थ द ध न._

त _ta_ is the common dental _t_.

थ _tha_ is the former aspirated.

द _da_ has the power of our _d_.

ध _dha_ is the aspirate of द _da_.

न _na_ is the common _n_. It is sometimes, like the other nasals, represented by _anuswāra_ [ं].

_The Fifth Class, or Labials, प फ ब भ म._

प _pa_ corresponds with _p_.

फ _pha_ is the former aspirated. In writing foreign words with these characters, this letter is used for the sound of _f_.

ब _ba_. This letter is very often confounded with व _va_. Its power is that of _b_.

भ _bha_ is the aspirate of ब _ba_.

म _ma_ is _m_. When silent it is often expressed by [ं] _anuswāra_; as in संवत् _samvat_, A year, an æra.

_The Semi-Vowels, य र ल व._

य _ya_. This letter, which is a palatal, like our _y_ (with which it corresponds), is often put in the place of इ _i_ and ई _ī_. Its proper power is that of _y_ in _yarn_; but in Bengal they generally pronounce it as we do _j_, confounding it with ज _ja_.

र _ra_ is our _r_. It is esteemed a _cerebral_. In composition it frequently assumes two other forms. In the middle of a word, immediately preceding another consonant, it is mounted upon its head in this shape [#], when it is optional in the writer to double the letter with which it so coalesces: as in the word कार्य्य _kāryya_, An affair, which is pronounced _kārya_. After a consonant it is always subjoined in this shape [#], as in the word प्रकार _prakāra_, A sort or manner. This letter, in grammars, is generally called रेफ _rēpha_.

ल _la_ answers to our _l_. It is ranked among _dentals_.

व _va_ is generally pronounced like _v_, and is then a dento-labial; but when subjoined to another consonant, it is often necessarily articulated as our _w_, it being then frequently the natural substitute for उ _u_ before another vowel; as द्वौ _ḍwau_, Two.

_The Sibilants and Aspirate, ष ष स ह._

ष _ṣa_. The proper sound of this letter is produced by applying the tip of the tongue to the fore-part of the palate, and passing the voice as in pronouncing our _s_, from which it may be distinguished by a dot under it, thus, _ṣ_. It is a _palatal_.

ष _sha_ is generally pronounced as _sh_ in _shoe_; but in the western parts of India it is frequently articulated like, and confounded with ख _kha_. It is a _cerebral_.

स _sa_ has precisely the power of _s_ in Saint, and is esteemed a _dental_.

ह _ha_ is _h_. At the end of a word, when silent, it is represented by [ः] _visarga_. It is classed among gutturals. This properly is the last letter in the alphabet, [#] _ksha_, as before observed, being a compound character.

There is another letter, not usually given in the Dēva-nāgar alphabet, in this form, ॡ, which seems to have a power similar to that of the surd, or Welsh _ll_. It occurs in the _Vēdas_, and is included in some of the provincial alphabets.

OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS.

The sound of अ _a_, it has been already mentioned, is given to every open consonant, not followed by another vowel; but as it must often happen that a word ends with a consonant, or that two or more consonants meet together without a vowel between them, it is proper the learner should know what is done in these two cases. If a word terminates in a consonant, the vowel is cut off by a small mark of elision, such as is seen under क _ka_ in the word वाक् _vāk_, Speech, which written without it, thus, वाक, would be pronounced _vāka_. If two or more consonants meet together, it is a general rule that they coalesce, and form a compound character. Sometimes it so happens that the simple letters are not to be traced in the compound, instances of which occur in [#] _ksha_, and क्ष _jṅa_, which are composed of क and श, and ज and ण; but, in general, the shapes of the letters are so little altered, that they may be easily discriminated. There are several modes of forming these compounds: sometimes it is found convenient to put one letter under the other, and at others to blend them together, thus, द्ध; but the most usual way is to place them in their natural order, yet so that their bodies, as well as heads, may be in contact, omitting the final upright stroke of every letter that has one, except the last. In the word कार्त्स्न्यं _kārtsnyam_, Wholeness, there is a coalition of no less than five consonants; namely, र, त, स, न, and य; _ra_, in a new shape, is mounted upon the head, and त _ta_, स _sa_, and न _na_, deprived of their upright strokes, thus, [#] [#] [#], are connected, and finally united to य _ya_. A little practice will render this subject familiar to the learner.

OF EXTRANEOUS CHARACTERS.

One stroke, thus [#], or two, thus [#], serve to divide hemistichs and distichs.

A sort of sigma, in this shape, [#], is frequently used as an apostrophe, to show that a vowel has been dropped by rule.

A character like a crescent, with a dot between its horns, thus, ँ, is occasionally put over a consonant, which by the rules of orthography has been substituted for a nasal.

In the _Vēda_ other diacritical marks are used, which do not occur in common books. A small perpendicular line over a vowel, thus अ॑, denotes that it is to be pronounced _high_; a parallel line drawn under a vowel, thus अ॒, denotes that it should be pronounced _low_; and a curved line over a vowel, thus [#], indicates that it must be pronounced in a manner to partake of both the former. The intention of these three marks seems to be the same as what was originally designed by the acute, the grave, and the circumflex accents. A figure of three is sometimes put after a vowel, thus अ३, or three lines over it, thus [#], to show that it is to be held longer than usual, as in calling, or crying.

Two dots, thus ः, called _visarga_ (विसर्ग:), are used to denote a final [#]. They are occasionally represented in this manner [#].

A single dot over a letter, thus अं, is called _anuswārah_ (अनुस्वार:), and denotes a final nasal.

The numerical figures are,

१ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ ०
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

In the _Vēdas_, the character for ं _anuswāra_, before व, स, ह, and र, is in this form, [#]; so for [###] is written [###].

_A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, by Charles Wilkins, LL.D. F.R.S._ 4_to._ 1808.

_Sanskrit in the British Founderies._

_English._ Caslon; cut for Dr. Wilkins, Oriental Librarian to the
East India Company.

SAW. A small thin saw, with a back to strengthen it, to cut furniture with. I would have the blade much narrower than it generally is, so broad only as to cut fairly through the furniture, before the back stops it from cutting deeper by resting on the saw block; it would then prevent the saw block from being cut so much as it generally is in a careless manner, sometimes even through at the front, till the saw comes in contact with the stone, and is spoiled.

SAW BLOCK. A piece of wood on which to cut furniture to certain lengths; it is similar to a carpenter’s mitre block, with the addition of a cut at right angles. The customary place for using it is on the fore edge of the imposing stone.

SAXON, or ANGLO-SAXON. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet contains twenty-three letters; Q not being originally a Saxon letter.

+-------------+-----------------------+
| Form. | Sound. |
| [A] A a | _a_ as in b_a_r |
| B b | _b_ |
| [C] C c | _c_ as in _ch_oice |
| D ꝺ | _d_ |
| [E] E e | _e_ as in f_e_int |
| F ꝼ | _f_ |
| [G] G ᵹ | _g_ as in _g_em |
| [H] H h | _h_ |
| I ı | _i_ |
| K k | _k_ |
| L l | _l_ |
| [M] M m | _m_ |
| N n | _n_ |
| O o | _o_ |
| P p | _p_ |
| R ꞃ | _r_ |
| [S] S ꞅ | _s_ |
| T ꞇ | _t_ |
| Ð Þ ð þ | _th_ |
| U u | _u_ |
| Ƿ ƿ | _w_ |
| X x | _x_ |
| Y ẏ | _y_ |
| Z z | _z_ |
+-------------+-----------------------+

For anꝺ the Saxons used these abbreviations, ⁊ and [#]; for þaꞇ and þæꞇ they wrote ꝥ; and for oððe _or_, and the termination lıce _ly_, they wrote ł; as ł or; and ꞅoðł for ꞅoðlıce _truly_.

[_Note._] We also find uł for _or_; Ƿıłłm. for Ƿıllelm, William; and [H]æł, for [H]ælenꝺ, _Jesus_; ł stands for leoꝼeꞅꞇan, φίλτατοι, amicissimi, _most friendly_ or _beloved_; apł, ap̃, or ap°, for apoꞅole, _an apostle_; apłar, _apostles_; [H]ieꞃłm, _Jerusalem_,; ꞅcıł, _a shilling_, _money_.

When an m was omitted, they made a short stroke over the preceding letter; as þā for þam.

[_Note._] There are many other abbreviations and connectives; such as æꝼꞇ̃ æꝼꞇeꞃ, _after_; allm̃ allmıhꞇıᵹ, _almighty_; am̃, amen; ancen, ancenneꝺe, _only begotten_; b, b̵, bıꞅc̃, bıꞅcop, _a bishop_; bꞃoð, bꞃođ, bꞃoþeꞃn, _brethren_; caꞃc̃, caꞃceꞃne, _a prison_; cꝼꞇ, [#], Cꞃıꞅꞇ, xꞃeꞅ, Cꞃıꞅꞇeꞅ, _Christ, Christ’s_; c̃ƿ, cƿæð, _saith_; [#] for ꝺæᵹ, _a day_; ꝺꝺ, ꝺđ, _David_; ꝺꞃīh, ꝺꞃıhꞇ̃, _Lord_; ꝺñꞅ ꝺꞃıhꞇneꞅ, _Lords_; ꝼ̃ ꝼoꞃ, _for, on account of_; ᵹ̃, ᵹeaꞃe, _a year_; Iħr, Ihc̃, _Jesus_; ꞅ. [M]. ꞅeınꞇe [M]aꞃıe, _St. Mary_; ꞅ. p. _St. Peter_; ƿũꞇ, ƿuꞇoꝺlıce, _certainly_, &c. See Thwaites, p. 1.

In studying the Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is of great consequence to remark, that the inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time through successive ages; the existence of the three great dialects, and their frequent intermixture; the variety of Anglo-Saxon writers, and their little acquaintance with each other; but, above all, their total disregard of any settled rules of orthography; have occasioned many irregularities in the language, and thrown difficulties in the way of the learner, which at first sight appear truly formidable; but, on closer inspection, these difficulties present no insuperable obstacle.

The principal difficulty consists in this: The Anglo-Saxon writers often confounded some letters, and used them indifferently for each other. This is the case to a most surprising extent with the vowels and diphthongs; so that the consonants, though often treated in the same manner, form the only part of the language which possesses any thing like a fixed and permanent character.

_Remarks on the Change of the Consonants required for derivation and declension._

B.

B, F, or U, are often interchanged; as

Bebeꞃ, beꝼoꞃ, _a beaver_. Iꝼıᵹ, ıueᵹ _ivy_. Obeꞃ, oꝼeꞃ, oueꞃ, _over_. [E]bolꞅan, eꝼolꞅan _to blaspheme_. Foꞇ, uoꞇ _a foot_.

C.

C often interchanges with G, K and Q; as

Ðonceꞅ, þonᵹeꞅ _thoughts_. [C]ẏð, kẏð _kindred_. [C]ẏnınᵹ, kẏnınᵹ _a king_. Aceꞃ, Akeꞃ _a field_. [C]ƿen, quen, _a queen, wife, &c._

C and CC are also often changed into H, or Hh, before ꞅ or ð, and especially before ꞇ; as Sꞇꞃehꞇon _they strewed_, for ꞅꞇꞃecꞇon, from ꞅꞇꞃeccan. Ahꞅıan for acꞅıan or axıan _to ask_. ꞅehđ for ꞅecđ _seeks_, from ꞅecan _to seek_.

In Dan. Sax. C changes into ᵹ, h, hƿ and k; and ch changes into h.

D.

D and T are often used indiscriminately for each other, and Ð is changed into ꝺ, especially in verbs; as ꞅeođan _to boil_ or _seeth_; ꞅoꝺen _boiled_, ıc cƿæđ _I said_; þu cƿæ đe _thou saidst_. he ƿẏꞃđ _he is_ or _becomes_; þu ƿuꞃꝺe _thou becomest_.

F.

In Dan. Sax. F changes into b and p.

G.

G is often changed into h and ƿ; as [H]eꞃeꞇoha for heꞃeꞇoᵹa _a leader_; Dahum for ꝺaᵹum _with days_; Geꞅƿıᵹan _to be silent_; ᵹeꞅuƿoꝺe _he was silent_ or _dumb_; ꞅoꞃh for ꞅoꞃᵹe _sorrow_.

G interchanges with I and Y, when I has a sort of a consonant sound; as ᵹeo, ıeo or ıu _yore, formerly_; ᵹeoᵹuđ, ıeoᵹuđ _youth_; ᵹeoc, ıoc or ıuc _yoke_.

G is often suppressed before n, or ᵹn lengthened into ᵹen; as þẏꞅıᵹne, Þẏꞅıne from þyꞅꞅ or þıꞅ _this_, and ænıᵹne, aenıne, from aenıᵹ _any_. G is often added to words that end with ı, as hıᵹ for hı _they_; and on the contrary G is often omitted in those words which end in ıᵹ; as ꝺꞃı for ꝺꞃıᵹ or ꝺꞃẏᵹ, _dry_.

In Dan. Sax. G is sometimes dropped, or changed into C, H, or K; and GS into X.

H.

[H] is sometimes changed into ᵹ; as þaᵹ for þah _he grew_ or _throve_, from þean _to grow_.

In Dan. Sax. [H] is sometimes added to words, and sometimes dropped; or it is changed into c, ᵹ, ch, or k; and [H]u into ƿ.

K.

The Saxons originally expressed the sound of the modern K by C. As C also stood for a soft sound, it was difficult to know when it was to be sounded hard, and when soft. To remove this difficulty, the Danes and Normans introduced the letter K to denote the hard sound of C.

L.

L and N are often written double or single without any distinction at the end of monosyllables; but this reduplication ceases when words are lengthened, so that a consonant follows; as ƿell or ƿel _well_; ealle or al _all_ (omnis); ealne, _all_ (omnem); also ıc ꞅẏlle, þu ꞅẏlꞅꞇ, he ꞅylđ, _I sell_, _thou_, &c.

In Dan. Sax. L is sometimes put for R.

M and N.

In Dan. Sax. these two letters are sometimes interchangeable; and N is occasionally dropped.

P.

The Saxon p and ƿ are easily mistaken for each other, both in MSS. and on coins; and even in printed books great care is sometimes necessary to distinguish these letters.

In Dan. Sax. P changes occasionally into B and U.

Q.

Q is not an original Saxon letter, and very seldom occurs in MSS.; Cw and Cu were commonly employed where Q is now used.

R.

R in Dan. Sax. is occasionally added to words, and is sometimes changed into L.

S.

S and Z are merely variations of the same original letter. The Z is only the S hard.

In Dan. Sax. Ss, Ð, or X are sometimes substituted for S.

T.

T in Dan. Sax. occasionally changes into D and Ð.

W.

In Dan. Sax. W changes into F and Ui; We into oe, u, ue; Wi, into u, uu; Wa, into uıæ, ƿæ; Wr, into war; and Wu, into u.

X.

X is sometimes supplied by cꞅ; as neoꞃcꞅen for neoꞃxen _quiet_. In Dan. Sax. X interchanges with S.

Z.

Z is only the S hard. See S.

_Remarks on the Vowels and Diphthongs._

If the consonants,--those natural sinews of words and language,--suffer such changes, it may safely be presumed, that those flexible and yielding symbols, the vowels, would be exposed to still greater confusion; a confusion almost sufficient to induce one to imagine that they are of no weight or authority, in Anglo-Saxon orthography.

A.

A kind of Italic a is much used in Anglo-Saxon MSS. Where we now use A or E, the diphthongs Æ, Œ, and Ea continually occur in Anglo-Saxon; but Œ more frequently in Dan. Sax.

The vowel A and its diphthongs thus interchange.

A and O. See under O.

A and Æ: as ac, æc _an oak_; aceꞃ, æceꞃ _a field_; habban _to have_, ıc hæbbe _I have_; ꞅꞇan _a stone_; ꞅꞇænen _stony_; laꞃ _doctrine_; læꞃan _to teach_; an _one_; æniᵹ _any one_.

Æ and EA: as æ, ea _water_; æc, eac _eternal_.

Æ and Œ: as aeᵹhƿeꞃ, ceᵹhƿeꞃ _everywhere_; aeᵹhƿilc, oeᵹhƿilc _every one_.

Æ and Y: as ælc, ẏlc _each one_.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:--A, æ, e, ea, o, eo; Æ, e, ıe, œ, o, ea, ue.

E.

E interchanges with [Æ]. It is often added to the end of Anglo-Saxon words where it does not naturally belong, and it is as often rejected where it does.

Eo is changed into ẏ and e, and ea into e, but more usually into ẏ.

[E]aðe, eðe _easily_; and ceaᵹreꞃ, cereeꞃ _a castle_.

[S]eolꝼ, ꞅelꝼ, ꞅẏlꝼ _self_; ꞅẏllan, ꞅellan _to give, sell_, &c.

Neah near; nehꞅꞇ _nearest_; ealꝺ _old_; ꞅe ẏlꝺꞃa _the elder_; ƿealꝺan _to rule_, he ƿelꞇ or ƿẏlꞇ _he rules_; leaꞅ _loose_, lẏꞅan _to loose_; ᵹeleaꝼa _belief_, ᵹelẏꝼan _to believe_.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:--E, a, eo, ce, O, u, as, ea, ẏ; ea, eo, ı, ẏ; eau, eoƿ; ee, e; eı, œ, ı; eo, a, e, ı, ıƿ, u; eu, ẏƿ.

I.

I is interchanged with e and y; as

Iᵹlanb, eᵹlanb, ẏᵹlanb _an island_; eꝼel, ẏᵹel _evil_; ıꞃþımᵹ, eaꞃþımᵹ, ẏꞃþlınᵹ _a farmer_; ꞃen _rain_, ꞃınan _to rain_; beꞃnan _to burn_, bẏꞃnan _to set on fire_; cƿeþan _to say_, þu cƿyꞅꞇ, cƿıꞅꞇ, _thou sayest_.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently: I, ıa, ıo, eo, ẏ; ıœ, ıe, œ; ıuh, eoƿ.

O.

O is changed into u, e and ẏ, and eo into ẏ; but sometimes into a, especially before n in a short or terminating syllable.

Oꝺe and oꝺ, into aꝺe and aꝺ; ꝺom _ᵹudgment_, ꝺeman _to judge_; ꝼꞃoꝼeꞃ _comfort_, ꝼꞃeꝼꞃtan _to comfort_; ꝼoc _a foot_, ꝼec _feet_; boc _a book_, bee _books_; ꞅcoꞃm _a storm_, ꞅcẏꞃman _to storm_; ᵹolꝺ _gold_, ᵹẏlꝺen _golden_; ƿoꞃb _a word_, anꝺƿyꞃꝺan _to answer_; ƿeoꞃc _a work_, ƿẏꞃcean _to work_; heoꞃb or hẏꞃꝺe _a herd_; ıoc, ıuc me _a yoke_; leƿan, ᵹoƿan _to show_; man and mon _a man_; lanᵹ and lonᵹ _long_; ꞅanꝺ and ꞅonꝺ _sand_.

In Dan. Sax. these occur:--O, a, e, I, u; œ, æ, e, o, ue, ƿe; oea, eo; oƿe, uu.

U.

U is sometimes converted into ẏ: as ꞅcꞃuꝺ _clothing_, ꞅcꞃyꝺan _to clothe_; cuþ _known_, cẏþan _to make known_.

In Dan. Sax. these are used indiscriminately:--U, ꝺ, ꝼ, o, oƿ, ƿe, ƿı, ƿu; ue, æ, œ, ƿe; uı, ƿ; uu, oƿe.

Y.

The Anglo-Saxon Y is the Greek Υ (upsilon), or, as the French call it, y Greque. The ẏ was not dotted in the oldest MSS.

Y is sometimes changed into u.

In Dan. Sax. these occur:--Y into e, ea, ı; and Yƿ into eu.

_Further Remarks on the Letters._

The preceding observations on the consonants and vowels will render the following peculiarities less surprising, and may perhaps explain their causes.

The final letters of words are often omitted: as ƿomb, ƿom; ƿæᵹ or ƿeᵹ, ƿe.

A vowel near, or at the end of a word, is often absorbed by the preceding or succeeding consonant, especially if that consonant be a semi-vowel; but either that or the nearest vowel is still understood: as Luꝼꞅꞇ for luꝼaꞅꞇ _lovest_; luꝼð for luꝼað _loveth_; and other verbs in the 2d and 3d persons. Geƿꞃıxl for ᵹeƿꞃıxle _changes_; ꞅuꞅl ꞅuꞅel _sulphur_; ꞅƿæꝼl for ꞅƿæꝼel _sulphur_; bloꞅm for bloꞅma _a blossom_; boꞅm for boꞅum _bosom_; boꞇl for boꞇle a _village_, _house_, &c.; bꞃıꝺl for bꞃıꝺel _a bridle_.

Contractions of words are common: as N’ẏꞅꞇe for ne ƿıꞅꞇ _knew not_; n’æꝼꝺe for ne hæꝼeꝺ _had not_; ẏꞃn’ð for ẏꞃneð _runneth_.

In Dan. Sax., on the other hand, monosyllables are sometimes changed into longer words: as ƿꞃað _anger_, _wrath_, lengthened into ƿaꞃað. Other words contract two syllables into one; as cẏnınᵹ into kẏnᵹ _a king_.

The different letters suffer a very frequent change of position: as ꞇınꞇeꞃᵹe, ꞇınꞇꞃeᵹe _pain_; þıꞃꝺa, þꞃıꝺꝺa _third_.

A very great variety exists in writing the same word by different Anglo-Saxon authors, as will appear from the following examples: ᵹeoᵹeþe, ᵹeoᵹoð, ᵹeoᵹuð, ᵹeᵹoþe, ıoᵹoð, ıuᵹuð _youth_; mæneᵹeo _many_, _a multitude_, is written mæneᵹo, mænıᵹeo, mænıᵹo, mænıᵹu, mænıo, mænıu, mænẏᵹeo, maneᵹeo, maneᵹu, manıᵹe, manıᵹo, manıᵹu, meneᵹeo, meneᵹo, meneᵹu, menıᵹeo, menıᵹo, menıᵹu, menıo, menıu.

Adjectives in the comparative degree end indifferently in aꞃ, æꞃ, eꞃ, ıꞃ, oꞃ, uꞃ, or ẏꞃ; and the superlative in aꞅꞇ, æꞅꞇ, eꞅꞇ, ıꞅꞇ, oꞅꞇ, uꞅꞇ, or ẏꞅꞇ.

Active participles end in anꝺ, anꝺe, ænꝺ, ænꝺe, enꝺ, ınꝺ, onꝺ, unꝺ or ẏnꝺ; and passive participles in aꝺ, æꝺ, eꝺ, ıꝺ, oꝺ, uꝺ, or ẏꝺ.

So also, [H]e ꝺıelꝼ, ꝺealꝼ, ꝺelꝼ or ꝺalꝼ _he dug_; and læꞅƿenꝺe, læꞅƿıᵹenꝺe, læꞅᵹenꝺe or læꞅıenꝺe _feeding_; ıc ƿuꞃpe, ıc ƿeoꞃpe, ıc ƿẏꞃpe, or ıc ƿeꞃpe _I cast away_; man, mon _a man_; he mæᵹe or muᵹe _he may_; he ꞅıᵹ, ꞅı, ꞅıe, ꞅe, ꞅıo, or ꞅeo _he is_; ꞅınꝺon, ꞅenꝺon, ꞅıenꝺon, ꞅınꞇ, ꞅıenꞇ, ꞅınꝺ, ꞅın, ꞅıen, ꞅeon, _are_.

Some short words assume very different meanings: as bıᵹ, bıᵹe, bẏᵹe, beᵹ, beaᵹ, beah and beh, which, according to their connexion, signify indifferently, _a turning_, _a crown_, _a gem_, _a bosom_, _buy_, _he turned_, _he submitted_, &c. from buᵹan, _to turn_, _bow_, _&c._--_The Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. By the Rev. J. Bosworth_, M.A. F.A.S., 8_vo_. 1823.

“The Saxon capitals which vary from those now used are C, E, G, H, M, and W. The small letters are d, f, g, r, s, t, and w, which are all Roman, except the Ƿ, ƿ, and some notes of abbreviations used by the Saxons, as Ð ð, þ th, ꝥ _that_, &c. Many other abbreviations were used by the Saxons. These notes of abbreviation are _not_ the original members of an alphabet; they were the result of later reflection, and were introduced for dispatch.

“By an attentive observation of the different specimens of writing in England, we perceive the several gradations of change, by which one form of a Roman character has imperceptibly changed into another. The Saxon ƿ, says Mr. Whitaker, seems to have been only the Roman V at first, and to have been lengthened into the Saxon character, and enlarged into the present Roman W, by bringing the principal stroke somewhat lower, and closing the top in the one, and by redoubling the whole in the other. The W is unknown, both to the Latin and its daughter languages, the French, the Spanish, and the Italian: it is composed of two characters, namely of the V or U doubled.

“The writing which prevailed in England from the coming of St. Augustin, in 596, to the middle of the eleventh century, is generally termed SAXON, and may be divided into five kinds, namely, the ROMAN SAXON, the SET SAXON, the RUNNING HAND SAXON, the MIXED SAXON, and the ELEGANT SAXON.”--_Astle_.

_Elegant Saxon._--This writing was adopted in England in the tenth century, and was continued till the Norman conquest; but was not entirely disused till the middle of the thirteenth century.