Chapter XL: Part 40

s. 17. “And be it further enacted, That all Fines, Penalties, and
Forfeitures by this Act imposed, shall be recovered by Action
of Debt, Bill, Plaint, or Information in any of His Majesty’s
Courts of Record at _Westminster_ or _Dublin_, or the Courts of
Great Session in the Principality of _Wales_, or the Courts of
the Counties Palatine of _Chester_, _Lancaster_, and _Durham_,
or in the Court of Session or Court of Exchequer in _Scotland_
(as the Case shall require), wherein no Essoign, Privilege,
Protection, Wager of Law, or more than One Imparlance shall be
allowed; or before any Two Justices of the Peace of the County,
Riding, Stewartry, City, or Place where the Offence shall be
committed: Provided always, that no larger Amount in the Whole
than One hundred Pounds shall be recoverable or recovered before
any Justices of the Peace, for any such Penalties incurred in any
One Day; any thing in this Act, or any other Acts of Parliament
contained to the contrary notwithstanding.

s. 18. “And be it further enacted, That it shall be lawful
for any Two or more Justices of the Peace, in all Cases in
which they are authorized to hear and determine any Offence or
Offences which shall be committed against this Act, or any other
Act or Acts of Parliament which are by this Act required to be
construed therewith as Part thereof, upon Information exhibited
or Complaint made in that Behalf, within Three Months after any
such Offence committed, to summon the Party accused, and also the
Witnesses on either Side; and upon the Appearance, or Contempt of
the Party accused in not appearing, to proceed to the Examination
of the Witness or Witnesses upon Oath (which Oath they are hereby
empowered to administer), and to give Judgment for the Penalty or
Penalties incurred; and in case the Party shall not immediately
pay the said Penalty or Penalties, to commit the Offender to
Prison, there to remain for any time not exceeding Six Months,
unless such pecuniary Penalty or Penalties shall be sooner paid
and satisfied; and if any Party shall find himself or herself
aggrieved by the Judgment of any such Justices, then he, she,
or they may, upon giving Security to the Amount or Value of the
Penalty or Penalties adjudged, together with such Costs as may be
awarded in case such Judgment shall be affirmed, appeal to the
Justices of the Peace at the next Quarter or General Sessions
of the Peace for the County, Riding, Division, or Place wherein
such Offence shall be committed, who are hereby empowered to
summon and examine Witnesses upon Oath, and finally to bear and
determine the same; and in case the Judgment shall be affirmed,
it shall be lawful for such Justices to order the Person or
Persons making such Appeal, to pay such Costs occasioned by such
Appeal, as to them shall seem meet: Provided nevertheless, that
it shall and may be lawful for the said respective Justices,
where they shall see Cause, to mitigate or lessen any such
Penalty or Penalties, in such Manner as they in their Discretion
shall think fit; the reasonable Costs and Charges of the Officers
or Informers being always allowed over and above such Mitigation;
and so as such Mitigation does not reduce the Penalty to less
than One Fourth Part thereof, over and above the said Costs and
Charges.

s. 19. “And be it further enacted, That if any Person shall be
summoned as a Witness to give Evidence before such Justices of
the Peace, touching any such Offence, either on the Part of the
Prosecutor or of the Person or Persons accused, and shall neglect
or refuse to appear at the Time and Place to be for that Purpose
appointed, without a reasonable Excuse for such his or her
Neglect or Refusal, to be allowed of by the Justices before whom
the Prosecution shall be depending, or appearing shall refuse to
give Evidence, then every such Person shall forfeit for every
such Offence any Sum not exceeding Twenty Pounds, to be levied
and paid in such Manner and by such Means as is in this Act
directed as to other Penalties.

s. 20. “And be it further enacted, That the Justices before whom
any Offender shall be convicted as aforesaid, shall cause the
said Conviction to be made out in the Manner and Form following,
or in any other Form of Words to the like Effect, _mutatis
mutandis_, that is to say,

‘County of ______ to wit.

‘Be it remembered, That on ______ at ______ _A. B._ of ______
was duly convicted before us, ______ of His Majesty’s Justices
of the Peace for ______ in pursuance of an Act passed in the
Sixtieth Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, intituled
_An Act_ [_Title of this Act_]; for that the said _A. B._ on
the ______ Day of ______ now last past, did, [_here state the
Offence, as the Case may happen to be_] contrary to the Form of
the Statute in that Case made and provided; for which Offence
we do adjudge that the said _A. B._ hath forfeited the Sum of
______ ; and [_if the_ ______ _Justices mitigate the Penalty_]
which Sum of ______ we do hereby mitigate to the Sum of ______.
Given under our Hands and Seals, this ______ Day of ______.’

s. 21. “And be it further enacted, That no Order or Conviction
made in pursuance of this Act by any Justices of the Peace,
shall be removed by Certiorari, Advocation, or Suspension into
any Court whatever; and that no Writ of Certiorari, Advocation,
or Suspension shall supersede Execution or other Proceedings
upon any such Order or Conviction, but that Execution and other
Proceedings shall be had thereupon, any such Writ or Writs or
Allowance thereof notwithstanding.

s. 22. “And be it further enacted, That it shall not be lawful
for any Person or Persons whatsoever to commence, prosecute,
enter, or file, or cause or procure to be commenced, prosecuted,
entered, or filed, any Action, Bill, Plaint, or Information in
any of His Majesty’s Courts, or before any Justice or Justices
of the Peace, against any Person or Persons, for the Recovery
of any Fine, Penalty, or Forfeiture made or incurred by virtue
of this Act, unless the same be commenced, prosecuted, entered,
or filed in the Name of His Majesty’s Attorney General in that
Part of _Great Britain_ called _England_, or in the Name of
His Majesty’s Attorney General in _Ireland_, or His Majesty’s
Advocate for _Scotland_ (as the Case may be respectively), or in
the Name of the Solicitor or some other Officer of His Majesty’s
Stamp Duties in that Part of _Great Britain_ called _England_, or
in _Scotland_ or _Ireland_ respectively; and if any Action, Bill,
Plaint, or Information shall be commenced, prosecuted, entered,
or filed in the Name or Names of any other Person or Persons than
is or are in that Behalf before mentioned, the same and every
Proceeding thereupon had, are hereby declared, and the same shall
be null and void to all Intents and Purposes.

s. 23. “And be it further enacted, That for the better and more
effectually levying and collecting the said Duties, the same
shall be under the Government, Care, and Management of the
Commissioners for the Time being appointed in _Great Britain_ and
_Ireland_ respectively, to manage the Duties on Stamped Vellum,
Parchment, and Paper; who, or the major Part of them, in _Great
Britain_ and _Ireland_ respectively, are hereby required and
empowered to do all other Things necessary to be done for putting
this Act into Execution, with relation to the said Duties hereby
granted, in the like and in as full and ample a Manner as they or
the major Part of them were authorized to put in Execution any
Law or Laws concerning Stamped Vellum, Parchment and Paper.

s. 24. “And be it further enacted, That the said Duties shall
be and are hereby made payable to His Majesty, His Heirs and
Successors; and the said Duties, and the several Allowances,
Discounts, and Sums of Money, for or in respect of the same,
shall and may be respectively raised, levied, collected,
answered, paid, recovered, adjudged, accounted for, and applied
and appropriated, mitigated and allowed, in such and the like
Manner, and in or by any or either of the general or special
Ways, Means, or Methods, by which the Duties upon Newspapers, and
Discounts and Allowances in respect thereof, under the Management
of the said Commissioners of stamped Vellum, Parchment, or
Paper, are or may be raised, levied, collected, answered, paid,
recovered, adjudged, mitigated, and allowed; and the several
Persons, and also all such Pamphlets and Papers, of what Nature
or Kind soever, by this Act made liable to the Payment of Duty,
or entitled to any Discount or Allowance, shall be and the
same are hereby made subject and liable to all and every the
Conditions, Regulations, Rules, and Restrictions, to which such
Persons and Newspapers are generally or specially subject and
liable by any Act or Acts of Parliament in force before the
passing of this Act; and all and every Pain, Penalty, Fine or
Forfeiture for any Offence whatever committed against or in
Breach of any Act or Acts of Parliament now in force for securing
the Duties under the Management of the said Commissioners of
Stamped Vellum, Parchment, and Paper, upon Newspapers, or for the
Regulation or Improvement of the said Duties, and the several
Clauses, Powers, Provisions, Directions, Matters, and Things
therein contained, shall (except as the same or any of them
are by this Act altered or repealed), and are hereby directed
and declared to extend to, and shall be respectively applied,
practised, and put in Execution for and in respect of the several
Duties charged, imposed, and allowed, in as full and ample a
Manner, to all Intents and Purposes whatsoever, as if all and
every the said Clauses, Provisions, Restrictions, Directions,
Fines, Pains, Penalties, or Forfeitures, Matters and Things, were
particularly repeated and re-enacted in the Body of this Act.

s. 25. “And be it further enacted, That the Monies arising from
the Duties hereby granted shall be paid into the Receipt of the
Exchequer at _Westminster_ and _Dublin_ respectively, and shall
be carried to and made Part of the Consolidated Fund of the
United Kingdom of _Great Britain_ and _Ireland_.

s. 26. “Provided always, and be it further enacted, That nothing
in this Act shall extend to Acts of Parliament, Proclamations,
Orders of Council, Forms of Prayer and Thanksgiving, and Acts
of State, ordered to be printed by His Majesty, His Heirs or
Successors, or his or their sufficient and authorized Officer; or
to any printed Votes or other Matters by Order of either House of
Parliament; or to Books commonly used in the Schools of _Great
Britain_ or _Ireland_, or Books or Papers containing only Matters
of Devotion, Piety, or Charity; or daily Accounts; or Bills of
Goods imported and exported; or Warrants or Certificates for
the Delivery of Goods; and the weekly Bills of Mortality; or to
Papers containing any Lists of Prices Current, or of the State
of the Markets, or any Account of the Arrival, Sailing, or other
Circumstances relating to Merchant Ships or Vessels; or of any
other Matter wholly of a Commercial Nature; provided such Bills,
Lists, or Accounts do not contain any other Matter than what hath
been usually comprised therein; or to the Printers or Publishers
of the foregoing Matters, or any or either of them.

s. 27. “Provided also, and be it further enacted, That nothing
in this Act contained shall extend or be construed to extend to
charge with Stamp Duties any Work reprinted and republished in
Parts or Numbers, whether such Work shall be wholly reprinted or
shall be republished in an abridged Form; provided that the Work
so reprinted and republished shall have been first printed and
published Two Years at the least previous to such Reprinting and
Republication, and provided the said Work was not first published
in Parts or Numbers.

s. 28. “And be it further enacted, That this Act may be altered,
amended, or repealed, by any Act to be passed in the present
Session of Parliament.”

So much of this act was repealed by 6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 76. “as subjects any Newspaper or other Paper or Pamphlet to any Stamp Duty.” _See_ NEWSPAPERS.

So much also of the acts 38 Geo. 3. c. 78., 55 Geo. 3. c. 80., 55 Geo. 3. c. 185., and 56 Geo. 3. c. 56. was repealed by 6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 76. “as subjects any Newspaper or other Paper or Pamphlet to any Stamp Duty.”--_See Newspaper Postage_.

PULL.

_See_ EASY PULL; also HARD PULL.--_M._ The act of printing an impression at the press is called pulling.

PULL A PROOF.

To print an impression of a job, or a sheet of a work, either to read as a first proof, to send out to the author, &c., or to read for press. For the first purpose it is called a First Proof or Foul Proof; for the others it is termed a Clean Proof. _See_ PROOF.

PUNCTUATION.

The Greeks and Romans were unacquainted with grammatical punctuation. With them it was for the most part only oratorical, since it referred, excepting a point at the end of a sentence and at some pauses, almost only to the elocution and pronunciation of the words. The first very imperfect beginning of our punctuation occurs in the time of Charlemagne, when a period of three points, and a stroke, were made use of, yet without following any definite rule. About the end of the fifteenth century, punctuation obtained a greater compass and a more settled character through the learned Venetian printer Manucci, so that he may be considered as the author of it. But still much time elapsed before the marks of punctuation collectively came generally into use as at present.

Through the introduction of these marks it has become possible to read a book with facility, and to recite a poem with a musical cadence. But still we feel too often, that our grammatical marks are far from sufficient for the purposes of declamation, seeing that we are sometimes obliged to make oratorical pauses where no grammatical points are applicable, and sometimes to double the pause for one and the same grammatical mark. Thus we read this passage in Wieland’s “Goldene Spiegel,” pt. 1. p. 121.:--

“Diese Methode bildete gleisnerische Schurken, welche ausgelernte Meister in der Kunst waren, ihre Leidenschaften zu verbergen, ihre schlimmen Neigungen in schöne Masken zu vermummen, die Unverständigen durch eine Tugend und Religion tödtende Phraseologie zu täuschen.”--“This method created hypocritical rascals, who were accomplished masters in the art of dissembling their emotions, of disguising their evil propensities under fine masks, and of deceiving the heedless by a virtue and religion killing phraseology.”

Here we readily perceive that after the word _Methode_, and also after _eine_, a pause must be made in reading, although no grammatical point is employed. And we have for this purpose no other mark than the dash (--). In like manner, every reader will perceive that the grammatical pause after _Schurken_ must be made much longer than after _waren_, because this last is so closely connected with the word immediately following, that the voice glides over it rapidly. _Heinsius, German Grammar_.

The knowledge of punctuation being essential equally to the master printer, the reader, and the compositor, I have extracted this article from Murray’s English Grammar, as being perspicuous, and of high authority.

“Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require.

“The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double that of the colon.

“The precise quantity or duration of each pause cannot be defined; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time; but the proportion between the pauses should be ever invariable.

“In order more clearly to determine the proper application of the points, we must distinguish between an _imperfect phrase_, a _simple sentence_, and a _compound sentence_.

“An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence: as, ‘Therefore; in haste; studious of praise.’

“A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, expressed or implied: as ‘Temperance preserves health.’

“A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one finite verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists of two or more simple sentences connected together: as, ‘Good nature mends and beautifies all objects;’ ‘Virtue refines the affections, but vice debases them.’

“In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, may be accompanied with several adjuncts: as, the object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, and the like: and the subject or verb may be either immediately connected with them, or mediately; that is, by being connected with something which is connected with some other, and so on: as, ‘The mind, unoccupied with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and follies.’

“As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound members: for whole sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become members of other sentences, by means of some additional connexion; as in the following example: ‘The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master’s crib; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.’ This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, which are properly called clauses.

“_Of the Comma_.

“The comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, which, though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them.

“RULE I. With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it: as, ‘The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.’ ‘Every part of matter swarms with living creatures.’

“A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the verb: as, ‘The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language:’ ‘To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character.’

“RULE II. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this phrase: as, ‘I remember, _with gratitude_, his goodness to me:’ ‘His work is, _in many respects_, very imperfect. It is, _therefore_, not much approved.’ But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted: as, ‘Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;’ ‘There is _surely_ a pleasure in beneficence.’

“In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent occasion for commas; as will appear from the following view of the different occasions to which they are adapted.

“RULE III. When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by a comma: as, ‘Reason, virtue, answer one great aim:’ ‘The husband, wife, and children, suffered extremely*:’ ‘They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade:’ ‘He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother.’

* “_As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary
between the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted
to denote it. But, as no pause is allowable between the last
adjective and the noun, under_ Rule IV., _the comma is there
properly omitted_. _See_ WALKER’S _Elements of Elocution_.

“From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as, ‘Virtue _and_ vice form a strong contrast to each other:’ ‘Libertines call religion bigotry _or_ superstition;’ ‘There is a natural difference between merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly.’ But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed: as, ‘Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil;’ ‘Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, _and_ the vigour of our minds.’

“RULE IV. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive are likewise separated by commas: as, ‘Plain, honest truth, wants no artificial covering;’ ‘David was a brave, wise, and pious man;’ ‘A woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious;’ ‘The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting.’

“But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, are not separated by a comma: as, ‘True worth is modest _and_ retired;’ ‘Truth is fair _and_ artless, simple _and_ sincere, uniform _and_ consistent.’ ‘We must be wise _or_ foolish; there is no medium.’

“RULE V.. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are also separated by commas: as, ‘Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity:’ ‘In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss.’

“Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the above rule: as, ‘The study of natural history expands _and_ elevates the mind;’ ‘Whether we eat _or_ drink, labour _or_ sleep, we should be moderate.’

“Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, and exception: as, ‘A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator;’ ‘He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected;’ ‘By being admired _and_ flattered, we are often corrupted.’

“RULE VI. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one another, must be separated by commas: as, ‘We are fearfully, wonderfully framed;’ ‘Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake.’

“But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by the comma: as, ‘Some men sin deliberately _and_ presumptuously;’ ‘There is no middle state; we must live virtuously _or_ vitiously.’

“RULE VII. When participles are followed by something that depends on them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma: as, ‘The king, _approving the plan_, put it in execution;’ ‘His talents, _formed for great enterprises_, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous;’ ‘All mankind compose one family, _assembled_ under the eye of one common Father.’

“RULE VIII. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity: as, ‘They set out early, _and_, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place.’

“RULE IX. Expressions in a direct address, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas: as, ‘_My son_, give me thy heart;’ ‘I am obliged to you, _my friends_, for your many favours.’

“RULE X. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence: as, ‘His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;’ ‘At length, their ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in peace;’ ‘To confess the truth, I was much in fault.’

“RULE XI. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas: as, ‘Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge;’ ‘The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.’

“But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not divided: as, ‘Paul the apostle;’ ‘The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book.’

“RULE XII. Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma: as, ‘_As_ the hart panteth after the water brooks, _so_ doth my soul pant after thee;’ ‘_Better_ is a dinner of herbs with love, _than_ a stalled ox and hatred with it.’

“If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in general, better omitted: as, ‘How much _better_ is it to get wisdom _than_ gold!’ ‘Mankind act _oftener_ from caprice _than_ reason.’

“RULE XIII. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma: as,

‘Tho’ deep, yet clear; tho’ gentle, yet not dull;
Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full.’

‘Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of one another.’

“Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, ‘Many states were in alliance _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome.’

“The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition: as, ‘He was composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, _of_ a cruel and lingering death;’ ‘He was not only the king, but the father _of_ his people.’

“RULE XIV. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma: as, ‘It hurts a man’s pride to say, I do not know;’ ‘Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.’

“RULE XV. Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit a comma before them: as, ‘He preaches sublimely, _who_ lives a sober, righteous, and pious life;’ ‘There is no charm in the female sex, _which_ can supply the place of virtue.’

“But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted: as, ‘Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make;’ ‘A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together.’ In the latter example, the assertion is not of ‘a man in general,’ but of ‘a man who is of a detracting spirit;’ and therefore they should not be separated.

“The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not expressed, but understood: as, ‘It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that his morals derived strength.’ ‘This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct.’ In both of these examples, the relative and verb _which was_, are understood.

“RULE XVI. A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, or following another, must be distinguished by the comma: as, ‘To improve time, whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness.’ ‘Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity, and the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and we increase those evils.’

“If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, ‘Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.’

“When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing verb, with several words between them, those words should generally have a comma at the end of them: as, ‘It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another.’

“Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas: as, ‘To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, is a humane and noble employment.’

“RULE XVII. When the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter verb, by a comma: as, ‘The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men.’ ‘The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men.’

“RULE XVIII. When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by commas: as, ‘Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exertions.’ ‘Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous.’ ‘Our interests are interwoven by threads innumerable;’ ‘By threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven.’

“RULE XIX. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be properly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of them: as, ‘From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge.’ In this example, the verb ‘arises’ is understood before ‘curiosity’ and ‘knowledge;’ at which words a considerable pause is necessary.

“RULE XX. The words, _nay_, _so_, _hence_, _again_, _first_, _secondly_, _formerly_, _now_, _lastly_, _once more_, _above all_, _on the contrary_, _in the next place_, _in short_, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma: as, ‘Remember thy best and first friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy, and the guide of thy childhood; _now_, the guardian of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years.’ ‘He feared want, _hence_, he over-valued riches.’ ‘His conduct may heal the difference, _nay_, it may constantly prevent any in future.’ ‘_Finally_, I shall only repeat what has been often justly said.’ ‘If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit; _so_, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age miserable.’

“In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy communication of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the preceding rules, enable the student to adjust the proper pauses, and the places for inserting the commas.

“_Of the Semicolon._

“The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as those which are distinguished by a colon.

“The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following clause: and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one: as in the following instances: ‘As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly.’

“‘Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly affairs, is not what religion requires; nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from them.’

“‘Straws swim upon the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom.’

“‘Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the least idea.’

“_Of the Colon._

“The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; but not so independent as separate distinct sentences.

“The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases.

“1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject: as, ‘Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid.’ ‘Nature confessed some atonement to be necessary: the gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made.’

“2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment: as, ‘A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt.’

“3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a question, or a speech is introduced: as, ‘The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: “God is love.”’ ‘He was often heard to say: “I have done with the world, and I am willing to leave it.”’

“The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes determined by a conjunction’s being expressed, or not expressed: as, ‘Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness: there is no such thing in the world.’ ‘Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness; _for_ there is no such thing in the world.’

“_Of the Period._

“When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period.

“Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their sense and construction: as, ‘Fear God. Honour the king. Have charity towards all men.’ Others are independent only in their grammatical construction: as, ‘The Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to promote our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. One light always shines upon us from above. One clear and direct path is always pointed out to man.’

“A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. For the quality of the point does not always depend on the connective particle, but on the sense and structure of sentences: as, ‘Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government, to keep them within a due and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated mind.’

“‘He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of the world is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part.’

“The period should be used after every abbreviated word: as, ‘M.S. P.S. N.B. A.D. O.S. N.S.’ &c.

“_Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation, &c._

“THE DASH.--The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment: as, ‘If thou art he, so much respected once--but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!’ ‘If acting conformably to the will of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--if securing our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment:--then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue.’

“‘Here lies the great--False marble, where?
Nothing but sordid dust lies here.’

“Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others, which denote a different modulation of voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are,

“The Interrogative point, ?
“The Exclamation point, !
“The Parenthesis, ( )

“INTERROGATION.--A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence; that is, when a question is asked: as, ‘Who will accompany me?’ ‘Shall we always be friends?’

“Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation: as, ‘Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?’ ‘At whose command do the planets perform their constant revolutions?’

“A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion.

“‘How many instances have we of chastity and excellence in the fair sex!’

“‘With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us in the choice of our companions!’

“A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. ‘The Cyprians asked me, why I wept.’ To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus: ‘The Cyprians said to me, “Why dost thou weep?”’

“EXCLAMATION.--The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and also to invocations or addresses: as, ‘My friend! this conduct amazes me!’ ‘Bless the Lord, O my soul! and forget not all his benefits!’

“‘Oh! had we both our humble state maintain’d,
And safe in peace and poverty remain’d!’

“‘Hear me, O Lord! for thy loving kindness is great!’

“It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no answer either expected or implied, may be always properly terminated by a note of exclamation: as, ‘How much vanity in the pursuits of men!’ ‘Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Creator!’ ‘What is more amiable than virtue!’

“The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation of the voice.

“The utility of the points of interrogation and exclamation, appears from the following examples, in which meaning is signified and discriminated solely by the points.

“‘What condescension!’

“‘What condescension?’

“‘How great was the sacrifice!’

“‘How great was the sacrifice?’

“PARENTHESIS.--A parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the construction: as,

“‘Know then this truth; (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below.’
“‘And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid
(What can exalt his bounty more?) for thee.’

“‘To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion.’ ‘Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?’

“If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthetical characters. The following instances are therefore improper uses of the parenthesis. ‘Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the deep.’ ‘Every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in vain) is most probably inhabited.’ ‘He found them asleep again; (for their eyes were heavy;) neither knew they what to answer him.’

“The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be accompanied with every point which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the member has, that precedes it; and to contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. We must, however, except cases of interrogation and exclamation: as, ‘While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) they disdain dishonourable means.’ ‘It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) which was borrowed from,’” &c.

Q.

QUADRATS.

Pieces of type metal, of the depth of the body of the respective sizes to which they are cast, and lower than types, so as to leave a blank space on the paper, when printed, where they are placed: an en quadrat is half as thick as its depth; an em quadrat is equal in thickness and depth, and, being square on its surface, is _the_ true quadrat, from _quadratus_, squared; a two em quadrat is twice the thickness of its depth; a three em three times; and a four em four times, as their names specify. Four ems are the largest quadrats that are cast. They are used to fill out short lines; to form white lines; and to justify letters, figures, &c., in any part of a line or page.

Four em quadrats are rarely cast larger than Pica; English and Great Primer do not exceed three ems; nor does Double Pica exceed two ems.

QUARTER.

A gutter behind the tympan, under the joints, to carry the water away beyond the farther side of the coffin that descends from the tympan. It is about an inch higher on the near than on the off side, and projects beyond the coffin about three inches.--_M._ It is not now used, nor is it necessary, as we do not wet the tympan so much as to cause the water to run off.

QUARTERS.

Quartos, octavos, and twelves forms are imposed in quarters. They are called Quarters, not from their equal divisions, but because they are imposed and locked up apart. Thus half the short cross in a twelves form is called a Quarter, though it be indeed but one sixth part of the form.--_M._ When both the crosses are in a chase, it is divided into four parts; for some sizes, such as twelves and eighteens, they are unequal; yet still each division is called a Quarter, whether it contain more or less than the proportionate number of pages.

QUARTO.

A sheet of paper folded into four leaves or eight pages is styled a Quarto.

QUI.

The established custom of the printing business in London is, for a workman when he intends to leave his situation to give a fortnight’s notice of his intention to quit; it is also the custom for the employer, when he finds it necessary to part with a workman, to give him a fortnight’s notice, except under particular circumstances of neglect or dishonesty, when the discharge is instanter: this is termed having _got the Bullet_; the fortnight’s notice to quit is termed having _got the Qui_. The word appears to be a contraction of _Quietus [est]_, which, being granted to a sheriff, discharged him of all accounts due to the king. _See_ BULLET.

QUIRE.

A Quire of paper, for all usual purposes, consists of twenty-four sheets, but for newspapers a Quire consists of twenty-five sheets, and a ream of twenty Quires makes 500 sheets. This is done, I believe, for the convenience of the Stamp Office.--_See_ PAPER.

QUOIN-DRAWER.

A drawer in the frame of the imposing stone, in which quoins are kept; it is generally the right-hand top drawer, when you stand at the front of the stone.

QUOIN A FORM.

The fitting of the Quoins in a form, so that when it is locked-up they shall, in the most efficacious manner, wedge up and secure the types. _See_ IMPOSING.

QUOINS.

Short pieces of beech wood, made of the same height as furniture, and tapering in their width, to wedge the pages up with in a chase. They are made of a variety of widths, from about two inches to less than a quarter of an inch, for the convenience of having every gradation in quoining a form.

QUOTATION.

A quotation “ ”. Two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words; and two commas, in their direct position, are placed at the conclusion: as,

“The proper study of mankind is man.”--_Murray._

Murray’s “direct” commas are _superior_ commas, and consequently what are technically called apostrophes.

We derive the use of inverted commas from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them, to exclude the use of Italick from quotations: as an acknowledgement for which improvement, his countrymen called these inverted commas after his name, _Guillemets_; whereas the Germans made a jest of their figure, and gave them the name of _Gaenseaugen_, or Geese-eyes. _See_ APOSTROPHE.

QUOTATION QUADRATS

are cast the height of the Quotation. They are cast of different bodies, that the Compositor may have choice of them to justify his notes or quotations exactly against the designed line of the page--_M._ They are now cast to correspond with a piece of broad furniture one way, and with a narrow the other way, with spaces of both widths cast to different thicknesses; these spaces are called _Justifiers_, and the Quotation Quadrats are simply called _Quotations_.

R.

RACKS,

to hang paper on.--_M._ Now called poles. _See_ BOARD RACK, CASE RACK, POLES.

RAG.

When letter cast has a bur on any of its edges, that bur is called a Rag.--_M._

RAILS. _See_ HIND POSTS.

RALPH. _See_ SPIRIT.

RANKS.

From the frames in a composing room being placed in a row, the Compositors are said to be in the ranks; thus, if a compositor has been selected for a reader, or overseer, and he afterwards works at case as a compositor, it is said, _he is come to the ranks again_.

RAT.

A compositor, or pressman, who executes work at less than the regular prices, or for less than the generality of the trade think it deserves, or for less than the chapel decides it ought to be paid, or for less than others are paid for it, becomes what is termed a rat; the most miserable situation, perhaps, that a workman can be placed in. He is hooted at and despised by the rest of the workmen in every house where he may obtain employment; and this feeling towards him does not subside, for the opprobrious epithet accompanies him for life.

READER.

A person whose duty it is to read proofs in a printing office, for the purpose of correcting the errors, that are unavoidable from the nature of the process of arranging the types into words, lines, and pages.

After the compositor has corrected these errors in the form, a clean proof is pulled by the pressman, which, with the first proof, comes, in the regular routine of the business, to the reader again, to revise; that is, to compare the two carefully, to see that the errors that were first marked have been corrected, and to notice such as may have escaped the compositor’s attention, as well as any additional ones that may have been made. The corrected proof is then sent to the author or editor, and if he makes many alterations, it is again corrected in the form; another proof is then pulled, which comes again to the reader, who revises the author’s corrections, and reads it very carefully for press, to detect any errors that may have escaped the first reading, and also the author’s notice; when it is laid on, the pressman pulls a revise, which is passed to the reader, who again carefully revises it, to see that all the errors are corrected, and that the margin and the workmanship are right, previous to the sheet being printed off.

This is the usual routine in printing books; but in small establishments, the duties of a reader are performed generally by the overseer.

In large establishments, where there are several readers, I would invariably have the first proofs of any given work read by one and the same reader, and the press proofs also by one and the same but a different reader; in this case there would be an arrangement made between the readers, either orally or tacitly, with regard to the use of capitals, the orthography, compound words, the division of words, and the punctuation; an experienced compositor would consequently very soon fall into the method, and, knowing how the work was to be done, would have very little trouble with his proofs; and the whole would proceed with regularity and uniformity, and be more correct, than if the proofs had been indiscriminately given to any of the readers who might happen to be disengaged at the moment.

If this plan were followed, much injury to the work as well as vexation to the compositor would be avoided; for where the second proofs fall into the hands of different readers, it must necessarily happen that marks will be multiplied, from the different views which men entertain on the same points where there are no positive laws to refer to, but where arbitrary private judgment decides instead: thus, one reader differs from another with respect to the use of the capitals, as to the division of words, the orthography, and the punctuation; thus harassing and teazing the compositor, who is never certain under these circumstances what plan to follow, for what is right to-day may be wrong to-morrow, and _vice versá_, besides the pecuniary loss he suffers in making these alterations, in addition to the deterioration of the work, from the want of uniformity and consistency.

Many readers betray a want of remembrance of the sensitiveness of authors, by endeavouring, with the best intentions, to improve their language, and thus making unauthorized alterations in the proofs: this causes an unpleasant feeling, and I have known the reader accused of hypercriticism, and the original words restored; in other instances I have known the reader to have been told that he did not understand the author’s meaning, with a request that for the future he would literally follow the copy, and leave it to the author to make any alterations he might think proper. After a long experience I have invariably found it the most satisfactory plan, when I perceived a mistake, or met with a passage that I did not understand, or that I thought incorrect, to draw a line under the words, and insert a query in the margin, thus drawing the author’s attention to the part; if he altered the passage, it was well, if he did not, the responsibility was his; thus the author’s feelings were not wounded, and in most cases he expressed his satisfaction at this method; but I never knew an instance where any censure was expressed.

In making these general observations, I am actuated only by the motive that printers should combine the desire to be correct with the principle of conciliating the kind feelings of the author or editor.

REAM.

A ream of paper consists of twenty quires, each of twenty-four sheets, with the exception of the two quires at the outside of each ream, called Outside Quires or Corded Quires, which consist of twenty sheets each, all damaged, torn, or imperfect, more or less: this is the state in which paper is uniformly delivered by the paper-maker from the mill. For private use it may be obtained from the stationers made up with twenty inside quires, that is, of quires of perfect paper; a ream in this state consists of 480 sheets. For the purpose of printing, it is always sent to printing offices in a state technically styled perfect, made up into bundles, each bundle containing forty-three quires; thus a ream will consist of twenty-one quires and a half, or 516 sheets; this surplus allows for accidents in wetting, at press, and in the warehouse, as well as waste, and enables the printer to deliver to the publisher the full count. The outside quires are generally sold to bookbinders, but those of writing-paper are used by stationers in making copy books and memorandum books.

RECORDS.

In the year 1800, the House of Commons voted an Address to His Majesty King George III. on the state of the Public Records of this kingdom, and the necessity of providing for the better arrangement, preservation, and more convenient use of the same; and humbly represented that the Public Records of the kingdom are in many offices unarranged, undescribed, and unascertained; that many of them are exposed to erasure, alteration, and embezzlement, and are lodged in buildings incommodious and insecure, and that it would be beneficial to the public service that the records and papers contained in many of the principal offices and repositories should be methodized, and that certain of the more antient and valuable amongst them should be printed; and humbly besought His Majesty, that He would be graciously pleased to give such directions thereupon, as He in His wisdom should think fit.

The first commission, bearing date the 19th of July 1800, states, “that We, considering the premises, and earnestly desiring more effectually to provide for the better arrangement, preservation, and more convenient use of the said records and papers, and reposing great trust and confidence in your fidelity, discretion, and integrity;--

“Have authorized and appointed, and by these presents do authorize and appoint you the said William Henry Cavendish Duke of Portland, William Windham Baron Grenville, Henry Dundas, Henry Addington, William Pitt, Sir Richard Pepper Arden, Frederick Campbell (commonly called Lord Frederick Campbell), Sylvester Douglas, Sir John Mitford, Sir William Grant, Robert Dundas, and Charles Abbot, and any three or more of you, to make a diligent and particular inquiry into the several matters which our faithful Commons have, in the above-mentioned report of their proceedings, represented as fitting to be provided for by our royal authority.