Chapter XLVII: Part 47

The iron spindle on which the drum or wheel and the rounce are fixed, to run the carriage in and out with. It is square in the middle part, where the wheel is fixed, and has a square end for the rounce to fit on: it works in two pieces of iron, screwed to the outsides of the frame of the wooden ribs.

SPONGE.

Sponge is used both by compositors and pressmen--by compositors, to wet matter that is tied up previous to distributing it--to wet matter that is not tied up, to prevent it going into pie--and in correcting to wet matter, particularly if it be small letter, when it is necessary to transpose it: by pressmen, to wet their tympans with.

SPOTTISWOODE PRESS.

This is a beautiful contrivance, and was, as I understand, the invention of Andrew Spottiswoode, Esq., who has several of them in action in his extensive establishment. It is moved by steam, and prints two forms at the same time, which pass alternately under the platen, producing at its average rate of working seven hundred impressions of each form in the hour.

The frisket is attached to the tympan at the bottom near the tympan joints, so that when the tympan is lifted from the form by the machinery they open at the upper end, contrary to the usual way in presses worked by manual labour, and the printed sheet is left by the tympan resting on the frisket, where the paper was previously laid on.

I believe this is the first successful application of steam, as a motive power, to printing presses with a platen and a perpendicular pressure. I heard the late Alexander Tilloch, Esq., say that he intended to apply it to the presses with which the Star newspaper was printed, but he never carried it into effect; and Mr. Koenig came to England solely for this purpose; but after some years passed in making experiments, assisted by English capital, he was completely foiled in the attempt, and afterwards worked upon Mr. Nicholson’s plan, and produced a machine to print with cylinders.--_See_ MACHINE.

SPRING OF A FORM.

When a form has a great quantity of furniture in it, and is locked up very tight, it frequently springs up in the middle, so as to endanger its bursting upward; it is then said, the form springs, or it is termed the spring of the form.

In this case it is advisable to examine the furniture, for some pieces may not be planed square by the joiner, and to change them for others of the same size that appear perfect, and do not lock up very tight; tighten the quoins gradually, and frequently plane down while you are locking up; these measures will generally remedy the evil.

SPUR.

The point that pricks the hole in the paper at press, to make register with.

SQUABBLE.

A page or form is squabbled when the letters of one or more lines are got into any of the adjacent lines; or that the letter or letters are twisted about out of their square position.--_M._

STACK OF BOOKS. _See_ PILE OF BOOKS.

STACK OF PAPER.

When paper is received into the warehouse from the stationer, it is piled up in tiers of four, five, six, or eight bundles in each tier, and is called a stack of paper, or a pile of paper.

The warehouseman in piling his paper considers the height of his room, that he may not take up more of the floor than is absolutely necessary, to enable him to stow as much as possible: thus, if he receive one hundred reams, and has height, he will make a stack of six in preference to two or four or five. He crosses the joinings of the bundles in each tier to bind them together, as a bricklayer does in building a square pillar; and I have always found the stack strengthened by laying on every third or fourth tier a number of stout wrappers spread over the bundles.

Paper should never be stacked without interposing something between the bottom of it and the floor, to prevent any water that might accidentally be spilled coming in contact with it, which would certainly mildew and spoil it if it were not perceived at the first; and even then it would require a great deal of trouble to prevent it: where there are not regular stages made, some short pieces of old poling laid a little distance from each other upon the floor will answer very well.

STAGE.

A platform raised a few inches from the floor, to pile books or paper upon, for the purpose of preserving the bottom of the pile from injury, in case of water being spilt in the warehouse.

Where there are no regular stages in a warehouse, substitutes, which answer the purpose very well, may be easily provided, by taking an old paper board, or any pieces of board, and putting three pieces of an old pole under each of them on which to pile the books.

STAINING OF PAPER.

The master printers of the metropolis, till within a few years, dined together annually at some good coffee house or tea gardens in the vicinity of London; and one of the regular toasts after dinner was, “_The well-staining of Paper_.”

STAMPS.

3 & 4 W. 4. c. 97. s. 12. It is among other things enacted,
That * * * * “if any Person shall fraudulently use, join, fix,
or place for, with, or upon any Vellum, Parchment, or Paper any
Stamp, Mark, or Impression which shall have been cut, torn, or
gotten off or removed from any other Vellum, Parchment, or Paper;
* * * * then and in every such Case every Person so offending,
and every Person knowingly and wilfully aiding, abetting, or
assisting any Person in committing any such Offence, and being
thereof lawfully convicted, shall be adjudged guilty of Felony,
and shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be
transported beyond the Seas for Life, or for any term not less
than seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding
four Years nor less than two Years.”

STAND STILL.

A compositor is said to stand still, if he be out of copy, or out of letter: a pressman, if he has not a form to lay on, or is prevented working by any other cause. A compositor says he is standing still for copy, or for letter--a pressman says he is standing still for a form, &c.

STANHOPE PRESS.

The merits of the Stanhope press, and its superiority, are so well established in the minds of printers, from long experience of its valuable properties, that any additional praise from me would be an act of supererogation; I shall therefore confine myself to giving engravings of it, and a rather full description.

_Fig._ 3. _Fig._ 4.]

_Figs._ 1. and 2. are elevations, _fig._ 3. a plan, and _fig._ 4. a section. A A is a massive frame of cast iron, formed in one piece: this is the body of the press, in the upper part of which a nut is fixed for the reception of the screw _b_, and its point operates upon the upper end of a slider, _d_, which is fitted into a dovetail groove formed between two vertical bars, _e, e_, of the frame. The slider has the platen, D D, firmly attached to the lower end of it; and being accurately fitted between the guides _e, e_, the platen must rise and fall parallel to itself when the screw, _b_, is turned. The weight of the platen and slider are counterbalanced by a heavy weight, E, behind the press, which is suspended from a lever, F, and this acts upon the slider to lift it up, and keep it always bearing against the point of the screw. At G G are two projecting pieces, cast all in one with the main frame, to support the carriage when the pull is made; to these the rails, H H, are screwed, and placed truly horizontal for the carriage, I, to run upon them, when it is carried under the press to receive the impression, or drawn out to remove the printed sheet. The carriage is moved by the rounce or handle K, with a spit and leather girths, very similar to the wooden press. Upon the spit, or axle of the handle K, a wheel, L, is fixed, and round this leather girths are passed, one extending to the back of the carriage to draw it in, and the other, which passes round the wheel in an opposite direction, to draw it out. By this means, when the handle is turned one way it draws out the carriage, and by reversing the motion it is carried in. There is likewise a check strap, _f_, from the wheel down to the wooden base, M M, of the frame, and this limits the motion of the wheel, and consequently the excursion of the carriage. The principal improvement of Earl Stanhope’s press consists in the manner of giving motion to the screw, _b_, of it, which is not done simply by a bar or lever attached to the screw, but by a second lever; _e. gr._ the screw, _b_, has a short lever, _g_, fixed upon the upper end of it, and this communicates by an iron bar, or link, _h_, to another lever, _i_, of rather shorter radius, which is fixed upon the upper end of a second spindle, _l_, and to this the bar or handle, _k_, is fixed. Now when the workman pulls this handle, he turns round the spindle, _l_, and by the connexion of the rod, _h_, the screw, _b_, turns with it, and causes the platen to descend and produce the pressure. But it is not simply this alone, for the power of the lever, _k_, is transmitted to the screw in a ratio proportioned to the effect required at the different parts of the pull; thus at first, when the pressman takes the bar, _k_, it lies in a direction parallel to the frame, or across the press, and the short lever, _i_, (being nearly perpendicular thereto,) is also nearly at right angles to the connecting rod _h_; but the lever, _g_, of the screw makes a considerable angle with the rod, which therefore acts upon a shorter radius to turn the screw; because the real power exerted by any action upon a lever, is not to be considered as acting with the full length of the lever between its centres, but with the distance in a perpendicular drawn from the line in which the action is applied to the centre of the lever. Therefore, when the pressman first takes the handle, _k_, the lever, _i_, acts with its full length upon a shorter length of leverage, _g_, on the screw, which will consequently be turned more rapidly than if the bar itself was attached to it; but on continuing the pull, the situation of the levers change, that of the screw, _g_, continually increasing in its acting length, because it comes nearer to a perpendicular with the connecting rod, and at the same time the lever, _i_, diminishes its acting length, because, by the obliquity of the lever, the rod, _h_, approaches the centre, and the perpendicular distance diminishes; the bar or handle also comes to a more favourable position for the man to pull, because he draws nearly at right angles to its length. All these causes combined have the best effect in producing an immense pressure, without loss of time; because, in the first instance, the lever acts with an increased motion upon the screw, and brings the platen down very quickly upon the paper, but by that time the levers have assumed such a position as to exert a more powerful action upon each other, and this action continues to increase as the bar is drawn forwards, until the lever, _i_, and the connecting rod are brought nearly into a straight line, and then the power is immensely great, and capable of producing any requisite pressure which the parts of the press will sustain without yielding. The handle is sometimes made to come to rest against a stop, which prevents it moving further, and therefore regulates the degree of pressure given upon the work; but to give the means of increasing or diminishing this pressure for different kinds of work, the stop is made moveable to a small extent. Another plan is adopted by some makers of the Stanhope press, viz. to have a screw adjustment at the end of the connecting rod, _h_, by which it can be shortened; it is done by fitting the centre pin which unites it to the lever, _g_, in a bearing piece, which slides in a groove formed in the rod, and is regulated by the screw. This shortening of the connecting rod produces a greater or less descent of the platen, when the handle is brought to the stop.

The carriage of the press is represented with wheels, m, m, beneath, to take off the friction of moving upon the ribs, HH. These wheels are shown at _fig._ 4., which is a section of the screw and the platen, with the carriage beneath it: their axles, _n_, are fitted to springs, _p_, and these are adjustable by means of screws, _r_, so that the carriage will be borne up to any required height. This is so regulated, that when the carriage is run into the press, its lower surface shall bear lightly upon the solid cheeks, G, which are part of the body of the press, and these support it when the pressure is applied, the same as the winter of the old press: but the wheels by their springs act to bear up great part of the weight of the carriage with the types upon it, and diminish the friction, yet do not destroy the contact of the carriage upon the ribs, because this would not give the carriage that solidity of bearing which is requisite for resisting the pull. This is only at the time when the carriage is run into the press, because as it runs out, the ribs on which the wheels run rise higher, and therefore the wheels support the whole weight. The manner in which the wheels run in rebates or recesses in the edges of the ribs is shown at _fig_. 1. The carriage is made of cast iron, in the form of a box, with several cross partitions, which are all cast in one piece, and although made of thin metal, are exceedingly strong: the upper surface is made truly flat, by turning it in a lathe. The same of the platen, which is likewise a shallow box: the slider, _d_, has a plate formed on the lower end of it, which is fixed by four screws upon the top of the platen, and thus they are united. At the four angles of the carriage, pieces of iron are screwed on, to form bearings for the quoins or wedges which are driven in to fasten the form of types upon it in the true position for printing. The tympan, P, (_fig._ 2.) is attached to the carriage by joints, with an iron bracket or stop to catch it when it is thrown back: the frisket, R, is joined to the tympan, and when opened out, rests against a frame suspended from the ceiling. The register points are the same as in the wooden press, and all the operations of working are exactly the same. The iron frame, A, of the press is screwed down upon the wooden base, M, by bolts, which pass through feet, _s s_, projecting from the lower part of the iron frame. Another wooden beam is fixed into the former at right angles, so as to form a cross, which lies upon the floor. The ribs, H, for the carriage to run upon are supported from the wooden base by an iron bracket, T.

The advantages of the iron presses in working are very considerable, both in saving labour and time. The first arises from the beautiful contrivance of the levers, the power of the press being almost incalculable at the moment of producing the impression; and this is not attended with a correspondent loss of time, as is the case in all other mechanical powers, because the power is only exerted at the moment of pressure, being before that adapted to bring down the platen as quickly as possible. This great power of the press admits of a saving of time, by printing the whole sheet of paper at one pull, the platen being made sufficiently large for that purpose; whereas, in the old press, the platen is only half the size of the sheet. In the Stanhope press, the whole surface is printed at once, with far less power upon the handle than the old press. This arises not only from the levers, but from the iron framing of the press, which will not admit of any yielding, as the wood always does, and indeed is intended to do, the head being packed up with elastic substances, such as scaleboard, pasteboard, and the felt of an old hat. In this case much power is lost, for in an elastic press the pressure is gained by screwing or straining the parts up to a certain degree of tension, and the effort to return produces the pressure: now in this case, the handle will make a considerable effort to return, which, though it is in reality giving back to the workman a portion of the power he exerted on the press, is only an additional labour, as it obliges him to bear the strain a longer time than he otherwise would. The iron presses have very little elasticity, and those who use them find it advantageous to diminish the thickness of the blankets in the tympan; the lever has then very little tendency to return; in fact, if the pull be so justified as that, when the bar is pulled home, the end of the lever, _i_, that is attached to the connecting rod, _h_, passes in a small degree the centre of the second spindle, _l_, the pressure is past its maximum power, the press bar has no tendency to return, and the pressman can rest upon his pull in fine work, without any exertion.

STATIONERS’ COMPANY. _See_ DONATIONS.

STEM.

--The straight flat strokes of a straight letter is called stem.--_M._

STEREOTYPE.

--The surface of a page of types cast in one piece, of type metal, about the eighth of an inch thick, and turned in a lathe at the back of the plate, so that the whole of the plates of a volume shall be of one uniform thickness.

When they are required to be printed they are mounted on what are called Risers: these risers, with the thickness of the stereotype plate, are precisely the same height as the types, so that when a form is composed of stereotype plates and types, the pressure shall be equal on both.--_See_ RISERS.

The spaces and quadrats are cast higher than for the common process; and when the form is ready, the face of it is oiled with a brush, then burnt plaster of Paris (gypsum) mixed with water to the consistence of cream is poured upon it; when the plaster is sufficiently hardened it is taken off from the types and forms a matrix in which to cast a facsimile of the types; this matrix is then placed in an oven to dry, and made hot, when it is secured in a frame and immersed in a caldron of melted metal, where it remains some time; when it is taken out, and cool, it goes to a person styled the Picker, to remove any superfluous metal, and to remedy any defects; it is then, generally, turned at the back to a specific thickness, and to remove any inequalities; after this it is ready for press. For the details of the process I refer the reader to “An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Stereotype Printing: including a Description of the various Processes. By Thomas Hodgson, Newcastle: printed by and for S. Hodgson, &c. 1820.”

This process was first practised by William Ged, of Edinburgh, who commenced in the year 1725. After much perseverance he formed an engagement with the University of Cambridge to print Bibles and Prayer-books; but the plan received so much opposition from the workmen, in making errors and batters, that it was discontinued, and the plates were ultimately sent to Mr. Caslon’s foundery to be melted down. Mr. Hansard, in his Typographia says,--“But a remnant escaped from Caslon’s cormorant crucible; and I have the opportunity of here presenting my readers with an opposite view of a pair of the very malefactors; and challenge any other to dispute the palm of venerable antiquity with them: they have been rather roughly treated, but besides the purpose for which they are here exhibited, will serve to show the style of type, typography, and stereotype of those days.”

Mr. Tilloch had a page of Ged’s casting given to him by Mr. Murray, of Fleet Street, bookseller, which I have seen: there is also a plate of Ged’s casting, at the Royal Institution, containing fourteen pages of a Common Prayer, presented by Mr. Frederick Kanmacher, of Apothecaries Hall, from which I had impressions printed.--See “Biographical Memoirs of William Ged. By John Nichols.” 8vo. London, 1781. “Dissertation upon English Typographical Founders and Founderies, by Edward Rowe Mores, A. M. and A. S. S.”

STEREOTYPE-PLATE RISERS. _See_ RISERS.

STET.

When a word has been struck out, in reading a proof, and it is afterwards decided that it shall remain, then it is usual to make dots under the word which has had the pen run through it and write the word _stet_ opposite to it in the margin, which is the third person singular, imperative mood, of the neuter verb _sto_, to stand, to endure, or abide.--_See_ CORRECTING.

STICK.

The composing stick, commonly so called.--_M._ _See_ COMPOSING STICK.

STICKFULL.

When a compositor has arranged as many lines in his composing stick as it will contain, it is termed a stickfull.--_M._

STIFF JUSTIFYING. _See_ HARD JUSTIFYING.

STOLEN PROPERTY.

The Act of the 25th of Geo. II. c. 36. s. 1. inflicted a penalty of fifty pounds upon any person who should print or publish any advertisement offering a reward for the recovery of any property that had been stolen and no questions asked; this section has been repealed by the Act of the 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27., one of Mr. Peel’s Acts; and by another of Mr. Peel’s Acts, of the 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29. s. 59., it is re-enacted, with some verbal alterations and the addition of the words “or lost,” as may be perceived by the following extract, which it is of importance for printers to be acquainted with.

s. 59. “That if any Person shall publicly advertise a Reward for
the Return of any Property whatsoever, which shall have been
stolen or lost, and shall in such Advertisement use any Words
purporting that no Questions will be asked, or shall make use of
any Words in any public Advertisements purporting that a Reward
will be given or paid for any Property which shall have been
stolen or lost, without seizing or making any Enquiry after the
Person producing such Property, or shall promise or offer in any
such public Advertisement to return to any Pawnbroker or other
Person who may have bought or advanced Money by Way of Loan upon
any Property stolen or lost, the Money so paid or advanced, or
any other Sum of Money or Reward for the Return of such Property,
or if any Person shall print or publish any such Advertisement,
in any of the above Cases, every such Person shall forfeit the
Sum of Fifty Pounds for every such Offence, to any Person who
will sue for the same by Action of Debt, to be recovered with
full Costs of Suit.”

s. 69. By this section it is enacted, “That it shall be lawful
for the King’s Majesty to extend his Royal Mercy to any Person
imprisoned by virtue of this Act, although he shall be imprisoned
for Nonpayment of Money to some Party other than the Crown.”

STOPS. _See_ POINTS.

STRAHAN, ANDREW. _See_ DONATIONS.

STRAHAN, WILLIAM. _See_ DONATIONS.

STRIP A FORM.

Taking the furniture away from the pages.--_M._

STROKES.

Strokes are fat, lean, fine, hair.--_M._ The hair strokes of letters are now termed _ceriphs_ by the founders.

STRONG INK.

Ink made with a powerfully binding varnish, so as to prevent the separation of the colouring matter and the spread of the varnish in the paper. It is usually made with superior colouring materials, and more care taken in grinding it than with common ink. _See_ ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD; FINE PRESSWORK; and for more details I refer the reader to my treatise on the Preparation of Printing Ink.

STUD.

A piece of hardened steel, a little hollowed at the top, on which the toe of the spindle works. It is square on the outside, and fitted into the cup of the platen, but so as to be taken out, when it wants altering or repairing.

SUMMER.

In a press, a piece of wood nailed across the wooden ribs on the under side, close to the winter, to keep them steady in their place.

In Moxon’s time a summer was for a different purpose; viz. to prevent the cheeks of the press from springing open; the winter was dovetailed into the cheeks, to answer this purpose: after describing the winter, he adds--

“But yet I think it very convenient to have a _Summer_ also, the more firmly and surer to keep the cheeks together; this _Summer_ is only a Rail _Tennanted_, and let into Mortesses made in the inside of the _Cheeks_, and Screwed to them with long Screws, similar to those used for _Bed-Posts_; its depth four Inches and an half, and its breadth eight Inches, _viz._ the breadth of the _Cheeks_.”

SUNDAY, PUBLIC MEETING ON. _See_ PUBLIC MEETINGS.

SUPERIORS.

Superiors are small letters and figures, upon the upper part of the shank of the body, so that they range with the top of the letter to which they belong; as, ^{abcdefgh}, ^{1234567890}; they are generally used as references to notes, and occasionally in abbreviated words; as M^r, Master; M^{rs}, Mistress; D^o, Ditto; N^o, (Numero,) for Number, and in many other instances; also in contracted words, in the printed Records. _See_ RECORDS. REFERENCES. It would be a convenience if the type founders would cast the , ; : and . to them, as it has not a good appearance, when a point is necessary, to see a comma or any other point used that has been cast for the regular body; it is too large, and does not range in line.

SUPERNUMERARIES. _See_ NEWSPAPERS.

SWASH LETTERS.

In the seventeenth century Italick capitals, in which some of the letters had their terminations projecting considerably beyond the shank, were in use: this projection was called a swash; as--

SWEDISH.

The Swedish Alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters.

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name and Figure. Power. |
+-----+---------------+----------------------------------------------+
| A | ~A a~ | sounds like the English _a_ in _psalm_. |
| B | ~B b~ | be |
| C | ~C c~ | ce |
| D | ~D d~ | de |
| E | ~E e~ | has a sound between the _slender a_ and the _e_, |
| | | or as it is commonly pronounced in the article |
| | | _the_, _de_. |
| F | ~F f~ | f |
| G | ~G g~ | ge |
| H | ~H h~ | ho |
| I | ~I i j~ | sounds like the English _ee_ in _bee_, _bi_. |
| J | | longt i (i. e. _long i_) |
| K | ~K k~ | ko |
| L | ~L l~ | l |
| M | ~M m~ | m |
| N | ~N n~ | n |
| O | ~O o~ | (the Greek ω) sounds nearest to the _narrow oo_ |
| | | in _rood_. |
| P | ~P p~ | pe |
| Q | ~Q q~ | koo |
| R | ~R r~ | err |
| S | ~S s~ | s |
| T | ~T t~ | te |
| U | ~U u~ | sounds like the English _u_ in _ruin_. |
| V | ~V v~ | ve |
| W | ~W w~ | |
| X | ~X x~ | ex |
| Y | ~Y y~ | sounds like the French _u_ in _une_, _syn_, |
| | | sight. |
| Z | ~Z z~ | satah |
| Å | ~Å å~ | sounds like the English _o_ in _long_, _lång_. |
| Ä | ~Ä* ä~ | sounds like the English _a_ in _name_, _nämna_. |
| Ö | ~Ö* ö~ | sounds like the French _eu_ in _feu_; _bröd_, |
| | | bread, or nearest to _i_ before _r_, as in |
| | | _thirsty_, _törstig_. |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

The order they here stand in is that of the Swedish Alphabet.

* These letters in the Roman characters are Ä and Ö.

The Swedish language has no diphthongs. When two vowels occur together, they must both be heard, as _bēēdiga_, brōār.--_Brunnmark’s Swedish Grammar_. London, 1805.

SWEEPINGS.

When the boys sweep the composing room in a morning, all the letters and spaces that are on the floor in each frame are carefully gathered up and placed on the bulk belonging to it, and it is the customary rule for the compositor to distribute them the first thing; what are swept together from the middle of the room are collected from the dust before it is taken away, and put in some appointed place for the person who has the care of the materials to distribute.

SWIFT. _See_ FIRE EATER.

SYMBOLS, CHEMICAL. _See_ FORMULÆ.

SYRIAC.

Under this appellation are classed three different alphabets.

Key to Column Headers--
U - Unconnected.
F - Final.
M - Medial.
I - Initial.
PL - Powers of the Letters.
NV - Numerical Value.

+--------+----------+-----------------------+------+------+
| Order | Names |Figures of the Letters.| | |
| of the | of the +-----+-----+-----+-----+ PL | NV |
|Letters.| Letters. | U | F | M | I | | |
+--------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+
| 1. | Olaph | ܐ | ܐ | ܐ | ܐ | A. | 1. |
| 2. | Beth | ܒ | ܒ | ܒ | ܒ | B. | 2. |
| 3. | Gomal | ܓ | ܓ | ܓ | ܓ | G. | 3. |
| 4. | Dolath | ܕ | ܕ | ܕ | ܕ | D. | 4. |
| 5. | He | ܗ | ܗ | ܗ | ܗ | H. | 5. |
| 6. | Vau | ܘ | ܘ | ܘ | ܘ | V. | 6. |
| 7. | Zaïn | ܙ | ܙ | ܙ | ܙ | Z. | 7. |
| 8. | Cheth | ܚ | ܚ | ܚ | ܚ | Ch. | 8. |
| 9. | Teth | ܛ | ܛ | ܛ | ܛ | T. | 9. |
| 10. | Jud | ܝ | ܝ | ܝ | ܝ | I. | 10. |
| 11. | Coph | ܟ | ܟ | ܟ | ܟ | C. | 20. |
| 12. | Lomad | ܠ | ܠ | ܠ | ܠ | L. | 30. |
| 13. | Mim | ܡ | ܡ | ܡ | ܡ | M. | 40. |
| 14. | Nun | ܢ | ܢ | ܢ | ܢ | N. | 50. |
| 15. | Semchat | ܣ | ܣ | ܣ | ܣ | S. | 60. |
| 16. | Ngae | ܥ | ܥ | ܥ | ܥ | A. | 70. |
| 17. | Pe | ܦ | ܦ | ܦ | ܦ | P. | 80. |
| 18. | Tzode | ܨ | ܨ | ܨ | ܨ | Tz. | 90. |
| 19. | Koph | ܩ | ܩ | ܩ | ܩ | K. | 100. |
| 20. | Risch | ܪ | ܪ | ܪ | ܪ | R. | 200. |
| 21. | Schin | ܫ | ܫ | ܫ | ܫ | Sch | 300. |
| 22. | Thau | ܬ | ܬ | ܬ | ܬ | T. | 400. |
+--------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+

The first and most ancient of these, called Estranghelo, is formed with square rectangular characters; another alphabet, a little smaller, has letters slightly differing from the first, for greater facility in writing; the third is that known generally by the name of Syriac, and is the only one existing in type in England. The Syriac reads from right to left.

Olaph, when followed by Lomad, is written obliquely, as ܐܰܠܗܳܐܳ. But when Lomad is followed by Olaph, it is written in the beginning of words thus, ܠܐܳ _not_; in the middle thus, ܓܷܠܿܓ _he is bewailed_; and at the end thus, ܓܰܠܠ _it rolls_.

The pronunciation of the letters is the same as in Hebrew and Chaldee; yet it may be observed, (1.) that Olaph, in certain cases, takes the sound of Jud, as, ܐܳܐܰܪ ojar _air_, ܡܠܵܐܐܵ mlojo _fulness_, ܣܐܷܵܡ sojem _placing_; (2.) that Vau initial is to be pronounced ܠܷܗܲܕ as the consonant _v_, but when medial or final, as the vowel _u_; (3.) that initial Jud with Chebhozo is pronounced as _i_, as, ܝܻܠܷܦ ileph _he learned_; (4.) that Ngae followed by He has the sound of ܐܷ, as, ܠܷܗܲܕ ehadh _he remembered_; and (5.) that the aspirated sibilant Schin has no peculiar point by which it may be distinguished from the simple sibilant Sin.

The numbers are expressed by the same letters as in Hebrew, excepting that ܝܗ denotes 15, ܩ 20, and ܢ 50. A point above the line is used to convert the tens into hundreds, as ܝܿ 100, ܟܿ 200, ܠܿ 300, &c., although the four first hundreds may be expressed also by the four last letters of the alphabet. An oblique line, slanting to the right, under the first nine letters, serves to denote thousands, as ܐ݈ 1000, ܒ݈ 2000; and a similar line, but transverse, designates the tens of thousands, as ܐ̱ 10,000, ܒ̱ 20,000.

The vowels are five in number, which are represented either by figures or by points, according as the ancient or modern system is followed, but very frequently both are met with together. The simple vowels are--

_A_ _E_ _I_ _O_ _U_
ܐܰ ܐܷ ܐܻ ܐܳ ܐܘܶ

and both figures and points are joined with consonants in the following manner:--

Petocho ܒܰ or ܒܲ _ba_.

Rebhozo ܒܷ or ܒܸ or ܒֽܸ _be_.

Chebhozo ܒܻ or ܒܹ _bi_.

Zekopho ܒܳ or ܒܵ _bo_.

Ozozo ܒܘܽ or ܒܘܿ or ܒܘܼ _bu_.

Formerly the marks for the vowels _E_ and _I_ were only written below the line, as ܒܷ _be_ and ܒܻ _bi_; and the vowels _A_, _O_, and _U_, were only written above, as ܒܰ _ba_, ܒܳ _bo_, ܒܽ _bu_; but now they are placed sometimes above and sometimes below, as may be most convenient in writing. The points never change their places.

Zekopho does not give precisely the sound of _o_, but an obscure sound between _o_ and _a_, as we find in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. ܡܓܳܪܰܢ ܐܳܬܐ _Maran-atha_, and in Mark xiv. 36. ܐܰܒܳܐ _Abba_.

Ozozo is never written without Vau (ܘ), except in ܒܽܠ _all_, and ܡܷܓܛܾܠ _because of_.

When the point Ozozo is above the line, it denotes Kibbutz; but when below the line, Shurek.

The diphthongs are formed by the combination of the vowels with the points, of which these are the most used, ܓܰܘ _au_, ܓܰܝ _ai_, ܓܳܝ _oi_, ܘܳ _ou_.

The vowel marks are not always annexed to the letters to which they belong, but sometimes to the preceding or subsequent letter, and sometimes omitted altogether, so that grammatical analogy must always be attended to by the reader, as, for example, in the word ܒܰܢܝܓܳ _of a son_, the point ܒܰ does not belong to the ܒ over which it is placed, but to the ܢ following.

Three letters (ܐ ܘ ܝ) become quiescent under certain circumstances. Olaph, with the vowels Petocho, Rebhozo, and Zekopho in the middle and at the end of a word; with Chebhozo only at the end. Vau always with Ozozo, and in foreign names also with Zekopho. Lastly, Jud with Rebhozo and Chebhozo.

Olaph never allows of sheva before it, but brings its own vowel into its place, and in that case becomes quiescent.

The vowels are doubtful as respects their quantity, and at one time are short, and at another long; the difference is to be traced from analogy.

There are also two points, called Kuschoï and Ruchoch, used for showing the peculiar power of certain letters, and generally distinguished in manuscripts by a difference in the colour of the ink. Kuschoï is a point placed above the six letters ܒ݁ ܓ݁ ܕ݁ ܟ݁ ܦ݁ ܬ݁ _begadcephat_. It answers to the dagesh in Hebrew, and takes away the aspiration properly belonging to those letters; thus ܒ݁ is equivalent to _b_, ܓ݁ to _g_, ܕ݁ to _d_, ܟ݁ to _k_, ܦ݁ to _p_, ܬ݁ to _t_, also to _bb_, _gg_, _dd_, _kk_, _pp_, _tt_. Ruchoch is a point placed below the six letters ܒ݂ ܓ݂ ܕ݂ ܟ݂ ܦ݂ ܬ݂ _begadcephat_; it shows that the letters are to be aspirated, and answers to the Hebrew raphe; thus ܒ݂ is equivalent to _bh_, ܓ݂ to _gh_, ܕ݂ to _dh_, ܟ݂ to the Greek χ, ܦ݂ to φ, ܬ݂ to θ. These points are rarely expressed, unless where there is an ambiguity to be explained.

Besides those before spoken of, certain lines or points are also employed, having a use partly in orthography, and partly in etymology. To orthography belong--

1. A small transverse line written above combined numbers, or contracted words, as ܝ̅ܗ 15, ܬܫܟ̅ܘ for ܬܫܟܘܽܝܛܐܵ _praise_.

2. A similar small line, called _virgula occultans_, under certain letters, which, when indicated thus, are of no value, and to be passed over in reading, so as scarcely to be heard in pronunciation. Thus ܩܳܪܐ ܐ̱ܙܵܐ is not pronounced _kore ano_, but _koreno_; and ܐܳܡܪ ܐ̱ܙܵܐ not _omar ano_, but _omarno_. Olaph, Dolath, He, Lomad, Nun, and Risch, are the letters most subject to its influence.

3. A diacritical point, changed in its situation in order to avoid an ambiguity in reading. The following may be taken as cases of this sort:--

ܒܝܿܫܐ בַיְשָׁא _miserable_. ܒܝܼܫܐ בִישָׁא _evil_.

ܒܿܟܝܐ בָכְּיָּא _weeping_ (part.). ܒܼܟܝܐ בֶכְיָא _weeping_ (subs.).

ܕܟܙܿܐ דְיָנָא _a judge_. ܕܟܙܼܐ דִינָא _judgment_.

The following belong to etymology:--

1. Two points are used to distinguish the numbers of nouns, because there is often no variation of case or of termination, or mutation of letters, to distinguish the singular from the plural. These two points are called Ribbui, _multitude_, and are placed over the letter, similarly to the Hebrew tzeri, in this manner ܒ̈. But if Risch (ܪ), which always has a point above it, to distinguish it from the Dolath (ܕ), should occur in the word, then the single point of Risch coalesces with the double point thus, ܩܲܩܪ̈ܐ. In the verbs, the double point indicates the feminine third person plural of the preterites.

2. A point is placed beneath the line in all the persons of the preterite (excepting the first person singular, where it is placed above), and besides this, the third person singular has another at the left side.

3. The present active participle has a point above the line, but when Vau is in the middle of the word, the point is placed below.

4. The infinitive and imperative often have a point placed beneath them, but this is not regular.

5. The second and third persons of the future have a point below the line, but the first person has the point above.

6. The imperatives of all the passives require the virgula under the second vowel.

There are no accents expressed in Syriac. The stress in pronunciation ought to be laid on the last or penultimate syllables; and in this respect the analogy of the Chaldee is to be attended to.

In the derivation of words from the Hebrew, letters may frequently undergo mutation with others of the same class, or of the same organ, and also sibilants with linguals.

The servile letters are eleven in number, as in Hebrew, and are the same, saving that Dolath is servile, and on the other hand Schin is radical.

The preceding observations are extracted from Gaspar Waser’s Grammatica Syra, Leyden, 1619, and from Jacob Alting’s Synopsis Institutionum Chaldæarum et Syrarum, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1717.

_Syriac in the British Founderies._

_Double Pica._ V. & J. Figgins; cut under the direction and
partly at the expense of the late Claudius Buchanan.

_English._ Caslon; cut for Walton’s Polyglot, 1657. V. & J.
Figgins; cut under the same circumstances as the Double Pica.
Oxford.

_Long Primer._ Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. & J.
Figgins; cut under the same circumstances as the Double Pica.

_Brevier._ V. & J. Figgins; cut under the same circumstances as
the Double Pica.

_Nonpareil_. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley; cut for Bagster’s
Polyglot.

T.

TABLE WORK.

Figure work, &c., composed with column rules, consisting of five columns or more. It is paid double the price of common matter at case.

TABULAR.

Figure work, &c., composed with column rules, consisting of three or four columns. It is paid one and a half the price of common matter.

TAIL PIECES.

Ornaments placed in a short page to fill up the vacancy. The same observations apply to Tail Pieces as to HEAD PIECES, which see; as also FAC.

TAKE INK.

Dabbing a ball upon the ink block for it to receive a small quantity of ink to distribute on the two balls.--_M._ It is equally termed Taking Ink when rollers are used.

TAKING DOWN.

Taking the sheets from the poles with a peel when they are dry.

TAKE-OFF. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS; also FLY. Boys are employed in machine printing to take away the sheets as they are printed, and to lay them straight and even; this is also styled Taking-off, and the boys taking-off boys.

TAKE UP.

To take letters up with a composing rule to distribute.--_M._ When a compositor is distributing, he places his composing rule against the head of the matter he means to take up, and putting the sides of his two third fingers, near the ends, to the ends of the rule, and the sides of his fingers against the sides of the matter, with his fore fingers at the extreme end, round the corners of the matter he intends to take up, and the ends of his thumbs against the back of the rule, he thus grasps it, and then generally tries if it will lift, when by a sudden lifting of the bottom end of the matter, and turning up of the rule with his thumbs, he raises it from the board to a perpendicular direction, resting on the rule; and turning it with the face of the letter to him, with one part of the rule resting on the third finger of his left hand, and the other end against the ball of his thumb, while the sides of the matter are guarded by his thumb and forefinger, when the measure is not too wide, he begins to distribute.

In like manner he takes up matter to move from one galley to another, when he is making up; except that he places his rule against the foot of the matter, and when he grasps it he does not raise it perpendicularly, but lifts it to him under his hands, his forefinger being against the rule, and his thumbs grasping the head of the matter.

A stranger to the business would be surprised to see the number of lines of types that an expert compositor will lift in this manner.

TAKE UP A SHEET. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.--_M._ It appears that in Moxon’s time the compositor had a copy of each work he was engaged on, or received what was termed copy money in lieu of it. This custom is abolished; and no workman is permitted to take a copy of any thing that is printed in the house as a matter of right.

TAKING COPY.

A compositor receiving copy from the overseer, or other person who has the charge of it, to compose; if in a companionship, the clicker receives it, and gives it out to the companions.

TAKING OFF.

Part of a page taken up to distribute.--_M._ Obsolete.

TALEEK. _See_ PERSIAN.

TAMUL.

THE TAMUL ALPHABET.

+-------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+----+----+
| | a | ā | i | ī | u | ū | e | ē | ei | o | ō | ou |
+-------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+----+----+
| |அ | ஆ | இ | ஈ | உ | ஊ | எ | ஏ | ஐ | ஒ | ஓ | ஔ|
+-------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+----+----+
|ka | க | கா | கி | கீ | கு | கூ |கெ |கே | கை |கொ | கோ|கௌ|
|nga | ங | | | | | | | | | | | |
|cha | ச | | | | சு | சூ | | | | | | |
|nya | ஞ | | | |[#] |[#] | | | | | | |
|Cerebral ḍa | ட | | டி | டீ | டு | டூ | | | | | | |
|Cerebral ṇa | ண|ணா |ணி | ணீ |ணு |ணூ | | |ணெஇ|ணொ|ணோ| |
|ta | த | தா | | | | | | | | | | |
|na | ந | | | | | | | | | | | |
|pa | ப | | | | பு | பூ | | | | | | |
|ma | ம | | | | மு | மூ | | | | | | |
|ya | ய | | | | யு | யூ | | | | | | |
|ra | ர | | | | ரு | ரூ | | | | | | |
|la | ல | | | | லு | லூ | | |லை | | | |
|va | வ | | | | வு | வூ | | | | | | |
|Cerebral ṛa | ழ | | | | ழு | ழூ | | | | | | |
|Cerebral ḷa | ள | | | | ளு | ளூ| | |ளை | | | |
|Cerebral rra | ற | றா | | | று | றூ | | | |றொ |றோ | |
|na | ன |னா | | | னு | னூ| | |னை |னொ|னோ | |
+-------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+----+----+

க--As a medial, this letter has, when single, the sound of _gh_; when double, of _kk_. As an initial also it represents _gh_ in certain words derived from the Sanscrit.

ச--This letter has, when single, the sound of _s_, _sh_, and the French _g_ in _âge_; when double, it has the sound of _ch_. In words of Sanscrit origin, it represents the _ja_ and _cha_ of the Sanscrit alphabet.

த--This letter, when combined with [#], has the sound of the French _n_ in _Ange_.

ட--This letter has, when single, the sound of _d_; when double, of _tt_, with a strong cerebral articulation.

த--As a medial, this letter has, when single, the sound of _d_; when double of _tt_. As an initial, also, it represents _d_ in certain words of Sanscrit origin.

ந--This is the initial _n_. It is medial only before த.

ப--As a medial, this letter has, when single, the sound of _b_; when double, of _pp_. And in certain words of Sanscrit origin it has, as an initial also, the sound of _b_.

ழ--This letter is articulated somewhat like the hard ṛ of the Hindustani alphabet. It may be said to possess generally as a medial, the sound of _r_, and as a final, that of _l_, with a cerebral articulation.

ற--This letter has, when single, the sound of _rr_; and, when double, the sound of a _double tt_.

The word “soul,” is used metaphorically in Tamul for a vowel; the word “body,” for a consonant; and the compound word “soul and body,” for a syllable. In the same metaphorical language, a consonant is termed “a dead letter.”

It will be seen, in the foregoing scheme, that when the short vowel _a_ is employed to give utterance, or (to adopt the metaphor of the Tamul grammarians) _animation_ to the consonants, no additional character is required; it being considered to be inherent in each consonant, as essential to its original articulation. The removal of this originally inherent vowel is usually denoted by a dot or a small circle placed over the consonant, as ன் (_n_), ர் (_r_).

In the elegant dialect, a character written thus ஃ, and termed _āyadam_, is used in addition to the ordinary letters of the alphabet. It is not, strictly speaking, either a vowel or a consonant; but it has the power of a consonant; it is pronounced gutturally, and it lengthens the preceding syllable if short by nature: as இஃது (_ighdu_) “this,” instead of இது (_idu_).

இ before the cerebrals, viz. ட, ண, ழ, ள, ற, has an obscure sound, best expressed by a short _u_, and may be considered as nearly lost.

ஈ before the cerebrals, possesses nearly the sound of long _u_, though a practised ear distinguishes a peculiarity in its utterance.

In Tamul, a measure of time, termed _māttirei_, which is described as occupying the period of the twinkling of an eye, or the snap of a finger, is assigned to the letters in the manner following; viz. to a consonant is assigned half a measure; to a short vowel, one measure; and to a long vowel, two measures.

The character [#] is the consonant _s_ of the Grandonic alphabet.

_Cardinal Numbers._

Figures.

௧ 1
௨ 2
௩ 3
௪ 4
௫ 5
௬ 6
௭ 7
௮ 8
௯ 9
௰ 10
௰௧ 11
௰௨ 12
௰௩ 13
௰௪ 14
௰௫ 15
௰௬ 16
௰௭ 17
௰௮ 18
௰௯ 19
௨௰ 20
௨௰௧ 21
௨௰௨ 22
௨௰௩ 23
௨௰௪ 24
௨௰௫ 25
௨௰௬ 26
௨௰௭ 27
௨௰௮ 28
௨௰௯ 29
௩௰ 30
௩௰௧ 31, &c.
௪௰ 40
௫௰ 50
௬௰ 60
௭௰ 70
௮௰ 80
௯௰ 90
௱ 100
௱௧ 101, &c.
௨௱ 200
௩௱ 300
௯௱ 900
௲ or [#] 1,000
௲௧ or [#] 1,001, &c.
௲௱ or [#] 1,100, &c.
௨௲ 2,000
௰௲ 10,000
௨௰௲ 20,000
௱௲ 1,00,000
௨௱௲ 2,00,000
௨௱௱௲ 20,00,000
௱௱௲ 100,00,000, or
10,000,000

It will be observed that, in many instances, the letters of the alphabet are employed, as in Greek and Latin, to express numerical value.

From “Rudiments of Tamŭl Grammar.” By Robert Anderson, Assistant Professor of Oriental Languages at the East India Company’s College. 4to. 1821.

_Tamul in British Founderies._

_English._ _Fry_; to Thorowgood and Besley; for the College of
Madras. _Oxford_.

_Pica._ _Fry_; to Thorowgood and Besley.

TAYLOR AND MARTINEAU’S PRESS.

This is an iron press, the frame of which forms two upright cheeks and the head. The power is not obtained by a screw, but by a cylinder with a knee-joint in the middle, which is bent when not pulling; this allows the platen to rise from the form, which is accomplished by a weight behind, that counter-balances the platen. The pull is effected by a bar, in the usual manner, that brings the knee-joint straight, depresses the platen, and produces the impression. The power is regulated by a screw through the head, that acts upon the cylinder.

TEASE WOOL, or HAIR.

Teasing the hard and almost matted knots in the wool, or hair, with which the balls are stuffed.--_M_. Wool only is now used for stuffing balls, which is combed with strong wool combs, previous to knocking up balls. It appears by this extract, that hair was used for this purpose as well as wool in the seventeenth century.

TESTAMENT.

For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of Testaments, _see_ PAPER.

THEFT.

For the penalty for printing advertisements with “_No Questions Asked_,” _see_ STOLEN PROPERTY.

THICK SPACE.

A space, three of which are equal to the body of the letter to which it belongs; it is the thickest space that is cast, the next in thickness being the en quadrat.

THIN SPACE

ought, by a strict orderly and methodical measure, to be made of the thickness of the seventh part of the body, though Founders make them indifferently thicker or thinner.--_M_. Six thin spaces are now equal to the body.

THIRTY-SIXMO.

A sheet of paper folded into thirty-six leaves, seventy-two pages, is termed thirty-sixmo.

THIRTY-TWOMO.

A sheet of paper folded into thirty-two leaves, sixty-four pages, is termed thirty-twomo.

THROW.