Chapter XVII: Part 17

The units are compounded with the tens and hundreds, as יא 11, קא 101, and so on: but for יה 15 is סו 9 and 6, lest the sacred name יָה _Jah_ should be profaned.--_Buxtorf._

Hebrew is read from the right to the left. In composing it, the general method is to place the nick of the letter downwards, and when the points are put to the top, to turn the line and arrange those points that come under the letter, taking care to place them in the following order; if the letter has but one leg, the point must be placed immediately under that leg, but otherwise the point must be placed under the centre.

Smith, in his Printer’s Grammar, has the following observations on Hebrew; I have not been able to ascertain upon what authority his reasoning is founded, but I have ascertained the fact of the variation in the types, that he speaks of, by an examination of a Hebrew Bible.

“But we must not pronounce it a fault, if we happen to meet in some Bibles with words that begin with a letter of a much larger Body than the mean Text; nor need we be astonish’d to see words with letters in them of a much less Body than the mean Text; or wonder to see final letters used in the middle of words; for such Notes shew that they contain some particular and mystical meaning. Thus in 2 Chron. I. 1. the word _Adam_ begins with a letter of a larger size than the rest, thereby to intimate, that Adam is the father of all Mankind. Again, in Genes. I. 1. the great Beth in the word _Bereschith_ stands for a Monitor of the great and incomprehensible work of Creation. Contrary to the first, in Prov. XXVIII. 17. the Daleth in the word _Adam_ is considerably less than the Letter of the main text, to signify, that whoever oppresses another openly or clandestinely, tho’ of a mean condition; or who sheds innocent blood, is not worthy to be called Man.

“Sometimes the open or common Mem stands in the room of a final one; as in Nehem. II. 13. where the word _hem_ has an open Mem at the end, in allusion to the torn and open walls of Jerusalem, of which there is mention made; and in Es. VII. 14. where the Prophet speaks of the Conception of the Virgin Mary, the Mem in the word _haalma_, or Virgin, is a close or final letter, to intimate the virginity of the mother of our Saviour. Such are the peculiarities of some Jewish Rabbis in Bibles of their publication; of which we have instanced the above, to caution compositors not to take them for faults, if such mystical writings should come under their hands.”--_Smith._

The following is the date to an Hebrew and Spanish folio Bible, printed by Proops of Amsterdam in 5522 (_i. e._ 1762), showing the date as usual in a sentence, the letters by which the date is computed being larger.

בשנת וׅׄיקראו בספרׅׄ תוׅׄרת אלהיׅׄם מפורשׅׄ לפ׳ק

A^o. 5522.

_Rabbinical._--The language or dialect of the Rabbins is divided into two branches; one approaching nearer to the Hebrew, and the other to the Chaldee, yet each agrees with the other in many points, and both are generally used in conjunction in writing.

The letters agree with the Hebrew and Chaldee in regard to their number and power, but they differ as to the form; for although in the Talmudic text of the Holy Scriptures the Hebrew square character is used, yet in commentaries and elsewhere a rounder letter is adopted, better suited to promote facility in writing. Their points of agreement or difference are shown in the subjoined table:--

א א Aleph.
ב ב Beth.
ג ג Gimel.
ד ד Daleth.
ה ה He.
ו ו Vau.
ז ז Zain.
ח ח Cheth.
ט ט Teth.
י י Jod.
כ כ Caph.
ל ל Lamed.
מ מ Mem.
נ נ Nun.
ס ס Samech.
ע ע Ain.
פ פ Pe.
צ צ Tzaddi.
ק ק Koph.
ר ר Resch.
ש ש Schin.
ת ת Tau.

The finals are the same as in Hebrew, the forms of which they also imitate, in this manner, ך ך, ם ם, ן ן, ף ף, ץ ץ.

There are no lengthened letters in printed books.

The two letters א and ל are often connected by the Rabbins in this manner, ﭏ; as, הﭏ for הָאֵל _Deus_, ﭏא for אֶלָּא _sed_.

It is also to be remarked that they write the name of GOD in different ways; namely, the Tetragrammaton, or יְיָ with the Targumists, or יי, or האם and abbreviated ה׳, _nomen illud_, i.e. the most excellent; but in expressing the word אלהים, they change the letter ה into ד or ק, thus, אלדים or אלקים, which agrees with a general superstition of the Jews.

The vowel points are the same as in the Hebrew, but they are rarely expressed, except in books written for the use of students. When they are wanting, they must be gathered from analogy, in which much assistance may be gained from the frequent use and study of the Hebrew; but where conjecture may be difficult, the three letters י ו א, which are called _the mothers of reading_, are used in order to assist the reader. Thus (1.) א denotes Kamets in גנשי _turpitudo_, וודאי _confessum_, פדאם _redemit eos_, &c; (2.) Vau denotes Cholem, Kybbutz, and Kamets-catuph; as, לקרוא _vocare_, פוקד _visitans_; כולם for כֻלָּם _omnes illi_, כהוכה for כְהֻכָּה _sacerdotium_, לפותרו for לְפָתְּרוֹ _ad explicandum illud_, &c; (3.) Jod denotes Chirek, Tseri, Segol, and occasionally in the Talmud both simple and compound Sheva; as, תפילה _precatio_, בישר _annunciavit_, איבר _perdidit_; also פירוש for פֵרוּש _explicatio_, אילי for אֵלַי _ad me_, שיני for שֵׁנִי _secundus_, ביה for בֵּהּ _in eo_, בריה for בְרֵהּ _filius ejus_, and so continually to mark the feminine affix בְּרָהּ.

The rules for the vowels, and for the Sheva, both simple and compound, and also for the diphthongs, are the same as in the Hebrew and Chaldee.

א is often absorbed by crasis, as, מצינא for מָצֵי אֲנָא _possum_, as if it were _potens ego_, ידענא _scio_, also of the feminine by an enallage frequent in this contraction, thus in לית and ליכא for לא אית and לא אינא _non est_. In the same manner ה is omitted by the Jews in תילם for תהילים _psalmi_. But many others are accustomed to be contracted in this manner by the Jews of Jerusalem, viz., א in נילו for כאילו _quasi_, ות for ואת _et tu_, דת for דאת _quod tu_, דנא for דאנא _quod ego_, והיידינו for והיידא דין הוא _quodnam est illud_; ה in לון for להון _illis_; ח in תותי for תחותי _sub_; ד in קם, קום, or קותי, for קודם _ante_.

Apocope is frequent among the Talmudists, as, בי for בית _domus_, or בין _inter_. So in the pronouns both separate and suffixed, אתו for אתון _vos_, נו for נון _vos_, _vester_, הי for הון _illis_, _suis_; also in the feminine, ני for נין, הי for הין; and in the verbs, as, גרסי for גרסית _docui_, שקלתו _sustulistis_, קאיו _stans_, &c.

Aphæresis also occurs, though seldom, in חד for אחד _unus_, נא for אנא _ego_, נן for אנן _nos_, מר for אמר _dixit_.

They leave the Dagesh, both lene and forte, to be collected from analogy, but where it may be difficult to guess at, as in the preterite Pihel, the letter י indicates the little Chirek as well as the Dagesh forte, as, כיסה for כִסָּה _texit_; and in defectives the letter which had been thrown aside is sometimes restored, as, ינקם for יִקֹם _ulciscetur_, from נקם _ulcisci_.

A point at the end of a letter generally denotes a number, as, א׳ _unum_, ב׳ _duo_, ג׳ _tria_, &c; but at the end of two or more letters it signifies a word cut off by a certain abbreviation, as, את׳ for _dixit_, לות׳ for לותר _dicere_, ה׳ ית׳ for הַשֵׁם יִתְבָרֵךְ _Deus benedictus_, וגו׳ for וִגוֹמַר _et cætera_, in an abrupt passage of Scripture, וכו׳ for וְכֻלּוֹ _et totum illud_, in sacred or profane use. Also פי׳ for פֵרוּשׁ _interpretatio_, or פֵרֵשׁ _interpretatus est_, ר׳ for רבי _Rabbi_, _Magister_, שנ׳ for שֶׁנִּאֱמַר _quia dictum est_, &c.

A double point affixed to a letter indicates either compound numbers, as, י״ד 14, ט״ו 15, תמ״ד 444; or letters taken materially, as, א״לף _Aleph_, ב״ית _Beth_, גי״מל _Gimel_, &c.; or lastly abbreviations by initial letters alone, denoting entire words, which is called ראשי תיבות; the number of these is very great, as אי״ה, that is, (יעזור) אם ירצה השם _si voluerit_ (or _juverit_) _Deus_, א״כ אִם כֵן _si sic_, _si verum est_, אע״פיש for אַף עַל פִי שֶׁ אף על פי ש _etsi_, _quanquam_, ה״בה or הק״בה for הברוך הוא or הקדוש ברוך הוא _Deus benedictus_, _Deus sanctus benedictus_; ה״שו for השם ימברך _Deus benedictus_, ז״ל for זכרונו לברכה _memoria ejus sit in benedictione_, or in the plural number זכרונם לברכה _memoria eorum sit in benedictione_; מ״ו for מס ושלום _parce et pax sit_, that is, _absit_; ״א for יש אמרים _sunt qui dicunt_; ״מ for מפרשים יש _sunt qui interpretentur_; י״ל for יַשׁ לוֹמַר _est dicere_, _respondendum est_; יצר׳ for ישמרהו צורו וגואלו _custodiat eum petra ejus, et redemptor ejus_; כ״א for כִּי אִם _sed_, _nisi_; כ״כ for כָל־כַךְ _tantopere_; נ״פ for כָל־פָנִים _omnibus modis_; כ״ש for כָל־שֶׁכֵּן _quantò magis_, _quantò minus_; ל״ש for לְשֵׁם שָׁמַֽיִם _in honorem Dei_; מ״מ for מִכָּל־מָקוֹם _nihilominus_, _tamen_; ע״ד for עַל דֶרֶךְ _more_, _in modum_; ע״ה for השלום _super quo pax_, ע״ז for עבודה זרה _cultus alienus_, _idololatria_; ע״פ for על פי _ad formam_, _modum_; ע״צ for עַל צַד _ad latus_, _juxta_; פ״א for פירוש אקר _expositio alia_; ר״ל for רוצה לומר _vult dicere_. Also ר״אבע _Rabbi Aben-Ezra_, ר״דק _Rabbi David Kimchi_, רל״בג _Rabbi Levi Ben Gerson_, רמ״בם _Rabbi Moses Ben Maiemon_, ר״שי _Rabbi Salomon Iarchi_, or _Isaac_, &c., which are also read abbreviated, and, as it were, figuratively, _Raba_, _Radak_, _Ralbag_, _Rambam_, _Raschi_, &c.

Accents are omitted in Rabbinical books; but in pronouncing words the Hebrew accent is transposed from the last syllable to the penultimate, thus, they read בראשית ברא אלהים _Beréschith bóro Elóhim_, עולם הבא _aúlom hábbo_; for Vau Cholem is generally pronounced as the diphthong _au_, and the vowel Kamets as an _o_.

There are also certain marks of distinction, by which the perfect sense of a sentence is shown; for an imperfect sentence is not pointed off, and often not even a perfect one. But for this purpose there is used, either two perpendicular points, like the Soph-pasuk in Hebrew, but which appears rarely, and indeed not at all in some books; or a single point at the top of the letter similar to the Greek colon; or lastly, a down stroke, either straight, or oblique like the Greek acute accent, which, although the most frequently used, is yet often neglected.

The purer Rabbins commonly use Hebrew words, but they have also some words peculiar to themselves, which are either borrowed from other languages, as, for example, from the Chaldee, אִילָן _arbor_, גַדָּא _fortuna_, חָזַר _rediit_, &c.; from the Greek, אויר, ἀὴρ, _aër_, זימן, σημεῖον, _signum_, דורון, δῶρον, _donum_, הדיוע, ἰδώτης, _idiota_, פרהסייא, παῤῥησία, בפרהסייא _apertè_, _palàm_, &c.; from the Latin, אושפיזא _hospes_ and _hospitium_, פלעיו and פלעוריו _palatium_, &c.; and even from the Hebrew, but in a Syro-Chaldaic signification, as, פרע _rependit_, _ultus est_, שקל _sustulit_, פרח _volavit_, סמר _destruxit_, &c., or taken evidently in a new sense, as, חין _hæreticus_, טען _argumentando objecit_. Also these three, שמים _cœlum_, המקום _locus_, and גבורה _fortitudo_, are often put for _Deus_, God.

קָ, from the full particle קָא, prefixed to words expletively, and without any increase of signification, seems to be numbered with the serviles by the Talmudists, and which the more vulgar Rabbins, as Rabbi Lipman and the like, who are careless of a correct style, also imitate, as, דקאמר _qui dixit_, מאי קעביד משה _quid fecit Moses?_ לא הווקא מעייליו ליה _non introduxerunt eum_, &c.

The preceding observations are translated from a small treatise intituled “Synopsis Institutionum Rabbinicarum,” by George Otho, Professor of the Greek and Oriental languages at the University of Marburg in Hesse, and who acknowledges to having derived his information from Cellarius, Buxtorf, and Hackspan; and bound in connexion with the “Fundamenta Punctationis Linguæ Sanctæ,” of Jacob Alting, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 2 vols. 1717.

Plan of a Pair of Hebrew Cases, as used in the Queen’s Printing Office.

_Upper Case._

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| אֹ | בֹ | חֹ | דֹ | | טֹ | גֹ ‖ | בֹּ | | דֹּ | | טֹּ | גֹּ |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| הֹ | יֹ | כֹ | לֹ | מֹ | נֹ | עֹ ‖ ב֗ | יֹּ | כֹּ | | מֹּ | נֹּ | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| פֹ | קֹ | רֹ | סֹ | תֹ | צֹ | זֹ ‖ פֹּ | | | סֹּ | תֹּ | צֹּ | זֹּ |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| אּ | בּ | | דּ | | טּ | גּ ‖ ב֖ | ב֥ | ב֞ | ב֩ | ב֠ | ב֡ | ב֯ |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| הּ | יּ | כּ | לּ | מּ | נּ | ‖ ב֣ | ב֫ | ב֒ | ב֧ | ב֛ | ב֓ | ב֘ |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| פּ | קּ | | םּ | תּ | צּ | זּ ‖ | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+
| | | | | | | ‖ |broad| | | | | |
| וֹ | וּ | | ךָ | ךְ | | ﭏ ‖ | ﬣּ | | שּׁ | שּׂ | שֹׁ | שֹּׁ |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---‖---+-----+---+---+---+---+---+

_Lower Case._

VOWEL POINTS.
/--------------^-----------------\
+------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
/ | בָ | בֵ | בַ | בִ | בֶ | בֻ | בְ | בֽ |
| +------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| |Quad- | ב | כ | ד | ח |
| |rats. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
Spaces | +------+---+-------+-------+-------+
and | |En | | | | |
Quadrats | |quads.| | | | |
for < +------+ ל | מ | נ | ה |
justifying | |Em | | | | |
the | |quads.| | | | |
Points. | +------+---+-------+-------+-------+
| |Hair | | | | |
| |sp. | ז | ו | ת |Spaces.|
| +------+ | | | |
| |Sp. | | | | |
\ +------+---+-------+-------+-------+

FINAL LETTERS. BROAD LETTERS.
/--------^---------\ /--------^---------+
+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+------+ |
| ך | ם | ן | ף | ץ | ﬡ | ﬣ | ﬥ | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+------+ |
| י | ש | ס | ג | ט | ﬦ | |
| | | | | +------+ |
| | | | | | ﬨ | /
+-------+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| | | | | | En | Em |
| ע | צ | פ | שׂ | שׁ | quad-| quad-|
| | | | | | rats.| rats.|
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
+-------+---+---+---+---+------+------+
| | | | | |
| | | ק | ׃ | Quadrats. |
| א | ר +---+---+ |
| | | ב֗ | ־ | |
+-------+-------+---+---+-------------+

In the above plans the Hebrew Cases nearly resemble those of the English now in use. The alphabets have been classified and arranged so as to facilitate the composing of it; that is, the three different dotted alphabets in the upper case are quite distinct from each other, being separated by a thicker partition, to lead the eye of the compositor to it with greater certainty. The alphabet, with the dot over the letter, appears first in order, or left hand side of the case; the second alphabet, with the dot in the middle of the letter, under that of the first; and the third alphabet, with the dot over and in the middle of the letter, in the small capital, or right hand side of the case; and underneath, the points and accents required in composing Hebrew with points.

The lower case letters are also arranged as near to the English plan as is possible: the א (a) in the a box; the ב (b) in the b box, &c. so that the compositor can go from a pair of English cases to the Hebrew ones with very little perplexity, and a great saving of time, instead of looking over a wide surface of three cases, as is now the case, without any classification or arrangement whatever.

In composing Hebrew without points the lower case only is required, as the final letters and broad letters are brought into it, and quite under the hand of the compositor, which is desirable.

_Hebrew in the British Founderies._

_Two Line Great Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and
Besley. Oxford.

_Two Line Great Primer_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Two Line English._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.
Wilson.

_Two Line English_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Double Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.
Wilson.

_Double Pica_, with Points. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Great Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Wilson.

_Great Primer_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore.

_English._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly
Bynneman’s. Oxford. Wilson.

_English_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and
Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson; this was cut after the
classical and elegant type of Attias, for Mr. John Wertheimer
of Leman Street, and is employed in printing the prayers of the
Sphardim, edited by the Rev. D. A. De Sola. It may be cast on any
body from English to Bourgeois.

_Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J.
Figgins. Wilson.

_Pica_, with Points. Caslon and Livermore.

_Small Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley,
formerly Bynneman’s. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

_Small Pica_, with Points. V. and J. Figgins. This fount of
Hebrew was cut for Bagster’s Polyglot Bible.

_Long Primer._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley,
formerly Bynneman’s. V. and J. Figgins. Oxford. Wilson.

_Bourgeois._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

_Brevier._ Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly
Bynneman’s. Wilson.

_Minion._ Wilson.

_Nonpareil._ Caslon and Livermore; with points it is equal to a
Long Primer body. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

_Small Pica_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly
Bynneman’s.

_Brevier_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly Bynneman’s.

_Nonpareil_, Rabbinical. Thorowgood and Besley, formerly
Bynneman’s.

HERALDRY.

The colours of the escutcheon, or of its ordinaries and charges, are:--

Yellow (the heraldic name of which is) Or.
White Argent.
Red Gules.
Blue Azure.
Black Sable.
Green Vert.
Purple Purpure.
Orange Tenne.
Dark Blood-red, inclining to purple Sanguine or Murrey,
from mulberry.

The two first being ordinarily represented by gold and silver, are called metals, and named by heralds after the French.

The two last are rarely seen in English coats of arms. The heraldic colours are usually estimated as five,--red, blue, black, green, purple.

HIGH BEARER. _See_ BEARER.

HIND POSTS AND RAILS.

Two upright posts mortised and tenoned into the feet at the back of the wooden press; two rails connect these posts behind; and two rails on the off side and two on the near side connect them with the cheeks, by mortises and tenons; on the top rails a thin deal covering is laid loose, that it may be lifted off, to allow access to the long ribs, and to hang the platen when necessary; it prevents dirt and other matter from falling on the ribs, and serves for a temporary shelf. The ink block is attached to the near rails.

HITHER CHEEK. Same as NEAR CHEEK, which _see_.

HOLDFASTS, for Stereotype Risers. _See_ RISERS.

HOLDS OUT, or HOLDS NOT OUT.

These terms are applicable to the quires of white paper, to wrought-off heaps, to gathered books, and to sorts of letter, &c. If quires of white paper have twenty-five sheets apiece in them, they say, the paper holds out five and twenties. Of wrought-off heaps, the heap that comes off first in gathering is said not to hold out. Of gathered books, if the intended number of perfect books are gathered, they say the impression holds out: but if the intended number of perfect books cannot be gathered off the heaps, they say the impression holds not out. And so for sorts of letter, either when it is in the founding house, or in the printing house.--_M._ There is no paper at the present day with twenty-five sheets in a quire, except that used for newspapers, on account of the stamps.

HOLE.

By a Hole, in printers dialect, is meant and understood a place where private printing is used, viz. the printing of unlicensed books, or printing of other men’s copies. Many printers for lucre of gain have gone into Holes, and then their chief care is to get a Hole private, and workmen trusty and cunning to conceal the Hole, and themselves.--_M._

HOLY-DAYS. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

HOME.

This is a term used at Press, and means that the bar of the press is pulled over till it touches the near cheek; it is then said the bar is home, or it is cheeked. _See_ CHEEK THE BAR.

HOOK-IN.

In poetry it occasionally happens that a line will not come into the measure, in which case, when it is not allowed to turn a line, if it be possible to avoid it, a syllable, or a word, is taken to the end of the preceding line, or, if that be full, to the end of the following one, and enclosed in a bracket; this is termed _Hooking-in_.

HOOKS OF TYMPAN. _See_ TYMPAN HOOKS.

HOPKINSON, MR. JOHN. The Albion Press. _See_ COPE’S PRESS.

HORSE.

Form or bench pressmen set the heaps of paper on. _See also_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.--_M._ In Moxon’s time it appears the pressmen used what was then called a _Horse_, only, for the paper when working, which we now call a _Bank_; we have in addition what is termed a horse, set upon the bank; this horse is made sloping down to the fore edge, and the white paper is placed on it; the pressman is thus enabled to draw the sheets down with the nail of his thumb, or a piece of wood, bone, or ivory, with more facility than if it were laid horizontal, and it is more convenient to remove to the tympan, as the horse is raised near to it, and inclines in the same direction.

HORSE FLESH.

If any journeyman set down in his bill on Saturday night more work than he has done, that surplusage is called _Horse-flesh_; and he abates it in his next bill.--_M._ This surplusage of charge, as Moxon terms it, is now called _Horse_, and it is not always deducted in the next bill.

HORSE RACES.

By the Act of the 13th of George 2. cap. 19.

s. 2. it is enacted, “That from and after the said twenty-fourth
Day of _June_ one thousand seven hundred and forty, no Plate,
Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing, shall be run for by any
Horse, Mare or Gelding, or advertised, published or proclaimed
to be run for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, unless such Plate,
Prize or Sum of Money shall be of the full, real and intrinsick
Value of fifty Pounds, or upwards; and in case any Person or
Persons shall from and after the twenty-fourth Day of _June_ one
thousand seven hundred and forty enter, start or run any Horse,
Mare or Gelding, for any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other
Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds, or shall make, print,
advertise, publish or proclaim any Advertisement or Notice of
any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value
than fifty Pounds as aforesaid, to be run for by any Horse, Mare
or Gelding; every such Person or Persons so entering, starting
or running such Horse, Mare or Gelding for such Plate, Prize,
Sum of Money, or other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds as
aforesaid, shall forfeit and lose the Sum of two hundred Pounds,
to be sued for, recovered and disposed of in such Manner as
is herein after prescribed and directed; and every Person or
Persons who shall make, print, publish, advertise or proclaim any
Advertisement or Notice of any Plate, Prize, Sum of Money, or
other Thing of less Value than fifty Pounds aforesaid, to be run
for by any Horse, Mare or Gelding, shall forfeit and lose the Sum
of one hundred Pounds.”

So much of the act of 13 Geo. 2. c. 19. “as relates to the Subject of Horse Racing,” was repealed by 3 Vict. c. 5. s. 1.

HOSE.

Two upright bars of iron that connected the garter and the hose hooks, and went through the till. There were screws at each end, by which they could tighten the platen cords, if they became slack.--_M._

The hose in wooden presses is now quite different: it is a wooden case for the spindle to work in, made hollow in the inside to fit it, and to which it is connected by the garter; it is square on the outside, and passes through an opening in the till, which it should fit accurately; and is tied to the platen by means of four iron hooks, one at each bottom corner. Its uses are, to guide the platen down to the form in a horizontal position, by its passing through the till; and also to lift the platen from off the form, which it does by the return of the press bar, and its connexion with the spindle by means of the garter.

HOSE HOOKS.

Four iron hooks at the bottom corners of the hose, to which the platen is tied. They are projections from an iron belt that embraces the bottom of the hose, and stand facing the platen hooks.

HOURS.

Pressmen reckon their works by hours, accounting every token to an hours work: and though it be the same effectually with tokens, yet they make their prices of different work by the hour; and it passes current for a token. If two men work at the press, ten quires is an hour; if one man, five quires is an hour.--_M._ The quires of paper at this time always contain twenty-four sheets, at least the inside quires do, which alone are used for bookwork; and a token is ten quires eighteen sheets, which is still called an Hour, whatever the price may be: thus, if two men at a press print twelve tokens of paper in a day, they say, they have done twelve hours; and if it be fine work, at which, through the care bestowed on it, they can only print three tokens, or four tokens, they say, they do three hours, or four hours, in a day; although it takes the same time in performing that the twelve tokens did.

HYDRAULIC PRESS.

This press was invented and introduced to the public by Mr. Joseph Bramah, of Piccadilly, Engineer. Mr. W. Nicholson, in his Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts, vol. 1. April, 1797, gave an account of it, with engravings, from which the following observations are extracted, which will give a brief description of this powerful machine, that is superseding the common book press with a screw in all extensive establishments.

“Its action is as follows: when the lever or pump handle is raised, it brings up the piston, which would leave a vacuum beneath if the pressure of the atmosphere did not force the water in through a side valve. The lever is then to be pressed down, which causes the side valve to shut, and forces the water through a valve at the bottom, whence it passes through a pipe into the cavity of the great cylinder, and raises the piston or pressing rammer. A repetition of the same process forces more water in, and the pressure may in this manner be carried to a great extent.

“There is no difficulty in computing the force of this instrument. If the diameter of the pump barrel be one quarter of an inch, and that of the cylinder one inch, that is to say, four quarters of an inch; one pound lodged upon the piston rod of the pump will be in equilibrio with sixteen pounds lodged upon the table of the press; the weights of the parts of the engine attached to, and moving with each piston, being respectively included. And if the length of the pump lever be fifteen inches, and the distance between the centres of motion and of action be two inches, one pound at the end of the lever will gain an advantage of 7½ times when compared with that at the piston rod. Instead, therefore, of sixteen pounds upon the table being equal in effect to counterpoise this last action, there will be required upwards of 120 pounds. But a man in this action of pumping by a downward pressure, can without difficulty apply his whole weight, and with great ease one third or one fourth of his weight, suppose 50 pounds. In this case the pressure will be equivalent to fifty times 120 pounds, or 6000 pounds, that is to say, nearly three tons.

“To compare this engine with a screw, in theory, we must enquire what fineness of thread and length of lever would afford a purchase of 120 to one. Let us suppose the thread of a screw, substituted in the place of the cylinder, to be one tenth of an inch thick; the distance from the top of one thread to the top of the next will in this case be one fifth of an inch. This is the space through which the weight must rise in one revolution. The power must therefore move through 120 times that space, namely twenty-five inches; but a lever or radius four inches long will describe a circle somewhat larger than this, and consequently such an engine would in theory be equal in power to the hydraulic engine we have been contemplating.

“But when the subject is viewed practically, the difference between the two engines appears to be very remarkable. All practical men know how very large a part of the force operating by means of engines is employed in overcoming frictions. Every one is aware of the extreme friction between solids, and the very slight friction which takes place between the parts of fluids. This is seen in the common expedient of oiling the pivots of wheels, and in the very gradual decay of motion in fluid bodies; while solids moving on each other stop at once, as soon as the force is diminished to a certain degree. The screw is an organ peculiarly liable to friction, and this friction is always much greater than the whole of the reacting force; for there are few instances where a screw will return from extreme pressure, when the agency upon the lever is withdrawn. It is also to be considered, that the whole force of the weight or resistance acts directly upon the face of the screw, at which the motion is required to take place. It has not been appreciated in what degree this resistance or friction increases with the weight. In lighter actions the simple ratio has been inferred; but under more severe pressures the two metallic faces extrude the greater part of the half-fluid matter between them, and appear, by the magnitude of their resistance, to be attached to each other by a process of the nature of cohesive attraction. For these and other reasons, it appears nearly impracticable to form any comparison between two engines so different in principle, but such as shall be deduced from immediate experiment of their effects. I am not in possession of numerical data to indicate the actual power of screw-engines or presses; which are perhaps the less necessary, because those who are the most interested in the success of an improvement like the present, are for the most part able to come at these without difficulty.

“In an engine of this kind, the diameter of the great piston was four inches, and of the smaller three-eighths of an inch; and the advantage given by the lever or handle was twelve to one. Above the piston of the great cylinder was applied a long lever, at one end of which was an axis, and at the other end a large scale to hold weights; it contained twenty hundred weight. The distance between the axis of motion of this lever and the part where it acted on the piston was six inches; and the distance from the same axis to the extremity where the scale was hung was 126 inches. Every hundred weight in the scale consequently pressed upon the piston with a force equal to twenty-one hundred weight; whence the whole pressure was twenty-one tons. It was easy to work the lever briskly with one hand, and each stroke raised the scale near one-third of an inch. Forty-seven pounds hung at the end of the lever, carried it down with a moderate swiftness of working; but a weight of only forty-three pounds remained in equilibrio, and did not descend. Now, as the true weight in theory was thirty-two pounds, it follows that less than one-third of the actual power was employed to give velocity and overcome all friction.

“It may be remarked, that the principal frictions in these machines must be at the circumference of the pistons, and that these do not increase in the simple, but in less than the subduplicate, ratio of the power. For if the diameter of the great cylinder were double, every thing else remaining unchanged, the surface of its piston, and consequently the power, would be quadrupled. But the friction would be only doubled, and that merely at the leathering of the greater piston.

“As the pressure in the experiment last mentioned amounted to 47·040 pounds upon the great piston of four inches in diameter, or sixteen circular inches surface, it amounted to 2940 pounds upon each round inch. But the medium pressure of the atmosphere on a round inch is near twelve pounds, consequently the action was equal to 245 atmospheres: and as each of these corresponds with a column of 34 feet of fresh water at a medium, the water in the cylinder was pressed in the same manner as if the whole column had been 8330 feet, or 1⅔ mile, long.

“Large presses of this construction are made with two pumps of 1¼ inch bore, and a cylinder of seven inches. These have been used in pressing hay and cotton for package; and, as I am informed, are effective in producing a greater condensation on the material with a much less application of moving power and consumption of time.”

The following description and figures are taken from Dr. Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, 8vo. 1839.

“The framing consists of two stout cast-iron plates _a_, _b_, which are strengthened by projecting ribs, not seen in the section, _fig._ 1. The top or crown plate _b_, and the base plate _a_, are bound most firmly together by four cylinders of the best wrought iron, _c_, _c_, which pass up through holes near the ends of the said plates, and are fast wedged in them. The flat pieces _e_, _e_, are screwed to the ends of the crown and base plates, so as to bind the columns laterally. _f_ is the hollow cylinder of the press, which, as well as the ram _g_, is made of cast iron. The upper part of the cavity of the cylinder is cast narrow, but is truly and smoothly rounded at the boring-mill, so as to fit pretty closely round a well-turned ram or piston; the under part of it is left somewhat wider in the casting. A stout cup of leather, perforated in the middle, is put upon the ram, and serves as a valve to render the neck of the cylinder perfectly water-tight, by filling up the space between it and the ram; and since the mouth of the cup is turned downwards, the greater the pressure of water upwards, the more forcibly are the edges of the leather valve pressed against the inside of the cylinder, and the tighter does the joint become. This was Bramah’s beautiful invention.

“Upon the top of the ram, the press-plate or table _h_, strengthened with projecting ridges, rests, which is commonly called the follower, because it follows the ram closely in its descent. This plate has a half-round hole at each of its four corners, corresponding to the shape of the four iron columns along which it glides in its up-and-down motions of compression and relaxation.

“_k_, _k_, _figs._ 1. and 2., is the framing of a force pump with a narrow barrel; _i_ is the well for containing water to supply the pump. To spare room in the engraving, the pump is set close to the press, but it may be removed to any convenient distance by lengthening the water-pipe _u_, which connects the discharge of the force pump with the inside of the cylinder of the press. _Fig._ 3. is a section of the pump and its valves. The pump _m_, is of bronze; the suction-pipe _n_, has a conical valve with a long tail; the solid piston or plunger _p_, is smaller than the barrel in which it plays, and passes at its top through a stuffing-box _q_; _r_ is the pressure-valve, _s_ is the safety-valve, which, in _fig._ 2., is seen to be loaded with a weighted lever; _t_ is the discharge-valve, for letting the water escape, from the cylinder beneath the ram, back into the well. See the winding passages in _fig._ 4. _u_ is the tube which conveys the water from the pump into the press-cylinder. In _fig._ 2. two centres of motion for the pump-lever are shown. By shifting the bolt into the centre nearest the pump-rod, the mechanical advantage of the workman may be doubled. Two pumps are generally mounted in one frame for one hydraulic press; the larger to give a rapid motion to the ram at the beginning, when the resistance is small; the smaller to give a slower but more powerful impulsion, when the resistance is much increased. A pressure of 500 tons may be obtained from a well-made hydraulic press with a ten-inch ram, and a two and a one inch set of pumps.”

In a Report addressed to the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods, Forests, &c., in July 1839, as the result of an inquiry with reference to the selection of stone for building the new Houses of Parliament, it is stated the experiments relating to the cohesive strength of the stones, or their resistance to pressure, were made at the manufactory of Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, with a six-inch hydraulic press, the pump of which was one inch in diameter. According to trials previously made by Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, one pound weight at the end of the pump lever produced a pressure on the face of the cube [two inches square] equal to 2·53 cwt., or to 71·06 lbs. on the square inch; from this datum it may be estimated how immense the pressure is that can be obtained by this press, when the strength of a man is exerted at the pump. I have used the common book press with an iron screw to press printed paper, and I have also used a Hydraulic press of an estimated power of eighty tons: besides the greater expedition in pumping this press up than screwing the other down, I can state from my own observation, that the hydraulic press produced as great an effect upon the paper in three hours as the screw press did in a night, or at least fourteen hours. This may show the great superiority of this press over that which has been in general use in printing offices. The hydraulic press has fully accomplished in practice all that was expected from it, and has established for itself a high character, which it richly deserves.

HYPHEN.

A hyphen, marked thus (-), is employed in connecting compounded words; as, “Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.”

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second.--_Murray._

I.

IDENTIGRAPHY.

The Dutch papers in 1825 mentioned a new discovery in printing, to which the inventor gave the name of Identigraphy. It consists in a new application of the art of lithography, by which a reprint of common letterpress is obtained in a very short time; the inventor undertaking to reprint the foreign journals within two hours after their arrival by the mail.

ILLUMINATOR. _See_ FAC.

IMPERFECTIONS.

_Books._--In gathering books, when one sheet is off, the surplus of the other sheets is called Imperfections.--_M._

We now call this surplus the _Waste_: and after the work is delivered, or is in a state of delivery, and the bookbinder, or any person in whose possession the book may be, discovers that a sheet, or part of a sheet, or a plate, or any part whatever, is wanting, to make the book complete, he applies for them; or he may apply to change a sheet that is either dirty or torn. These deficiencies, or defects, are now termed Imperfections. _See_ WASTE.

_Letters._--When the founder has not cast a proportionable number of each sort of letter, the wanting letters are called _Imperfections_, as making the rest of the fount imperfect. _See_ SORTS.--_M._

IMPERFECT PAPER.

Paper sent into a printing office to print upon, without the extra quantity which partly constitutes perfect paper; thus a ream of imperfect paper consists of twenty quires of twenty-four sheets each, which makes a ream containing 480 sheets; in this state it is termed inside quires: sometimes, but rarely, it is sent in with the outside quires, in which case there are not so many sheets in a ream. _See_ PAPER; also PERFECT PAPER.

IMPERIAL PRESS. _See_ SHERWIN AND COPE’S PRESS.

IMPOSING,

is the arrangement of the pages of a sheet, or of a form, in their proper order on the stone, and the wedging of them up in a chase, with a view to their being printed.

The knowledge of thus laying down pages, so that the sheets may fold correctly when printed, is of essential consequence to every compositor engaged on book work.

A workman would be held inexcusable who did not know how to lay down with accuracy all the common sizes; viz. quartos, octavos, and duodecimos: but even with this knowledge he is frequently at a loss when at work upon sizes that do not frequently occur; and more particularly so at the close of a volume where there are fragments, which are required to be imposed together, for the purpose of saving presswork and warehouse work.

A youth, who has just gone to the business, feels a natural pride in showing that he is making progress; and he wishes to improve himself without having continually to appeal to his instructor; but he does not possess the means.

The young man from the country, who has been educated in a house where there has not been much book work done, which is generally the case, and who, of course, is not very expert at his profession, when he comes to work in an extensive book house in town, feels his deficiency, and more particularly if he has to lay down his pages in a large companionship; he does not like to acknowledge his ignorance, nor to ask for information: he has consequently to work his way at a great disadvantage.

Under these circumstances it frequently happens that the pages are laid down wrong, which causes a great deal of trouble and loss of time in their rectification; and this trouble is considerably increased if the work be on a small type and solid. In this case, if the cords have been taken off, it is not advisable to transpose the pages without wetting them, for fear of breaking the matter, or at least squabbling it; the form has then to be dried, before the pressman can pull another proof.

All the works on Printing hitherto published, are deficient in giving a sufficient variety of tables for imposing, as a reference for the workman, as well as for the reader and the master printer. This deficiency of reference occasionally causes the compositor to re-impose his forms, as I just now observed, and also in many instances to cut up new furniture.

To remedy this inconvenience I have considerably exceeded the number of what has been given in any other work, by adding such tables as are likely to occur in practice, and to which there has hitherto been no reference.

I have given all the Tables of Imposition that are in Luckombe and in Stower, except a half-sheet of sixty-fours, although I disapprove of the arrangement of the pages in many of them, from their not cutting up or folding in the most convenient manner; yet, as they have been acted on in a great number of instances, I would not reject them, it being advisable in reprints to preserve uniformity, which may enable the proprietor to make up a few more copies from the waste of both editions. I have added several, in which I think there is an improvement in these particulars.

I have also endeavoured to make each size complete, by giving a sheet, a half sheet, a quarter of a sheet, and the usual fragments that occur; varying the arrangement of the pages in a great number of instances, to suit the different ways of folding the paper.

The whole of the signatures in each form are given, that they may serve as a guide in laying down the pages, particularly where there are a great number in a sheet; they might then all be taken out, if thought proper, except the first, and the first in the offcut, which are the only ones I would retain, and all that are necessary, the others causing the bottoms of the pages to look unsightly; for the person who folds the sheets has only to keep the signature at the outside, and the pages must be folded right.

When works are in half sheets, it is advantageous to work two together, as it enables the bookseller to deliver a single copy in sheets without cutting up the back; and also at the conclusion of a work that is in sheets where there are two half sheets, as it saves time and trouble in the warehouse; it not being necessary to divide the sheet and insert a half in each volume, but the whole sheet may be gathered in the volume to which either of the signatures belongs; by which means there will be fewer mistakes, and fewer imperfections required.

When we arrive at a great number of pages in a sheet, they resolve themselves into the same order as quartos, octavos, and duodecimos; and in these cases I have repeated the imposition rather than refer to another size, which is not always very clearly understood when two, three, or more sheets are combined. Upon this principle I have repeated the half sheets, quarter sheets, and fragments, so as to make each size complete in itself.

It is usual when a fragment at the end of a volume makes six pages to impose it as eight: in this case there are two blank pages. Sometimes the author fills these up, by adding to the text; at other times the bookseller occupies them with advertisements of other publications in which he is interested.

When a compositor lays down his pages, it might prevent mistakes if he looked over them to see that they were right before he untied the page cords; and it is a good check to examine the folios of every two adjoining pages in a quarter, to see that their sum makes one more than the number of pages in the sheet, or half sheet: thus, in a sheet of folio, 1 and 4, equal to 5, are imposed together; in a quarto, 1 and 8; in an octavo, 1 and 16; in a duodecimo, 1 and 24; in sixteens, 1 and 32; in eighteens, 1 and 36; and so in every other size: and this combination continues through all the other adjoining pages, according to the order in which they lie on the stone, calling the first page in the sheet 1, the second 2, and so on in succession.

The short cross is always better in the middle of the chase, if the margin will allow it; as it divides the matter more equally, and the form is safer when it is locked up.

If it be the first sheet of a work that is to be imposed, or it be found necessary to increase the number of sheets in chase, the compositor applies to the overseer, or to the person who has the care of the materials, for a pair of chases.

The pages being laid upon the stone in their proper order, and as near the required distance from each other as can be determined by the eye, the compositor then places his chases; he takes one with both hands and lays the off side or end, as it may be, on the stone at the outer side of his pages, and lowers the near side gradually, till it lies flat on the stone, taking care that the inner edges of the chase and the cross bars do not rest on the face of the pages to injure them, and that the grooves in the short cross are upwards.

The furniture has now to be cut for the sheet; but previous to doing this it is necessary to ascertain what kinds of it will be wanted, by trying the margin with a sheet of paper of the work, otherwise a great risk is run of cutting an expensive article to waste, and of incurring also a loss of time, both of which should be avoided if possible. The manner of making margin will be explained under its proper head. _See_ MARGIN.

I would recommend that the headsticks in octavos should be in two pieces, each of them a little longer than the page is wide; this will allow the gutters to be a little longer than the page, so that they will come close to the footsticks at the bottom, and at the other end will go between the headsticks, thus securing the inside of the two pages, without any risk of the gutters binding when locked up, which they are apt to do when cut to the precise length of the page, as is the custom when the headsticks for each quarter are in one piece. The gutters thus being equal to about three picas more in length than the page, will answer for other works where the page is of the same width, but different in length.

The headsticks and gutters being arranged, the compositor will cut his backs a little longer than the page, and these abutting against the headsticks that project beyond the page towards the cross, will secure that side. The sidesticks should be of the full length of the page, and abut against the headsticks on the outside of the form. The footsticks may be a trifle shorter than the width of two pages and the gutter; for as there should always be a line of quadrats, or a reglet cut to measure, at the foot of each page, the footstick may be a pica shorter without danger, on this account, of any thing falling out, when the form is lifted, and it thus prevents the side and foot sticks from binding when locked up.

By cutting the furniture in this manner, the compositor will at once perceive that all his pages will be secure, and that the furniture cannot bind in any place when locked up. The gutter is pushed down to the footstick, and extends beyond the top of the pages; the two headsticks abut against the gutter, and project a little beyond the sides of their pages; the back is pushed up to the headstick, and extends a little below the bottom of the page; the footstick abuts against the back, and by being about a pica short prevents the sidestick from binding against it; and the sidestick abuts against the head, and extends the full length of the page: neither is there any impediment to driving the quoins.

I would never cut the heads and the backs of such a length as to project beyond the side and foot sticks; for when they do, they are in the way of the shooting stick, if a quoin has been driven close up, when the form has to be unlocked. Neither should the headstick project so much as the thickness of the back; nor the extra length of the gutter be so much as the headstick; otherwise they will bind and prevent the form from rising.