Chapter II: Part 2

“The _Father_ of the _Chappel_ drinks first of _Chapel Drink_,
except some other Journey-man have a _Token_; viz. Some agreed
piece of Coin or Mettle markt by consent of the _Chappel_: for
then producing that _Token_, he Drinks first. This _Token_ is
always given to him who in the Round should have Drank, had the
last _Chappel-drink_ held out. Therefore when _Chappel-drink
comes in_, they generally say, _Who has the Token?_

“Though these Customs are no _Solaces_; yet the _Chappel_
Excommunicates the Delinquent; and he shall have no benefit of
_Chappel-money_ till he have paid.

“It is also customary in some Printing-houses that if the
_Compositer_ or _Press-man_ make either the other stand still
through the neglect of their contracted Task, that then he who
neglected, shall pay him that stands still as much as if he had
Wrought.

“The Compositers are Jocosely called _Galley Slaves_: Because
allusively they are as it were bound to their _Gallies_.

“And the _Press-men_ are Jocosely called _Horses_: Because of the
hard Labour they go through all day long.

“An Apprentice when he is Bound pays half a Crown to the
_Chappel_, and when he is made Free, another half Crown to the
_Chappel_; but is yet no Member of the _Chappel_; And if he
continue to Work Journey-work in the same House, he pays another
half Crown, and is then a Member of the _Chappel_.

“The Printers of _London_, Masters and Journey-men, have every
Year a general Feast, which since the re-building of Stationers
Hall is commonly kept there. This Feast is made by four Stewards,
viz. two Masters and two Journey-men; which Stewards, with the
Collection of half a Crown apiece of every Guest, defray the
Charges of the whole Feast; And as they collect the Half-Crowns,
they deliver every Guest a Ticket, wherein is specified the Time
and Place they are to meet at, and the Church they are to go to:
To which Ticket is affixed the Names and Seals of each Steward.

“It is commonly kept on or about _May-day_: When, about ten
a Clock in the Morning they meet at _Stationers Hall_, and
from thence go to some Church thereabouts; Four Whifflers (as
Servitures) by two and two walking before with White Staves in
their Hands, and Red and Blew Ribbons hung Belt-wise upon their
left Shoulders. Those go before to make way for the Company.
Then walks the Beadle of the Company of _Stationers_, with the
Company’s Staff in his Hand, and Ribbons as the Whifflers, and
after him the Divine (whom the Stewards before ingag’d to Preach
them a Sermon) and his Reader. Then the Stewards walk by two and
two, with long White Wands in their Hands, and all the rest of
the Company follows, till they enter the Church.

“Then Divine Service begins, Anthems are Sung, and a Sermon
Preached to suit the Solemnity: Which ended, they in the same
order walk back again to _Stationers Hall_; where they are
immediately entertain’d with the City Weights and other Musick:
And as every Guest enters, he delivers his Ticket (which gives
him Admittance) to a Person appointed by the Stewards to receive
it.

“The Master, Wardens and other Grandees of the Company (although
perhaps no Printers) are yet commonly invited, and take their
Seats at the upper Table, and the rest of the Company where it
pleases them best. The Tables being furnish’d with variety of
Dishes of the best Cheer: And to make the entertainment more
splendid is usher’d in with Loud Musick. And after Grace is said
(commonly by the Minister that Preach’d the Sermon) every one
Feasts himself with what he likes Best; whiles the Whifflers and
other Officers Wait with Napkins, Plates, Beer, Ale, and Wine,
of all sorts, to accommodate each Guest according to his desire.
And to make their Cheer go cheerfuller down, are entertained with
Musick and Songs all Dinner time.

“Dinner being near ended, the Kings and the Dukes Healths is
begun, by the several Stewards at the several Tables, and goes
orderly round to all the Guests.

“And whiles these Healths are Drinking, each Steward sets a Plate
on each Table, beginning at the upper end, and conveying it
downwards, to Collect the Benevolence of Charitable minds towards
the relief of _Printers_ Poor Widows. And at the same time each
Steward distributes a Catalogue of such Printers as have held
Stewards ever since the Feast was first kept, _viz._ from the
Year of Christ 1621.

“After Dinner, and Grace said, the Ceremony of Electing new
Stewards for the next Year begins: Therefore the present Stewards
withdraw into another Room: And put Garlands of Green Lawrel, or
of Box on their Heads, and White-wands in their Hands, and are
again Usher’d out of the withdrawing Room by the Beadle of the
Company, with the Companys Staff in his Hand, and with Musick
sounding before them: Then follows one of the Whifflers with a
great Bowl of White-wine and Sugar in his Right Hand, and his
Whifflers Staff in his Left: Then follows the Eldest Steward, and
then another Whiffler, as the first, with a Bowl of White-wine
and Sugar before the second Steward, and in like manner another
Whiffler before the Third, and another before the Fourth. And
thus they walk with Musick sounding before them three times round
the Hall: And in a fourth round the first Steward takes the Bowl
of his Whiffler and Drinks to one (whom before he resolved on) by
the Title of Mr. Steward Elect: And taking the Garland off his
own Head puts it upon the Steward Elects Head. At which Ceremony
the Spectators clap their Hands, and such as stand on the Tables
or Benches, so Drum with their Feet that the whole Hall is
filled with Noise, as applauding the Choice. Then the present
Steward takes out the Steward Elect, giving him the Right
Hand, and walks with him Hand in Hand, behind the three present
Stewards another Round about the Hall: And in the next Round, as
aforesaid, the second Steward Drinks to another with the same
Ceremony as the first did; and so the Third Steward, and so the
Fourth, and then all walk one Round more Hand in Hand about the
Hall, that the Company may take notice of the Stewards Elect. And
so ends the Ceremony of the Day.

“This Ceremony being over, such as will go their ways; but others
that stay, are Diverted with Musick, Songs, Dancing, Farcing, &c.
till at last they all find it time to depart.”

ANCIENT NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS. _See_ NAMES.

ANGLO-SAXON. _See_ SAXON.

ANTEPENULTIMATE.

The last syllable but two of a word.

APOSTROPHE.

An apostrophe, marked thus ’, is used to abbreviate or shorten a word: as, _’tis_ for _it is_; _tho’_ for _though_; _e’en_ for _even_; _judg’d_ for _judged_. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns: as, “A man’s property; a woman’s ornament.”--_Murray._

Authors frequently, in the hurry of writing, abbreviate their words and use the apostrophe; but a compositor, however his copy may be written, should never abbreviate any word in prose works, except he be particularly ordered so to do.

The apostrophe is also used in printing to close an extract, or to show where it finishes; and in dialogues, frequently, to close each person’s speech; in both cases it is usually put close to the end of the word, without any space before it, except where the word finishes with a kerned letter, and then a hair space, or one just sufficient for their preservation is used; when it comes after an ascending letter, a hair space should also be put between them. _See_ QUOTATION.

The apostrophe is not used for abbreviation in the Holy Scriptures, nor in Forms of Prayers; but every thing there is set full and at length. To this even the Latin law language had regard, and did not shorten the word DOMINUS, when it had reference to God; whereas _Dom. Reg._ is put where our Lord the King is understood.

APPLEGATH, AUGUSTUS. _See_ MACHINES.

ARABIC.

Arabic is read from right to left. The method of composing it is upside down, and after the points are placed at the top of the letters it is turned in the composing stick.

Mr. Astle says, “The old Arabic characters are said to be of very high antiquity; for Ebn Hashem relates, that an inscription in it was found in Yaman, as old as the time of Joseph. These traditions may have given occasion to some authors to suppose the Arabians to have been the inventors of letters; and Sir Isaac Newton supposes, that Moses learned the alphabet from the Midianites, who were Arabians.

“The Arabian alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, which are somewhat similar to the ancient Kufic, in which characters the first copies of the Alcoran were written.

“The present Arabic characters were formed by Ebn Moklah, a learned Arabian, who lived about 300 years after Mahomet. We learn from the Arabian writers themselves, that their alphabet is not ancient.”

Seven different styles of writing are used by the Arabs in the present day. Herbin has given descriptions and specimens of them in an Essay on Oriental Caligraphy at the end of his “Développemens des Principes de la Langue Arabe Moderne.”

The alphabets are copied, and the following observations are translated, from Baron De Sacy’s Arabic Grammar, 2 vol. 8vo. _Paris_, 1831.

7. It was long thought that the written character which the Arabs most generally use at the present day, and which is called _neskhi_, was invented only about the commencement of the 4th century of the Hegira; and, indeed, it appears that the Arabs, before this epoch, used another character which we call Cufic, or Coufic, from the town of Coufa, where, doubtlessly, it first was brought into use. This character has so great a resemblance to the ancient Syriac character called _Estranghelo_, that it is extremely probable that the Arabs borrowed it from the people of Syria. Nevertheless, even the name of Coufic, given to this character, proves that it is not that which the Arabs of the Hedjaz made use of in the time of Mohammed, the town from which it takes its name having been founded only in A. H. 17. Some papyri lately discovered in Egypt have apprised us that the character which the Arabs of the Hedjaz made use of in the 1st century of the Hegira, differed little from that which is called _neskhi_. Moreover, in the time of Mohammed, writing was, among these Arabs, if we may believe their historic traditions, an invention very recent, and its use was very circumscribed. But it was otherwise, according to all appearances, among the Arabs, whether nomadic or settled, of Yemen, of Irak, and perhaps of Central Arabia; for, although we do not know the characters which the Arabs made use of in very ancient times, and the few traditions which Mussulman writers have handed down to us on this subject throw but very little light on this point of antiquity, it is scarcely possible to imagine that all the people of Arabia should have remained without a written character until the 6th century of the Christian era. The Jewish and the Christian religions were widely diffused in Arabia; the Ethiopians, who professed the latter faith, had even conquered Yemen, and retained its possession for a long while: another part of Arabia had frequent political relations with Persia, and it is found at many times in a state of dependence, more or less immediate, on the kings of the Sassanian dynasty. Under these circumstances, can it be reasonably supposed that the Arabs were ignorant of the use of writing? Is it not more likely that what history tells us of their ignorance in this respect is true only of some tribes, of those, for example, who were settled at Mecca or in the neighbourhood of that town; and that the character which these received from Mesopotamia, a short time previous to Mohammed, having been employed to write the Kurán, soon spread over all Arabia with the Mohammedan religion, and caused the other more ancient sorts of writing to fall into desuetude? It is true, no vestige of these characters remains, but if one may be permitted to hazard a conjecture, they did not materially differ from that ancient alphabet, common to a great many nations of the East, and of which the Phœnician and Palmyrenian monuments, as well as the ruins of Nakschia-Roustam and of Kirmanschah, and the coins of the Sassanides, have perpetuated the knowledge even to our own days. Perhaps another sort of writing, peculiar to Southern Arabia, was only a variety of the Ethiopic.

8. The Arabs of Africa have a character differing slightly from that made use of by the Arabs of Asia. I do not comprehend, among the Africans, the inhabitants of Egypt, for they use the same character as the Asiatics. For the sake of comparison I have shown the manner in which the Jews and Syrians employ their peculiar character when they are writing in the Arabic language.

I do not speak here of the character called _talik_ تعلیق or _nestalik_ نستعليق, because it is peculiar to the Persians. I may say as much of the different kinds of writing proper to the Turks or to the people of India, among whom the Mussulmans of Persia have introduced their characters with their language and religion.

_Arabic Alphabet.--The Neskhi Character._

Key to Column Headers--
U - Unconnected.
JP - Joined to the preceding Letter only.
J - Joined to the preceding and following Letter.
JF - Joined to the following Letter only.
PL - Powers of the Letters.
NV - Numerical Value.

Order Name U JP J JF PL NV.
1. Elif ا ـا ... ... A. 1.
2. Ba ب ـب ـبـ بـ B. 2.
3. Ta ت ـت ـتـ تـ T. 400.
4. Tsa ث ـث ـثـ ثـ Ts. 500.
5. Djim ج ـج ـجـ جـ Dj. 3.
6. Ha ح ـح ـحـ حـ H. 8.
7. Kha خ ـخ ـخـ خـ Kh. 600.
8. Dal د ـد ... ... D. 4.
9. Dzal ذ ـذ ... ... Dz. 700.
10. Ra ر ـر ... ... R. 200.
11. Za ز ـز ... ... Z. 7.
12. Sin س ـس ـسـ سـ S, Ç. 60.
13. Schin ش ـش ـشـ شـ Sch. 300.
14. Sad ص ـص ـصـ صـ S, Ç. 90.
15. Dhad ض ـض ـضـ ضـ Dh. 800.
16. Tha ط ـط ـطـ طـ Th. 9.
17. Dha ظ ـظ ـظـ ظـ Dh. 900.
18. Aïn ع ـع ـعـ عـ ’A 70.
19. Ghaïn غ ـغ ـغـ غـ Gh. 1,000.
20. Fa ف ـف ـفـ فـ F. 80.
21. Kaf ق ـق ـقـ قـ K. 100.
22. Caf ك ـك ـكـ كـ C. 20.
23. Lam ل ـل ـلـ لـ L. 30.
24. Mim م ـم ـمـ مـ M. 40.
25. Noun ن ـن ـنـ نـ N. 50.
26. Hé ه ـه ـهـ هـ Hé. 5.
27. Waw و ـو ... ... W. 6.
28. Ya ي ـي ـيـ يـ Y. 10.
Lam-élif لا [#] ـلا ... ... La.

_Harmonical Alphabet, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac._

Arabic. Hebrew. Syriac.
Elif ـا א ܐ
Ba بـ ב ܒ
Ta تـ ת ܛ
Tsa ثـ תֿ ܛ
Djim جـ ג̱ ܓ
Ha حـ ח ܚ
Kha خـ ךֿ כֿ ܟ
Dal ـد ד ܕ
Dzal ـذ דֿ ܕ
Ra ـر ר ܪ
Za ـز ז ܙ
Sin سـ ס ܣ
Schin شـ ש ܫ
Sad صـ ץ צ ܨ
Dhad ضـ ץֿ צֿ ܨ
Tha طـ ט ܬ
Dha ظـ טֿ ܬ
Aïn عـ ע ܥ
Ghaïn غـ גֿ ܓ
Fa فـ ף פ ܦ
Kaf قـ ק ܩ
Caf كـ ך כ ܩ
Lam لـ ל ܠ
Mim مـ ם מ ܡ
Noun نـ ן נ ܢ
Hé هـ ה ܗ
Waw ـو ו ܘ
Ya يـ י ܝ

_Observations on the Alphabet._

9. The letters of the Arabic alphabet have not always been arranged in the order in which they are at the present day. The Arabs themselves have preserved the remembrance of a more ancient order, and the value which they give to the letters when they are employed as figures, confirms the existence of this order, which they term _aboudjed_, in like manner as we call the alphabet _a be ce_.

The twenty-two first letters of the Arabic alphabet, thus arranged, are the same, and follow the same order, as those of the Hebrews and Syrians. It is very probable that the Arabs, as well as the others, had only these twenty-two letters originally, and that the other six were added afterwards, though it is not possible to determine precisely the time at which this addition took place.

10. The _lam-elif_ لا is not a character _per se_, but only a junction of the _lam_ ل to the _élif_ ا.

12. The alphabet is divided into eight columns: the first contains the numbers which indicate the order of the letters; the second, the names of the letters; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth show the different forms of which each letter is susceptible when it is, first, entirely isolated; second, joined only to that which precedes it; third, joined to that which precedes and also to that which follows it; and, fourth, joined only to that which follows it. There are several letters which are never joined to those which follow them: this causes the blanks in the fifth and sixth columns. It is as well, however, to observe, that when the د, the ذ, the ر, the ز, and the و, are found followed by ه, at the end of a word, they may be joined together.

13. Many letters differ from each other only by the absence or addition of one or more points. These points are called by the Arabs نُقْطَةٌ; we call them diacritical points, a term derived from the Greek, signifying _distinctive_.

30. The _elif_ ا, when marked with the _hamza_ ء, is not a vowel. The sound may then be compared to the _h_ not aspirated in the French words _habit_, _histoire_, _homme_, _Hubert_.

The _elif_, without the _hamza_, has no pronunciation of its own; it serves only to prolong the vowel _a_ which precedes it; sometimes this vowel and the _elif_ which follows, take a strong sound approaching to the French _i_.

31. The ب answers to _B_, and the ت to _T_. In Africa the pronunciation of ث is often given to the letter ت.

32. The ث answers to the English _th_, as in the word _thing_; and it cannot be rendered in French better than by the two letters _TS_. The greater part of the Arabs make no distinction between the pronunciation of this letter and that of ت; some indeed regard as vicious the pronunciation here indicated. The Persians and the Turks pronounce the ث as the French _ç_; I render it ordinarily by _TH_.

33. The ج represents a sound similar to that of the Italian _g_, when followed by an _i_, as in _giardino_, and may be expressed by the letters _DJ_. This pronunciation, which is most used, is that of the people of Arabia and Syria; but in Egypt, at Muscat, and perhaps in some other provinces, the ج is pronounced as _g_ hard followed by an _a_ or _o_, as in _garrison_, _agony_.

34. The ح indicates an aspiration stronger than that of the French _h_ in the words _heurter_, _héros_, and similar to the manner in which the Florentines pronounce the _c_ before _a_ and _o_. At the end of words, this aspiration is still more difficult to imitate. For example, the word لُوح is pronounced as _louèh_.

35. The خ answers to the _ch_ of the Germans when it is preceded by an _a_ or an _o_, as in the words _nacht_, _noch_.

36. The د answers exactly to _D_.

37. The ذ represents a sound which is to that of د very nearly as the ث is to that of ت. It is expressed in French by the two letters _DZ_ or _DH_. Most nations who speak the Arabic language make no difference between this letter and the preceding; they pronounce both as our _D_. Some others, as the Arabs of Muscat, pronounce the ذ as the French _Z_, and such is the usage of the Persians and Turks.

38. The ر answers exactly to _R_; and the ز to _Z_.

39. The س answers to the sound of _s_, when it is at the beginning of words. When this letter is found, in Arabic words, between two vowels, it may be rendered by _ç_, that its pronunciation may not be confounded with that of _z_, which takes the sound of _s_, in similar cases, in French words.

40. The sound of ش is exactly rendered by the French _CH_, (_sj_ Dutch, _sch_ German, _sh_ English). Many French writers render it by the three letters _SCH_, in order that foreigners may not confound its pronunciation with that of خ, which is the custom I generally follow.

From the manner in which the Arabs of Spain transcribed Spanish in Arabic characters, there is reason to believe that they pronounced the ش as an _s_ strongly articulated, and the س as the _ç_ or _z_.

41. The ص answers to our _S_, but it ought to be pronounced a little more strongly than the س, or with a sort of emphasis. It appears that the pronunciation of the two letters has often been confounded, as may be seen in the marginal notes of some copies of the Kurán, in the books of the Druses, and in modern Egyptian manuscripts.

42. The ض answers to _D_ pronounced more strongly than the French _d_, or with a sort of emphasis. The Persians and Turks pronounce it as the French _z_, other nations, as _DS_. In rendering Arabic names into French, in order to express the ض, the two letters _DH_ ought to be used.

43. The ط answers to the _T_ articulated strongly and emphatically. If a person should wish, in writing in French, to distinguish it from ت, it may be rendered by _TH_.

44. The ظ differs in no respect, in pronunciation, from ض, and they may be rendered in the same manner. These two letters are very often confounded in manuscripts. It ought to be observed, however, that in Egypt the ظ is often pronounced as a _Z_, emphatically.

45. The peculiar pronunciation of ع cannot be expressed by any of the letters used among the nations of Europe.

The manner in which the Piedmontese pronounce the _ñ_ appears to me to approach something to the sound ع. Examples: _cañ_ chien, _boñ_ bon, _boña_ bonne.

46. The غ represents a sound which partakes of both _r_ and _g_. Some writers have rendered this letter by _rh_, others by _rg_, and others by _gh_; but as the sound of the _r_ ought to be almost imperceptible, I have thought it better to employ, in rendering the غ, the _G_ alone or the two letters _GH_.

47. The ف answers exactly to _F_.

48. The ق indicates a sound very nearly like that of the French _K_, but it ought to be formed in the throat, and it is very difficult to imitate it well. Many Arabs, those of Muscat, for example, confound the pronunciation of this letter with that of غ, and this pronunciation is common in the states of Marocco. In a great part of Egypt, the ق is only a strong and quick aspiration, and it appears that this sound, very difficult to imitate, was the distinctive characteristic of the Arabs descended from Modhar.

49. The ك also answers to _K_, but it is not pronounced from the throat as the preceding letter. The Turks and many of the Arabs give it a softened pronunciation, analogous to that of _q_ in the French words _queue_, _qui_; and it may be rendered by putting an _i_ after _k_. Some Arabs pronounce the ك and the ق as an Italian _c_ before _i_, as in the word _cio_, a sound expressed in French by the letters _tch_.

50. The ل is perfectly rendered by _L_, and the م by _M_.

51. The ن is susceptible, according to the Arab grammarians, of many pronunciations. When it is followed by a vowel, it is pronounced always as _N_ in the French word _navire_, but when it is followed immediately by another consonant the pronunciation varies.

52. The و is pronounced as _OU_ in French, in the words _oui_, _ouate_. It can also be rendered by _W_ pronounced in the manner of the English. The Turks and Persians pronounce it as the French _V_.

53. The ه represents only a very light and often insensible aspiration, as the _h_ in the French words la _Hollande_, la _Hongrie_, or it indicates only a simple hiatus.

54. The ى ought to be pronounced as a _Y_ consonant, as in the English word _yacht_. The Germans render it by _j_, as in the words _bejahen_, _jagd_.

55. The لا finds a place in the alphabet only because the two letters ل and ا, of which it is composed, take, in their junction, a form which sometimes renders them unrecognizable.

_The Vowels._

64. The Arabs have only three signs to indicate all the sounds. The first, named _fatha_, is formed like an acute accent, and is placed above the consonant with which it forms an articulate sound, as, كَتَبَ _cataba_. The sound expressed by the _fatha_ answers sometimes to the French _a_ more or less open, sometimes to _è_ or _ai_, as in the words _succès_, _faire_.

The second is called _kesra_. It is formed similar to the preceding, but is placed beneath the consonant with which it forms an articulate sound, as in the word نِمْرِ _nimri_. The sound of the _kesra_ answers sometimes to the French _i_, sometimes to _é_.

The third, called _dhamma_, has very nearly the form of our figure 9, sometimes it resembles our (,), and is always placed above the consonant with which it forms an articulate sound, as, كُلُّ _coullou_. The sound of _dhamma_ answers sometimes to the French _o_, sometimes to _ou_ or _eu_.

68. The letters و, ا, and ى often serve only to prolong the sound of the vowel which precedes them.

74. Besides the three vowel signs before spoken of, the Arabs have three other signs to which they give the name of _tenwin_, which indicates that the vowel ought to be followed with the articulation of a ن. Our grammarians call them _nunnations_; I shall call them _nasal vowels_. These nasal vowels are only placed at the end of words, and they serve to form some grammatical inflexions. Their signs are nothing but the figure of the analogous vowel redoubled; as, for example, بَابٌ _bâbon_, بَابٍ _bâbin_ بَابً _bâban_. These examples show at the same time the form of the three nasal vowels and their pronunciation. The nasal vowel _an_ ought always to be followed by an ا, as يَوْمًا _yauman_, except when it is found over a ة, as in حِكْمَةً _hicmètan_, or followed by a ي mute, as هُدًي, or placed over a _hamza_, as شَيْئً: in the last case the _elif_ is often preserved after the _tenwin_, and it is written شَيْأً. The ن contained in these nasal vowels, in pronunciation, is subject to the same variations as the ن consonant, and these variations are indicated in the same manner.

77. In a great number of Coufic manuscripts the three vowels are indicated by a very large point, painted ordinarily in red. Placed above the letter it indicates the _fatha_; placed below, it indicates the _kesra_, and placed in the body of the letter or at the end, or in a line with the writing, it indicates the _dhamma_. In order to indicate the nasal vowels, this point is doubled.

78. In African manuscripts the _fatha_ and the _kesra_, instead of being inclined as our acute accent, are placed horizontally above or below the consonant to which they belong.

_Of Orthographical Signs._

89. The _djesma_ is so called, because it separates the artificial syllable at the end of which it is found, from the syllable succeeding. Its name signifies _separation_. It is placed above the letter, and is formed thus ( ْ ), as in the word أُقْعُدْ _ok-od_.

The _djesma_ may be considered as the sign of a very short vowel; it answers to the quiescent _sheva_ of Hebrew grammarians, and also to their other short vowels, such as _hatèf-patah_, _hatèf-ségol_, &c., and to the sixth vowel of the Ethiopic alphabet.

107. When a consonant ought to be doubled in pronunciation, without the interposition of a written vowel, the Arabs do not double the figure of the letter, but they employ a sign named _teschdid_, formed thus ( ّ ). This mark is placed above the letter which ought to be doubled. Among the Arabs of Africa it is generally formed thus ([#]), or thus ([#]), and is placed above or below the letter, as the vowel which accompanies it. The figure of the _teschdid_ is a little ش, abbreviated from the word شَدِيدٌ _strong_, or of the word شِدّةٌ _strength_, which is the name that the Africans give it.

124. Every ا which is moved by a vowel, or which is moveable by nature, although it may become djesmaed by certain grammatical rules, is marked by a sign named _hamza_. This sign is formed thus (ء). The _hamza_ or _elif_ hamzaed is a real articulation, of which the value has been indicated already, and differs essentially from the _elif_ not hamzaed, which is never moved by any vowel, and only enters into words as a letter of prolongation or as a mute letter. If the _elif_ is moved by a _kesra_, the _hamza_ is placed below the letter, and the _kesra_ below the _hamza_, as, إِضْرَبْ.

130. A word which commences by a أ hamzaed ought often to be joined to the word which precedes it; and this union is indicated by a sign named _wesla_, that is, _junction_; it is formed thus (ٱ), and is placed above the _elif_. When this union takes place, the _elif_ is always followed by a letter djesmaed, and then it is pronounced as a compound syllable, with the last one of the preceding word.

144. When the _elif_ of prolongation is followed immediately by an ا mute, instead of the last of these two ا, the _hamza_ only is written with its corresponding vowel, and over the ا of prolongation is placed a sign which is formed thus (ۤ), and which is called _medda_ or _matta_, that is, _prolongation_.

146. The same sign is placed also over the letters, when they are employed as figures, or as abbreviations instead of entire words.

_Of Punctuation and Abbreviations._

168. The Arabs generally do not employ any mark to indicate the pauses, whether at the end of a period, or in the course of the sentence. They only indicate the end of a subject, either by a red point, or by one of these marks ۬, ؞, ۞, or by writing in red the word which commences a new article, or by prolonging one of the letters of the first word, as وَفِيـــــها. These different methods of indicating the commencement of a new article answer to our fresh paragraphs (_alinéa_).

169. If, in common manuscripts, no mark of punctuation is made use of, these signs, on the contrary, are multiplied in manuscripts of the Kurán. The end of each verse is there indicated by the figure ؞; after each tenth verse, another sign is employed, which resembles the ن isolated, but entirely closed. These two signs mark rather the division of verses, founded in general upon the rhyme, than serve to distinguish the places where the reader ought to pause, in order to render more intelligible the sense of his discourse. The true signs of punctuation are the little letters written in red ink in the superior interlineation. The م indicates a pause, necessary to avoid ambiguity: it is abridged from the word لاَزِمٌ _necessary_. The ط, contracted from the word مُطْلَقٌ, that is, _universal_, shows a pause universally received by the readers of the Kurán. The ج, contracted from the word جَآئِزٌ _permitted_, shows a pause left to the will of the reader. The ز, contracted from the word مُجَوَّزٌ, _allowed_, indicates a pause permitted, but not becoming. The ص, contracted from the word مُرَخَّصٌ _admissible_, marks a slight pause granted only from necessity, in order that the reader may draw breath. When the sense requires that there should be no pause at the end of a verse, it is indicated by the word لا _not_, written above the last word of the verse, and of which the meaning is لاَوَقْفَ _there is no pause here_. The ق, contracted from the word قِيلَ _they say_, marks a contested pause. Lastly the letters قفه, which represent the words وَقْفَةٌ يَسِرَةٌ, are the sign of an extremely slight pause.

Among the great number of marks of punctuation peculiar to the Kurán, the most necessary and the most used are the ط, the ج and the word لا.

171. Abbreviations are sometimes indicated by a figure similar to a _medda_, and often they are marked by no particular sign.

_Of Figures or Signs of Numeration._

The eighth column of the alphabet shows the value which the Arabs attach to their letters when they are employed as signs of numeration. Of these letters, which are twenty-eight in number, nine indicate the units, nine the tens, nine the hundreds, and one the number 1000. The order according to which these letters are placed, when considered as numerical signs, is that of the _aboudjed_. The last six letters being, as there is every reason to believe, of a much later invention than the rest of the alphabet, it is probable that the Arabs, before they made use of these letters, indicated the hundreds from 400 to 900 inclusive, in the same manner as the Hebrews, whose alphabet consists only of twenty-two letters. If they wished to express, for example, the number 600, they would join together the ت, which is equivalent to 400, and the ر, which is equivalent to 200. In order to express 900, they would join two ت, equal together to 800, to ق = 100.

The letters employed as figures follow the same direction as the writing, from right to left, as, قلب 132, غنج 1053.

174. It is unnecessary to observe that in this system of numeration there is no figure which answers to our cipher (0); it is absolutely useless, as the value of each figure does not depend on its position in relation to those which precede or follow it.

175. The _aboudjed_ of the Africans differing in some degree from that of the Asiatics, there is also some difference in the value which they attach to certain letters as signs of numeration. This difference consists in that among them the ص is equal to 60, the ض 90, the س 300, the ظ 800, the غ 900, and the ش 1000.

176. The Arabs have also another mode of numeration, from which is derived those figures which we call _Arabic_; they call it the _Indian cipher_ رَقَمٌ هِنْدِيٌّ. It is composed of the ten figures following:

١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩ ٠
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

The 5 is often formed thus [#], and the 0 like our own. When the Arabs make use of this cipher, they follow a direction quite contrary to that of their writing, and proceed from left to right. This singularity is sufficient to prove that this cipher is not originally Arabic.

_Arabic in the British Foundries._

_Great Primer._ Thorowgood and Besley. Walton’s Polyglot, 1657.
This letter was in Grover’s foundry, and afterwards in James’s.

Thorowgood and Besley. Another Great Primer, cut from drawings
made by Dr. Wilkins.

_English._ Caslon. These were the first punches cut by William
Caslon for types. They were cut in 1720 for the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Thorowgood and Besley. This character was cut by the late Dr.
Fry, under the directions of Dr. Wilkins, librarian to the East
India Company, and is considered the most perfect fount at
present in Europe.

Thorowgood and Besley. Another English from the punches cut for
the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Oxford University.

Watts. Cut under the immediate directions of Professor Lee.

ARMENIAN.

“The Armenians had no characters peculiar to themselves until the fourth century, but they used indifferently those of the Syrians, of the Persians, of the Arabians, and of the Greeks. The present Armenian Alphabet contains thirty-eight letters, which they say were invented by one Mesrop or Miesrob, minister of state, and secretary to Warasdates, and Arsaces IV. kings of Armenia. Some authors affirm, that this Mesrop afterwards became a hermit, and corresponded with St. Chrysostom, who lived in the fourth century; though Angelus Roccha, in his discourse on the books in the Vatican library, George, patriarch of Alexandria, and Sixtus Senensis, assert, that St. Chrysostom was the inventor of the Armenian characters, in whose time the Bible was translated into the Armenian language, from the Greek Septuagint, by some of their doctors who had learned the Greek language, and amongst others by one Moses the grammarian, and David the philosopher. Although the Armenian characters are generally supposed to have been derived from the Greek, their forms are very different, and their number exceeds those in the Greek alphabet, by more than one third. The powers of the Armenian letters are peculiarly adapted to the notation of that language, which is very unpolished, and consequently very unlike the Greek. This alphabet contains several letters or marks for sounds which frequently occur in the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and Armenian languages, but are not found in the Greek.

“The Armenians have four kinds of writing: The first is called _Zakghachir_, or flourished, used for the titles of books, and for the beginning of chapters.

“The _second_ is called _Erghathachir_, _writing with iron_, or with a _Stylus_, which has long been disused.

“The _third_ is called _Poloverchir_, or round, which is found in their fairest MSS.

“The _fourth_ is called _Notrchir_, or running hand, which is used for the ordinary affairs of life. The names and powers of the Armenian letters are as follow:

“The Armenians say that _Haik_, who lived before the destruction of Babel, was the first who spoke the Haikanian or Armenian language.”--_Astle._

_Armenian Alphabet._

Key to Column Headers--
NL - Names of the Letters.
FL - Figures of the Letters.
PL - Powers of the Letters.
NV - Numerical Value.

+-----------------------------+
| NL | FL | PL | NV |
+-------+-----+-----+---------+
Aip ա A. 1.
Pien բ P. 2.
Chiem գ Ch. 3.
Ta դ T. 4.
Jeg ե Je. 5.
Ssa զ Ss. 6.
E է E. 7.
Jet ը Je. 8.
Tho թ Th. 9.
Sgie ժ Sg. 10.
Ini ի I. 20.
Liun լ L. 30.
Hhe խ Hh. 40.
Za ծ Z. 50.
Ghien կ Gh. 60.
Ho հ H. 70.
Zza ձ Zz. 80.
Kat ղ K. 90.
Ge ճ G. 100.
Mien մ M. 200.
I յ I. 300.
Nu ն N. 400.
Scia շ Sc. 500.
Vua ո V. 600.
Ccia չ Cc. 700.
Be պ B. 800.
Gge ջ Gg. 900.
Rra ռ Rr. 1000.
Se ս S. 2000.
Vieu վ V. 3000.
Diun տ D. 4000.
Ere ր R. 5000.
Zzo ց Zz. 6000.
Hinu ւ V. 7000.
Ppiur փ Pp. 8000.
Che ք Ch. 9000.
Ieu օ Eu.
Fe ֆ F. 10,000.

Letters Which Bear An Affinity To Each Other.

ա a ......... տ d.
գ ch ......... դ t.
ե je ......... է e.
զ ss ......... ղ k.
ը je ......... ր r.
ժ sg ......... ծ z.
ի i ......... խ hh.
լ l շ sc չ cc.
ձ zz ......... ն n.
ռ rr ս s ո u.

_Armenian in the British Foundries._

_English._ Oxford University.

_Pica._ Caslon.

ASCENDING LETTERS.

This term includes all the capitals and the following small letters, b, d, f, h, k, l.

ASS.

Sometimes by way of joke, and sometimes by way of irritation, compositors are called Asses by the pressmen. In Moxon’s time they were called Galley Slaves. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

ASSISTANTS. _See_ NEWSPAPERS.

ASTERISK,

or little star *, directs the reader to some note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript.--_Murray._

When there are more than one note in a page, the asterisk is the first reference used.

ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS.

The Twelve Zodiacal Constellations.
︎
♈︎ Aries.
♉︎ Taurus.
♊︎ Gemini.
♋︎ Cancer.
♌︎ Leo.
♍︎ Virgo.
♎︎ Libra.
♏︎ Scorpio.
♐︎ Sagittarius.
♑︎ Capricorn.
♒︎ Aquarius.
♓︎ Pisces.

Names and Characters of the Planets, with Dragon’s Head and Dragon’s Tail.

⊙ The Sun.
♄ Saturn.
♃ Jupiter.
♂ Mars.
♁ Earth.
♀ Venus.
☿ Mercury.
☽ The Moon.
☊ Dragon’s Head.
☋ Dragon’s Tail.

Planets discovered since 1780.

♅ Uranus.
⚳ Ceres.
⚴ Pallas.
⚵ Juno.
⚶ Vesta.

The Character of the Aspects.

☌ Conjunction.
⚹ Sextile.
☍ Opposition.
△ Trine.
□ Quartile.

The Moon and its changes are thus designated:--

⚫ Denotes a New Moon.
☽ First Quarter of the Moon.
⚪ The Full Moon.
☾ Last Quarter of the Moon.

AUTHORS’ NAMES. _See_ BOTANICAL AUTHORITIES. LAW AUTHORITIES. ORGANIC REMAINS.

AUTHOR’S PROOF.

After the errors of workmanship have been put to rights, a clean proof is printed and sent to the author or editor, who makes on it such alterations and amendments as he may think proper. This is called an Author’s Proof; and the compositor is paid for the time occupied in making these alterations in the types.

B.

BACK BOXES.

In cases for Italic where there are no small capitals, also in Old English, and similar founts, the boxes in the upper case, that are appropriated to small capitals in Roman letter, are styled _Back Boxes_, and serve to lay two-line Capitals in, and other irregular sorts.

BACK OF A COMPOSING STICK.

That part on which the bottom of the types rests.--_M._

BACKS.

In a form of bookwork, the backs are those pieces of furniture placed between the sides of the pages and the cross of the chase, in quartos, octavos, and duodecimos; and, when a sheet is folded, form, except in quartos, the margin of part of the fore edge of a book. _See_ IMPOSING. MARGIN.

BACKSIDE OF THE FORM,

is the under side that touches upon the correcting stone or press stone.--_M._

BACK STAY.

A piece of girth or leather fastened to the lower hind rail at one end and to the top rim of the coffin at the other, in wooden presses, to check the running out of the carriage beyond the point which will allow the tympan to rise clear of the front of the platen.

BAD COPY.

Such copy as is ill written, or has much Italick, Latin, or Greek, or marginal notes, or few breaks, &c.--_M._ The term is now used only of manuscript that is badly written, and the words or the sense difficult to make out, with many interlineations. When this is the case, it is usual to pay something extra per sheet. For Greek, and marginal notes, an extra sum is always given, as may be seen in the Scale of Prices.

BAD REGISTER. _See_ OUT OF REGISTER.

BAD WORK.

Any fault at the case or press, is in workmen’s language called _Bad Work_.--_M._ We now call it _Bad Workmanship_; and by the term _Bad Work_ is understood solid matter; that is, not leaded; with long paragraphs; no white lines nor branching out; no short pages; nor any white pages; such work is also called _A Solid Dig_; any other work is also called _Bad Work_, that is tedious in the execution, or difficult to perform, and does not fetch the workman a remunerating price.

BAKE.

When the compositor lays up a form to clear it away, after a work is finished, if he does not rinse the letter as well as if it were rinsed for present use, or rather better, the ink that is dissolved among the lye would, with long standing by, harden between the letter, and make the letter stick so fast together that when it comes afterwards to be distributed, the compositor cannot without great difficulty and trouble get them asunder. This sticking together of the letter is called _Baking of the Letter_. And compositors in this case say _The Letter is Baked_.--_M._ This is the case particularly with new letter, if it be not distributed almost as soon as worked off; for if it be afterwards allowed to remain some time locked up in the chase, it is very difficult to separate and distribute, and causes great loss of time, and injury to the letter.

The usual remedy for this inconvenience is to pour boiling water on the pages repeatedly, which tends to make the letters separate more readily; but still the compositor has to press them against the edge of his case, which makes the ends of his fingers sore, and when he cannot accomplish it in this way, he not unfrequently must have recourse to his teeth. Soaking the new letter in soap and water before it is used, is said to be the best remedy.

BALDWIN, ELIZABETH. _See_ DONATIONS.

BALL KNIFE.

An old blunt-edged knife, that pressmen lay by, to scrape their balls with.--_M._ It is generally an old table knife; but a sharp-edged one is better than a blunt one, if it be carefully used. The use of the Ball Knife is now nearly superseded by the adoption of composition rollers.

BALL LEATHERS.

The exterior coverings of the balls, made either of pelts, of tanned sheep’s skins.--_M._ Ball Leathers, dressed with oil, were introduced within the author’s recollection; but, although more durable, and sweeter in use than pelts, they were not adapted to produce fine work, and were therefore soon discontinued.

BALL LININGS.

When balls are made of pelts, the wool in the first instance is covered with the pelt of an old ball, previously soaked in the pelt pot and well scraped; this is again covered with a new pelt, and nailed to the ball stock, which makes the ball complete. The old pelt is called the _Ball Lining_, and makes it firmer in the neck, and also wear longer.

BALL NAILS.

The nails that ball leathers are tacked to the ball stocks with.--_M._

BALL NECK.

That part of the ball which is immediately between the stock and the body of the wool, just below the nails, is named the _Ball Neck_, or the _Neck of the Ball_.

BALL RACK.

Two round tapering wooden pins fastened into a feather-edged piece of elm, and nailed to the near cheek of the press, in which to place the balls when they are not in use, nearly on a level with the ink block. There is frequently an additional one, for two balls, nailed higher up to the same cheek, under the cap, for a pair of spare balls, or to keep them separate when necessary; pelt balls injure each other when kept together for any length of time; and composition balls should never be left one upon the other, for they adhere to each other, and the surface is frequently torn in separating them.

Moveable ball racks are sometimes used for convenience, with the rack fastened to an upright piece of wood, fixed into a cross piece to serve it for standing upon.

BALLS.

Two circular pieces of pelt, leather, or canvass covered with composition, stuffed with wool and nailed to the ball stocks, used to cover the surface of the article to be printed with ink, in order to obtain an impression from it. Moxon says they were occasionally stuffed with hair; and that if the ball stocks were six inches in diameter the ball leathers were cut about nine inches and a half diameter. They are made larger, according to the work they are required for; those used for Newspapers were the largest.

Pelt Balls are superseded in London by composition Balls and composition rollers, and nearly so in the country; but when I recollect that the most splendidly printed English books were executed with pelt Balls, and that a printer may be so situated in the country, or in some foreign place, as not to be able to procure composition Balls or rollers, I think it useful to give directions how to make and manage Balls of pelts, so that wherever a printer may be situated, he may sustain no great inconvenience, provided he has a skin at his command: and I shall in the first place give an old Pressman’s directions for this purpose, who was well and practically experienced in every variety of presswork, and who wrote them expressly for this work.

“The pelt being well soaked, the pressman scrapes with the ball knife a little of the wet and filth off--twists it--puts it on the currying-iron, holding an end in each hand, and curries it, by pulling it strongly backwards and forwards, till it becomes warm and pliable, and the grease adheres to his hands, so that the pelt is in danger of slipping out of them while currying: without treading he cuts the pelt into two equal parts, across, and scrapes both sides of them; he then lays one of them on a press stone, or on any other stone that is large enough, and stretches it and spreads it well with the grain side downwards: the pelt of an old ball being well soaked, he cleans it, scraping it partially, so that some of the moisture may remain in it, and spreads it on the new pelt, as a lining, but does not stretch it nearly so much as the new one, and then nails an edge of them to the ball stock: the wool, being previously carded or combed, he lays in single locks one upon another, crossways, till he has enough for the size of the Ball which he is making. If it be for a newspaper it must be very large; if for bookwork, to be used with common ink, it must be smaller in proportion; but in both cases he brings the ends of the locks of wool into one hand, forming it into the shape of a ball very slightly, and puts these ends into the bowl of the stock; then bringing the opposite edge of the pelt to that already nailed, he also nails that to the ball stock; then he nails two other parts of the pelt opposite to each other, between those parts before nailed; then he plaits the pelt, nailing it regularly on the ball stocks; and cuts off the superfluous edges of the skin. The linings ought to be large enough to be nailed to the ball stock equal with the skin. Then he makes another ball, exactly the same as the first; and if both have a full even face, with no hillocks or dales, he has got a pair of good Balls.

“After having knocked up his Balls, he washes both them and the stocks well, and lets them lie out of the water a quarter of an hour; then placing one edge of the face upon the edge of the bank, the coffin of the press, or upon any other convenient place, and the end of the ball stock against his breast, he takes the handle of a sharp table knife in one hand and the end of the blade in the other, and scrapes it regularly and rather strongly from the plaits to the face of the Ball, at every scrape turning round the Ball, which brings out such a quantity of grease and moisture, as obliges him at the first to wipe his knife at every scrape; he thus proceeds, till he can scarcely bring any more out of the skin. He then places a sheet or sheets of paper on the face of the Ball, and rubs it well with his hands, till the Ball is thoroughly dry, his companion doing the same to the other Ball: they then begin to work the form.

“If a pressman has to execute fine work with strong ink, he stuffs the Balls harder with wool than he does for weak ink; because strong ink lugs or stretches the skin very fast, and soon slackens the Balls, if not hard stuffed.

“I was several years employed on fine work and strong ink, in an office where it was not allowed to tread a skin; this circumstance caused me to try the above-mentioned plan, and experience has taught me that it is by far the most preferable method.

“I also know by experience that a greasy skin is the best for strong ink, if treated in this manner; because it always keeps mellow until the balls are worn out, and there is less trouble in capping them.

“Making Balls is a nasty job: there is an old proverb in the trade, that ‘_The devil would have been a pressman, if there were no Balls to make_;’ that is, the printer’s devil.” _See_ PELTS.