Chapter XLVIII: Part 48

Both compositors and pressmen, when they gamble in the office, or take a chance for any advantage arising in work, generally _throw for it_; that is, they take nine em quadrats, usually English, and, shaking them well together in the hollow of both their hands, throw them upon the imposing stone, or press stone, and he who throws most nicks upward in three times is the winner. They choose quadrats with three deep nicks in each, when such a fount is in the office, as being most easily distinguished.

THUMB PIECE. _See_ EAR OF THE FRISKET.

TIGHTENING THE QUOINS.

This is necessary, particularly in summer time, as also with forms that are placed contiguous to the fire in winter, to prevent the matter from falling out. Examining the forms occasionally that have been some time in chase should not be neglected; for if they have been imposed when the furniture was wet, the matter is very likely to fall out, from the gutters and other pieces shrinking. The quoins are generally tightened with an old cross bar, with the fire poker, or the claw end of a sheep’s foot, as being heavier and more efficacious than a piece of light furniture; but the best method, after securing them in this manner, is to lay them upon the imposing stone, plane them down, and then lock them up afresh in a regular manner. _See_ FALLING OUT.

TILL, or SHELF.

A mahogany shelf, in wooden presses, divided in two longitudinally, that clasps the hose, and causes it and the spindle to come down perpendicularly without any play. It is dovetailed at both ends, and fits into the cheeks, with block wedges underneath to keep it up in its situation; the dovetails also keep the cheeks together, and answer the same purpose that the summer formerly did. The opening that the hose works in is lined with brass, and is made to fit it accurately.

TITHES COMMUTATION.

6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 71. “An Act for the Commutation of Tithes in _England_ and _Wales_.”

s. 91. “And be it enacted, That no Advertisement inserted by
Direction of the Commissioners or any Assistant Commissioner,
or by any Tithe Owner or Land Owner, in the _London Gazette_,
or in any Newspaper, for the Purpose of carrying into effect
any Provision of this Act, and no Agreement, Award, or Power
of Attorney made or confirmed or used under this Act, shall be
chargeable with any Stamp Duty.”

TOE OF THE SPINDLE.

The very bottom of the spindle.--_M_. It is of hardened steel, and works in the platen stud.

TOKEN.

Ten quires of paper.--_M_. It is now ten quires eighteen sheets, or half a ream of perfect paper, and contains 258 sheets. All paper for book work is given out in tokens to wet, the quires in each token are placed the same way, and the tokens arranged one upon the other, back and fore edge, for the person who has to wet the paper to take away. It has become a practice in many houses, for the warehouseman to give out the paper in tokens alternately of ten quires and a half and eleven quires; this in my opinion should never be done, for I have known many serious mistakes arise from it; for instance, in a book that is a long number, a pressman who is working a sheet, will borrow a token of paper from another sheet, or three or five, or more, on account of being in better condition, or for some other cause; he takes the tokens indiscriminately as they arise, and they are replaced in the same manner; and not unfrequently ten quires and a half are returned for eleven quires borrowed; the consequence is, that one signature has an overplus number and the other is deficient, and has to be reprinted at the expense of the master printer: these mistakes would not occur if the paper were given out in regular tokens of ten quires eighteen sheets.

TOKEN SHEET.

In wetting paper the last sheet of each token is doubled down, so that the corner projects, when there is a pile of paper wetted; this projecting sheet marks the division of the pile into tokens, and is styled the _token sheet_.

TOPS.

In piling the printed sheets of a work away, after they have been dried and taken from the poles, the warehouseman takes a few sheets of each signature, and lays them at the top of the pile; these are called Tops, and enable him, with little trouble, to deliver a copy as far as it is printed, when required, which frequently occurs in the progress of a work, without having to take down all the piles.

TOWNS, ANCIENT NAMES OF. _See_ NAMES.

TRAFALGAR.

The name of a type, the next size larger than Two Line Double Pica, and smaller than Canon. It is a size that has been introduced of late years.

TRANSPOSE.

In imposing, to place the pages in a wrong order, when it is said the pages are transposed: in composing, if letters, or words, or lines, do not follow in their proper order, they are said to be transposed.--_M_. We use the word also when we correct the arrangement, and put the pages or the matter in their proper order, by saying we have transposed the pages, the words, or the lines.

TRANSPOSITION OF PAGES.

Many sizes, after the white paper in a half sheet has been worked off, require some of the pages to be transposed, before the reiteration is worked; for those sizes, _see_ IMPOSING.

TREADING PELT.

Trampling on the pelt, to make it soft and pliable, after it has been soaked in the pelt pot, and to get rid of the superfluous moisture, previous to knocking-up. This is usually done when the pressmen are at work, and by him who is beating.

This is an inconvenient process when a man is working at half press; but it may be dispensed with; for a pelt well curried will answer equally well: it appears as if treading was the ancient practice, before the currying iron was introduced.

TURN FOR A LETTER.

It often happens that when matter runs upon sorts, especially in capitals, or some other sorts seldom used, that the compositor wants that sort the matter runs on; wherefore he is loth to distribute letter for that sort; or perhaps his case is otherwise full. Wherefore, instead of that letter or sort, he turns a letter of the same thickness, with the foot of the shank upwards, and the face downwards; which turned letter being easy to be seen, he afterwards, when he can accommodate himself with the right sort, takes out, and puts the right letter in its room. It is also a word used jocosely in the chapel, when any of the workmen complain of want of money, or any thing else, it shall by another workman be answered, _Turn for it_; viz. Make shift for it.--_M_.

TWENTY-FOURMO.

A sheet of paper folded into twenty-four leaves, forty-eight pages, is termed twenty-fourmo.

TWENTYMO.

A sheet of paper folded into twenty leaves, forty pages, is termed twentymo.

TWO LINE DOUBLE PICA.

The name of a type equal to four Small Picas, or to two Double Picas; the next size larger than Two Line Great Primer, and smaller than Trafalgar. It is not enumerated by Moxon in his list. _See_ TYPES.

TWO LINE ENGLISH.

The name of a type, the next size larger than Two Line Pica, and smaller than Two Line Great Primer. It is equal to two English bodies. _See_ TYPES.

TWO LINE GREAT PRIMER.

The name of a type, the next size larger than Two Line English, and smaller than Two Line Double Pica. It is not enumerated in Moxon’s list of the sizes of types. _See_ TYPES.

TWO LINE LETTERS.

Capitals that are equal to two bodies of any specific sized type. There are Two Line Pearl, Two Line Nonpareil, &c., increasing regularly to a Two Line Great Primer. They are used for lines in titles and jobs, being so cast that the face covers the whole of the square of the shank: they do not take so much room in depth as the regular capitals of the same sized face, and are more convenient where the matter is crowded; the face of the letter having also a stronger stem, gives an additional variety in the effect. _See_ FULL-FACED LETTER.

TWO LINE PICA.

The name of a type, equal to two Picas; the next size larger than Double Pica, and smaller than Two Line English. Moxon does not enumerate this size in his list. _See_ TYPES.

TYMPAN.

A frame covered with parchment, on which the sheet of paper to be printed is placed. This is the outer tympan; the inner tympan fits into it, and between the parchments of the two the blankets are placed, all which being run in receive the pressure of the platen, which produces the impression on the paper.

Mr. T. C. Hansard took out a patent, for “Improvements on, and Additions to, Printing Presses, and various Processes relative to Printing;” in his description of them he says,--“My first Improvement is the Dividing-Tympans, which are capable of being added to any Printing Press, for the purpose of printing double-sized sheets of paper, and then dividing or cutting such double-sized paper to the ordinary size of single sheets of paper. These Tympans consist of, first, the outer Tympan, of dimensions according to the size of the Press or Work required: the additions to which are, a plate of Iron, Steel, Brass, or other sufficient substance, about seven eighths of an inch in width; the back side of which is level, but the front side is raised in the middle, the centre part being about one fourth of an inch in thickness, and the two sides about one eighth of an inch only; along the middle or thicker part are cuts or openings, for the purpose of admitting the knife hereinafter described, leaving small parts of the plate uncut. On each side of the same, along the centre of the thinner part, is a row of small holes, at about half inch distances. This plate is fixed across the middle of the outer Tympan, to each side, being countersunk into the same.--2ndly. The inner Tympans are formed of two parts, having each part three sides, and moving on pivots attached to the outer Tympan; these inner Tympans, when shut down, are fastened in the common manner by hooks and eyes or buttons, each part when opened to adjust the blankets will incline back on the pivots. These Tympans I cover with black Linen of the most fine and even texture, rolled and hot calendered: taking a sufficient length in one piece to cover the one half of both Tympans, then folding it in the middle, and laying each fold along the side-rebate of the Plate over the holes, I then firmly attach it thereto by strong sewing through the holes; I then turn one part of the fold of the linen over the outer, and the other part over the inner Tympans, and sew, or otherwise fasten, the same around the iron work, or sides and ends of the Tympans, in the closest and neatest manner, letting the hooks, eyes, or buttons, and pivots, through the linen, and keeping clear the openings for the point screws by carrying the linen on the inside, in the same manner as in putting on common parchment; the same operation then takes place for the other half of the Tympans. I then take pieces of Velvet, Velveteen, or other uniform soft substance, which I attach, with the pile or softest side outwards, to the linen already described as being fastened to the Tympans, by sewing or pasting it to the outside of the outer Tympan, to receive the Tympan-sheet, and by this means to give a beautiful and regular impression of the Type: which mode of covering Tympans I also apply to common Presses.

“The Divider or Knife is made of a plate of Iron or Steel, about three-fourths of an inch wide, turned down at a right angle on one side, about one-fourth of an inch in width, and in length sufficient for the width of the sheet of paper intended to be cut, and this must be fixed so as to be exactly corresponding to the openings in the Plate before described; the part so turned down is cut into angular teeth, about a quarter of an inch from point to point, each tooth having two chisel-like edges, formed by being filed and dressed on the outside of the part so turned down; on the inside of the angle the teeth are to be finished all along fair and smooth. One or more of the teeth are then to be filed out at intervals, corresponding with the parts of the Plate left uncut. The Pivots or Joints of the Tympans and Frisket being accurately adjusted, the Knife is then fixed to the Frisket (at each end by screw or other connection) so that when the Frisket is turned down on the Tympans the Knife shall freely enter the Plate at the openings before described. The Plate and Knife now occupying the usual place of Point Screws and Points, those necessary articles are removed to the centre of each half of the Tympans above and below the Plate. If wished, the positions of the Plate and Knife may be reversed, by fixing the Plate to the Frisket, and Knife to the Tympan, or a Plate both on Frisket and Tympan, and Knife to the Forme, or Table of the Press, but not with equal certainty of operation. All these parts being properly adjusted, the mode of application is as follows:--For making ready a Forme or Sheet, the Tympan-sheet is drawn on the Tympan, as in the ordinary mode, and the Frisket pasted and cut out; but for working the first side of the Paper, the Knife must be displaced (or, which is sometimes preferable, two Friskets used, to be exchanged, one having the Knife, and one without). The whole of the paper being worked on one side without the Knife, the Knife is then replaced, or the Friskets exchanged, and the Reiteration proceeded with; the sheet will then be divided exactly along the centre, excepting at the parts where the portions of the Plate have been left uncut, and the teeth filed out of the Knife, as before described; which uncut parts answer the important purpose of keeping the double-sheet adhering as one, for the Pressman who may be _pulling_, to draw it off the Tympans over to the Bank, where it is finally parted by the other man who is _beating_, while looking over his heap, when six or seven sheets are accumulated, by means of a gentle pressure with each hand at each end of the heap. The white paper, or first side, is worked with four points, placed opposite to each other in the middle fold of each half of the double sheet, but for the Reiteration the two lower points are taken off, and the sheet kept in register by the two upper ones only. For cutting the sheet into more parts than two, I extend the same principle by placing knives and plates in various positions, or at right angles with each other.”

TYMPAN CLOTH.

A fine and even linen cloth, about an inch or two larger on every side than the paper worked on: this cloth is wetted, and the water wrung out again, so that it remains only moist: it is laid on the tympan instead of a tympan sheet, the under sides of the corners pasted to the tympan, and worked upon as a tympan sheet for the reiteration. It is used to save paper, and it is repeatedly washed to clear it of the ink that sets off on it.--_M._ It is not used now, but set-off sheets are substituted for it.

TYMPAN HOOKS.

Small hooks fixed on the upper side of the outer tympan, which assist in keeping the inner tympan in its place.

There are four of them, two on the off side and two on the near side, screwed to the tympan, but not so tight as to prevent them turning round on the screws as centres; there are four eyes screwed on the inner tympan, opposite to them, and the hooks turn into these eyes and draw the sides of the tympans together, and assist in tightening the parchment of the inner tympan, and prevent its moving. In iron presses, instead of eyes, buttons are used on the inner tympan, and the hooks turn round them under the heads, and produce the same effect.

TYMPAN JOINTS.

The joints by which the outer tympan is attached to the carriage, on which it works. They are riveted to the bottom end of the tympan by one of the sides, and the other side has an upright notch cut in it: at the back of the hind part of the coffin are fixed two projecting screws, at the same distance from each other as the notches in the joints; these screws have a square plate or washer on each of them, and a flat-headed female screw; the tympan joints are slipped over these screws by the notches, so that they bestride each screw, and are confined by the female screw and washer. The tympan can thus be adjusted to any height, by loosening the screws and sliding the joints up or down. The pin that connects the two parts of the joints is stout, and made to slip out when necessary. These joints should be particularly well made, and have no play; if they have, it will cause maculing and doubles in the work.

TYMPAN SHEET.

A sheet of paper pasted on the tympan at the corners, as a standing mark to lay all the other sheets exactly even upon, while the white paper is working.--_M._ It is now also used for the reiteration. When a pressman has laid a form on the press stone, and fixed it in its situation, he takes a sheet of its own paper, or a sheet of some other paper of the same size, and folds it exactly, so that the folds shall be his guide for laying it on the form; he then lays a sheet of waste paper on the form to preserve his tympan sheet clean, and places it truly on the form over the other, by means of the folds falling on the middle of the crosses and feeling the types through it with his fingers, so that the margin at both sides of the sheet shall be precisely equal, as also at both ends; he wets his tympan slightly, to take out the indentions made by the types of a preceding form, and generally rubs a very small quantity of paste on the parchment, being careful that there are no lumps; he then turns the tympan down upon the form, runs in the carriage, and gives it a slight pull, to cause it to adhere to the tympan; he then pastes the four corners down, but tears off a piece of the near bottom corner, to prevent him catching hold of it, in the quick taking the printed sheet off the tympan, when working.

TYPES.

The letters, marks, and signs, cast in metal, the larger sizes of wood, with which printing is executed.

The forms and proportions of types in the Roman character have undergone every change that the most capricious fancy could suggest. We have types of beautiful shapes and symmetrical proportions, but our type founders have diverged, for the sake of variety, gradually to a fatter face till the lines have become so thick that the letter has hardly any white in its interior, and when printed is nearly all black, with the outline only to guide us in knowing what it is; and on the contrary they have gradually gone to the other extreme, and produced what are called skeleton letters, which are formed of a fine uniform line; we have antique, the line being also of uniform thickness, but strong and heavy; we have letters with the strong lines and the fine lines reversed; we have tall narrow letters, and we have letters which look as if they had been pressed down, till they were considerably broader than they were high; we have letters drawn in perspective, with their edges towards us, as if they were marching away; and as for Italic, we have it now inclining to the left as well as to the right. The Modern Gothic or Black letter has not escaped this rage for change and variety, and we have forms introduced into it which would have puzzled our ancestors to know what they were meant for when the Modern Gothic was the standard character.

These changes and varieties have not been introduced as improvements either in the forms or proportions of the letters, but to produce variety and what is styled effect.

The scale of sizes of the respective types can only be looked at and received as an approximation to truth, as the letter founders themselves acknowledge; in fact there is no precise standard, for they cast according to the orders they receive from their customers: the following scale is a proof of this; Mr. Hansard, in his Typographia, gives the number of lines of each size in a foot as cast in the foundery of Messrs. Caslon and Livermore, which does not agree with the one I now give, which was supplied to me by Mr. Livermore in 1839, at my request, avowedly to publish, each fount having been measured to insure correctness; it was submitted to Mr. Caslon personally in August 1841, before printing, and revised, so that every precaution has been taken to prevent a mistake. The scale of the foundery of Messrs. V. and J. Figgins, as also that of Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley, were kindly furnished me by the respective houses. I have also given Moxon’s scale of sizes, which is the oldest that has been published, and which will show the variations in the depth of body which types have undergone. He prefaces it by saying, “And that the reader may the better understand the sizes of these several _Bodies_, I shall give him this Table following; wherein is set down the number of each _Body_ that is contained in one Foot”--_See_ NICKS.

_Number of lines of the different sized types contained in one foot._

+---------------------+------+-------+---------+-----------+-----------+
| |Moxon,|Caslon,|V. and J.|Thorowgood |Alexander |
| |1683. |1841. |Figgins, |and Besley,|Wilson and |
| | | |1841. |1841. |Sons, 1841.|
+---------------------+------+-------+---------+-----------+-----------+
|Diamond | | 204 | 205 | 210 | 204 |
|Pearl | 184 | 178 | 180 | 184 | 178 |
|Ruby | | 166 | 165 | 163 | 166 |
|Nonpareil | 150 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 |
|Emerald | | | 128 | | 128 |
|Minion | | 122 | 122 | 122 | 122 |
|Brevier | 112 | 111 | 107 | 112 | 111 |
|Bourgeois | | 102 | 101½ | 103 | 102 |
|Long Primer | 92 | 89 | 90 | 92 | 89 |
|Small Pica | | 83 | 82 | 82 | 83 |
|Pica | 75 | 72 | 72½ | 72 | 72 |
|English | 66 | 64 | 64 | 64½ | 64 |
|Great Primer | 50 | 51 | 51 | 52 | 51 |
|Paragon | | 44½ | 44½ | | 44½ |
|Double Pica | 38 | 41½ | 41½ | 41 | 41½ |
|Two Line Pica | | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 |
|Two Line English | 33 | 32 | 32 | 32½ | 32 |
|Two Line Great Primer| | 25½ | 25½ | 26 | 25½ |
|Two Line Double Pica | | 20¾ | 20¾ | 20½ | 20¾ |
|Trafalgar | | 20 | 20 | | 20 |
|Canon | 17½ | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
+---------------------+------+-------+---------+-----------+-----------+

It thus appears that in 1683, the date of Moxon’s work, there were only ten sizes of types with specific names, while at the present time we have twenty-one; the following are our additional sizes--Diamond, Ruby, Emerald, Minion, Bourgeois, Small Pica, Paragon, Two Line Pica, Two Line Great Primer, Two Line Double Pica, and Trafalgar.

Canon is the largest size with a specific name; all above Canon are designated according to the number of Picas in the depth of the body; thus the next size larger is Five Line Pica, then Six Line Pica, and so on indefinitely. Twenty-four Line Pica is about the largest letter that is cast in metal, those above that size are generally cut in wood, as also any peculiar shaped letters. The German letter founders cast the face of letters in metal to a much larger size, and mount them on wood.

Minion used to be half an English; it has ceased to be so, and Emerald has taken its place, for English is now equal to two Emeralds: this latter is a size that was introduced about two years ago.

By an examination of the preceding table the relative proportions of the different sizes to each other will be ascertained; but to facilitate the reference they are here brought under one view.

Diamond = Half Bourgeois, also = ¼ Great Primer = ⅛ Two Line
Great Primer.

Pearl = Half Long Primer, also = ¼ Paragon.

Ruby = Half Small Pica, also = ¼ Double Pica = ⅛ Two Line Double
Pica.

Nonpareil = Half Pica.

Emerald = Half English.

Bourgeois = Half Great Primer, also = 2 Diamonds.

Long Primer = Half Paragon, also = 2 Pearls.

Small Pica = Half Double Pica, also = 2 Rubies.

Pica = 2 Nonpareils.

English = 2 Emeralds.

Great Primer = 2 Bourgeois, also = 4 Diamonds.

Paragon = 2 Long Primers, also = 4 Pearls.

Double Pica = 2 Small Picas, also = 4 Rubies.

Two Line Pica = 2 Picas, also = 4 Nonpareils.

Two Line English = 2 English, also = 4 Emeralds.

Two Line Great Primer = 2 Great Primers, also = 4 Bourgeois = 8
Diamonds.

Two Line Double Pica = 2 Double Picas, also = 4 Small Picas = 8
Rubies.

Canon = 2 Two Line Picas, also = 4 Picas = 8 Nonpareils.

It thus appears that Minion, Brevier, and Trafalgar, may be classed as irregular bodied letters, for they bear no specific regular proportion to any other size.

Minion was formerly half an English, but it has varied in the depth of its body from that proportion; some of the letter founders have introduced a new size between Minion and Nonpareil, and called it Emerald, and made this new type half an English; I think it would have been a preferable measure to have restored Minion to its original place.

This want of uniformity in the depth of body of the respective sizes is much to be regretted, as it causes serious inconvenience in a printing office, and might be avoided by the several letter founders agreeing among themselves and deciding what should be the standard for each size, and firmly refuse to cast a new fount to any other size, reserving the present variations for imperfections only, till the founts in use were worn out and discarded; we should thus gradually approach to uniformity; and whatever variations there might be in the face of the letter, still the quadrats and the spaces might be used to any fount of the same sized letter, without any risk of injuring the appearance of the work, and this would frequently be found of great advantage in poetry, figure work, and in light open matter.

This evil is not confined to England, but exists to a great extent in both France and Germany, and Fournier, an eminent letter founder who wrote on the subject, describes the evil, and explains the remedy which he invented and adopted, in his “Manuel Typographique,” published at Paris, in two volumes 12mo. 1764, of which the following is a translation.

“This article requires a particular explanation, because it is novel and obscure. I have placed it here in order to show the new proportions which I have given to the _body of the characters_, by the defined measures which I call _Typographical Points_.

“The last regulation of the Library, made in 1725, fixed _the height to paper_ at ten and a half geometric lines. This rule is as easy to practise as it is to give; but such was not the case when it was desirable by this regulation to establish some rules in order to fix the _strength of the body_ of the characters. At the time when this regulation was made, apparently no person was found competent to give correct ideas on that point, which was very important, as it would operate to correct abuse, and to give order and precision where there had never been any before. In default of proper information, a master printer gave as a rule the characters which he found in his own printing office, with all their imperfections. The law which was then obtained, not being founded on any principles, has consequently remained unexecuted, which is the reason why the characters have never had fixed and accurate sizes, and that this disorder still remains as great as it was formerly.

“In article lix. of this Regulation, it is given, as a _fit body_, that _Petit-canon is equal to two Saint-Augustins; Gros-parangon is equal to a Cicero and a Petit-romain, &c._, but the size that the Saint-Augustin, the Cicero, or the Petit-romain ought to have is not given, in order to make together the Petit-canon or Gros-parangon. Consequently this law can always be evaded, and it is evaded whenever any one wishes, without being liable to any penalty, because one person might make a body of Saint-Augustin more slender than another, and the Petit-canon might be cast to this double thickness, by which means the law would be fulfilled. Another person might make the body of Saint-Augustin more or less strong, and from two of these bodies he will cast a Petit-canon: here again the law is fulfilled, although in a spirit opposed to that of the Regulation. Thus confusion is perpetuated, until at length it gives one some trouble to make the distinction of the two bodies, of which the larger is weak and the smaller strong. It happens then that the characters of the same body vary more or less, and when two such are found in a printing office, the workmen mix the spaces and quadrats together, which spoils the founts.

“The Regulation has provided for this default, it will be said, when it ordains that there should be sent to the founders a certain number of letters of each body, in order that they might agree under pain of fine. But these letters which are thus proposed at hazard, and which are never given, would not have remedied the evil which it is wished to avoid. These pretended rules, instead of causing order and precision, on the contrary augment the confusion, by multiplying the parts without necessity. From thence it comes that the bodies of Petit-canon, Gros-parangon, Gros-romain, Cicero, Philosophie, Gaillarde, Mignone, are found, according to the Regulation, without double bodies, on which two-line letters can be made, of which nevertheless none of the bodies can do without. Here then are seven or eight bodies without names, useless for every other purpose, and with which the printing office is overloaded. Moreover, these combinations of the body of a Cicero and a Petit-romain to make a Gros-parangon, of a Petit-texte and Petit-romain to make a Gros-romain, of a Petit-texte and a Nonpareille to make a Saint-Augustin, truly proclaim little experience and capacity on the part of those who proposed them. The defect has been perceived, but no one has tried to find a remedy, and that because the printers, who are alone consulted in this affair, are not type founders sufficient to make proper experiments, and to give rules to a part of the trade which they do not exercise, and of which often they know only the name.

“This then is what engaged me to disentangle this chaos, and to give to these matters an order which they have never before had. I think I have had the happiness to succeed in it, with an exactness and precision which leaves nothing to be desired, by the invention of _Typographical Points_. It is nothing more than the division of the bodies of characters by equal and determinate degrees, which I call _Points_. By this means, the degrees of distance and the affinity of the bodies may be known exactly. They can be combined together in the same manner as numerical signs; and as two and two make four, add two, it will become six, double all this, you will have twelve, &c., in the like manner a Nonpareille, which is equal to six points, added to another Nonpareille will make together a Cicero, which has twelve points, add again a Nonpareille, you will have eighteen points or a Gros-romain, double all this, and it will make thirty-six points, or a Trismegiste, which has that number; and in like manner the others, as may be seen by a reference to the _Table of Proportions_ which follows.

“In order to combine the bodies, it will be sufficient to know the number of _Typographical Points_ of which they are composed. These points or given sizes should be invariable, so that they may serve as guides in the printing office, as the _foot_, _inch_, and _line_ are used in geometry. For this purpose, I have fixed these points at the exact sizes they ought to have, in the scale which is at the head of the _Table of Proportions_; and that their exactness may be relied upon invariably, I have contrived an instrument which I call _Prototype_.

“The invention of these points is the first service which I rendered to printing, in 1737. Obliged then to commence a long, painful, and laborious career by the graving of all the punches necessary to form the establishment of my foundery, I found no rule established which could guide me in fixing the body of the characters which I had to make, and I was thus under the necessity of forming them for myself.

“The table exhibits at the top a fixed and definite scale, which I divide into two inches, the inches into twelve lines, and the line into six of these typographical points; the total is 144 points. The first small divisions are of two points, which is the exact distance which there is from a Petit-texte to a Petit-romain, or from that to a Cicero, &c. The scale contains in the whole twelve bodies of Cicero. It is necessary to measure by this gauge the number of points which I assign to each of the bodies. These measures, taken truly for each body separately, and verified on the _Prototype_, will form altogether a general correspondence for all the bodies of characters.”

“_Of Height to Paper._ The height of the characters called _height to paper_, that is to say, from the foot to the face which leaves its impression on the paper, is fixed by regulations of the book trade, and noted down by them, on the 28th February 1723, at ten and a half geometric lines. This law was established for rendering all the French characters conformable in their parts, in order that, passing from one printing office to another, by the death of the proprietor or otherwise, there might be no disparity among them. This law, however, though wise and good, is but partially executed, many printers having adhered to the height of the characters which they found already in their offices. Some countries, as Flanders, the Lyonnois, and others, which have the characters much higher by the ordonnance of the Porte, have preserved them thus, so that from these causes we see the characters varying from ten and a quarter to eleven lines and a half high. Those who have preserved them in this last way are among the dupes, because the characters which are according to the ordonnance cost a hundred pistoles, while those that have more metal in them are worth eleven hundred francs, because being one eleventh higher are one eleventh heavier.

“The officers of the chambres syndicals have neglected this part of the regulation; thus nothing is more common than to see in every printing office, the characters some a little too high and some a little too low. This makes it necessary to put the highest upon the tympans of the press within the places where the lines are too low. Sometimes many folds of paper are put under these low types upon the stone of the press, in order to raise the low parts up to the level of the high ones. This confusion does not originate with the founder, who is obliged to conform to the will of those for whom he works. Three parts of the French printers, at least, have their printing offices regulated according to the measure of ten lines and a half; and though there may be little inequalities which leave some of the characters a little too high and some a little too low, yet when there is only this slight difference, perhaps being sometimes but the thickness of a paper, the inequality is very inconsiderable. To avoid this confusion, and to make the founderies preserve one standard to regulate the height, and preserve it always the same, rests with the master. There are two ways: the first is a thin plate of copper or iron on which is made a notch of ten lines and a half high, and the other, which is in greater use and more convenient, is making a form of justification.”

The French have varied from Fournier’s standard, and have introduced fresh sizes since he published his work; when Fertel wrote, in 1723, he gave a list of nineteen sizes, but at the present time they have twenty-five; they are also changing their names, and now designate them by numbers, as will be perceived by the following list, which is copied from the specimen book of De la Tarbe, of Paris, 1835, to which I have affixed the number of points assigned to them by Fournier.

+-------------------------------+----------+
| |Fournier’s|
| | Points, |
| | 1737. |
+-------------------------------+----------+
| Cinq, ou Parisienne | 5 |
| Six, ou Nonpareille | 6 |
| Six et demi | |
| Sept, ou Mignonne | 7 |
| Sept et demi, ou Petit-Texte | 8 |
| Huit, ou Gaillarde | 9 |
| Neuf, ou Petit-Romain | 10 |
| Dix, ou Philosophie | 11 |
| Onze, ou Cicero | 12 |
| Treize, ou Saint-Augustin | 14 |
| Quatorze, ou Gros-Texte | 16 |
| Seize, ou Gros-Romain | 18 |
| Dix-huit, ou Petit-Parangon | 20 |
| Vingt, ou Gros-Parangon | 22 |
| Vingt-deux, ou Palestine | 24 |
| Vingt-six, ou Petit-Canon | 28 |
| Trente-trois, ou Trismégiste | 36 |
| Quarante, ou Gros-Canon | 44 |
| Cinquante six, ou Double-Canon| 56 |
+-------------------------------+----------+

Soixante-six, ou Deux Points de Trismégiste.

Quatre-vingt, ou Deux Points de Gros-Canon.

Quatre-vingt-huit, ou Huit Cicéro.

Cent dix, ou Dix Cicéro.

Cent-trente-deux, ou Douze Cicéro.

Cent-soixante-cinq, Quinze Cicéro.

The German letter founders vary still more than the English or the French, for there is no standard body in Germany, every printing office has its varieties; the height is equally very different, but generally much higher than the French types. The German scale is formed by dividing their Petit, a size between our Brevier and Bourgeois, into four lines, so that each additional number is one fourth of their Petit. The names of many of the sizes also vary in different parts of Germany. The list that I give, with the number of lines to each size, I was favoured with by Mr. Edward Hænel, of Magdeburg, an eminent printer of extensive business; I have other lists, of letter founders, in different parts of Germany, but I do not think it necessary to insert more than one.

The German letter founders have types for printing maps, with which they form the line of the sea coast, with all its irregularities, its promontories, its bays, &c., the boundary lines, and the rivers. I had a map, printed in this manner, sent to me from Germany, which is very clever, and shows great ingenuity in the execution.

_The names of German types, with the number of lines in each size._

1. Diamant | 2 || 12. Doppelcicero | 12 |
2. Perl | 2½ || 13. Doppelmittel | 14 |
3. Nonpareille | 3 || 14. Kleine Canon | 16 |
4. Colonell | 3½ || 15. Grobe Canon | 20 |
5. Petit | 4 || 16. Kleine Missal | 26 |
6. Burgeois | 5 || 17. Grobe Missal | 32 |
7. Corpus | 5 || 18. Kleine Sabon | 38 |
8. Cicero | 6 || 19. Grobe Sabon | 42 |
9. Mittel | 7 || 20. Real | 48 |
10. Tertia | 8 || 21. Imperial | 54 |
11. Text | 10 || | |

_Dutch names of types. From Smith’s Printer’s Grammar._ 1755.

Nonpareil. Paragon.
Brevier. Dubbelde Dessendiaan.
Burgeois. Dubbelde Mediaan.
Garmond. Dubbelde Augustyn.
Dessendiaan. Kanon.
Mediaan. Groote Kanon
Augustyn. Parys Romeyn.
Text.

_Italian Names._ _English Names._

Occhio di Mosca Pearl.
Nompariglia Nonpareil.
Minione Minion.
Testino Brevier.
Gagliarda Bourgeois.
Garamone Long Primer.
Filosofia Small Pica.
Lettura Pica.
Silvio English.
Testo Great Primer.
Parangone Paragon.
Due Linee Filosofia Double Pica.
Canone French Canon.

The Italian types are of a rather less body than the corresponding English types, but I have not been able to ascertain the precise degree of variation. I was favoured with this list by Mr. And. Pons, a printer at Parma, who originally belonged to the establishment of the celebrated printer Bodoni.

The Foreign Monthly Review for June, 1839, states that a type founder of Clermont, named Colson, has obtained a patent for a new material for printing types, which is harder, capable of more resistance, and yet less expensive than the ordinary composition of lead and antimony. It is well known, that types cast from the latter soon become worn, especially since the introduction of machine-printing. Colson asserts that the material is so hard that the types themselves will serve for punches in striking matrices, and that it will last ten years, without being more worn than the usual composition is in one year.

TYPE FOUNDERS. _See_ LETTER FOUNDERS.

U.

ULTIMATE.

The last syllable of a word.

UNDERHAND.

A phrase used by pressmen for the light and easy, or heavy and hard, running in of the carriage. Thus they say, The press goes light and easy _under hand_, or it goes heavy or hard under hand.--_M._

UNDERLAYS.

Pieces of paper pasted on the bottom of an engraving on wood, to raise it to the proper height to print with types, &c. If an engraving be hollow on the face of it, then a small underlay under the hollow part will raise that part by means of the pressure in printing it at press, and prevent the necessity of using too many overlays.

UNEVEN PAGE.

The same as ODD PAGE, which _see_. Smith uses the term.

UNLOCK THE FORM.

To loosen the quoins for the purpose of correcting; and also for laying-up; or for any other purpose.

UPPER HAND.

When the spindle goes soft and easy, the pressmen say, it goes well _over hand_ or _above hand_. But the contrary if it goes hard and heavy.--_M._

V.

VANTAGE.

When a white page or more happens in a sheet, the compositor calls that VANTAGE: so does the pressman, when a form of one pull comes to the press.--_M._ At the present day it is termed Fat, which _see_.

VARNISH.

With which ink is made.--_M._

VESPER, or PLAIN CHANT MUSIC.

The Gregorian Plain Chant is governed by two clefs, the _Ut_ clef, and the _Fa_ clef; which correspond to the tenor and base clefs in modern music.

The use of these clefs is to point out the progression of tones and semi-tones, and to determine the key or tone of the chant, which is commonly contained in a staff of four lines; but as it frequently happens that the music exceeds that compass, the clefs necessarily change their places on the staff to give a greater scope to the chant; therefore on whatsoever line of the staff the _Ut_ clef is placed, that line is called _Ut_, the rest of the notes following in the same progression. The same rule applies to the _Fa_ clef,

The bars which nearly cross the staff, are used to separate the notes sung to each word; the bars which entirely cross the staff are used over some period in the reading; the double bar is placed at the end of a strain or verse.

The diamond shaped note is half the length of the square note; the notes with the tails are double the length, or equal in time to two square notes, (but these must not be mistaken for notes which, having tails, are only meant to tie them to other notes higher or lower on the staff.) A dot placed after a note increases its value one half. Sharps are not used in plain chant. Flats and naturals have the same power as in modern music.

In the following example, the bars are used to divide the melody into equal portions.

Stabat mater--in G major.

The same in modern notation.

Since the decease of Mr. Hughes, the punches, matrixes, &c. of the above founts of music types (and that mentioned at page 490) have been purchased by Mr. C. Hancock, of Middle Row, Holborn, by whom they have been considerably improved, and by whom the profession are supplied.

VISORUM.

Some compositors use visorums. Therefore pricking the point of the visorum, most commonly upon the border or frame of the case on the left hand about the & box, they fold the leaf of copy they compose by, so as the bottom of it may rest upon the square shoulder near the bottom of the visorum; then with two pieces of scaleboard tied together at one end, they clasp both the copy and visorum between these two scaleboards, which two scaleboards pinch the copy and visorum fast enough to keep the copy in its place, and at the same time also serves for an index to direct the eye to every line, as the compositor moves it downward.--_M._

This article is not used now; though it appears to me, from Moxon’s account, to be both useful and convenient.

W.

WASH.

If a workman is in the habit of telling improbable tales, or of asserting falsehoods, as the chapel does not allow the lie direct to be given, neither do any choose to get into a personal quarrel by doing it, it is usual, in order to express the general disbelief, to wash him, as it is termed; that is, each person with a piece of furniture, or some other substance, will strike repeatedly and quickly upon the front of his frame, upon the ledge of his lower case, or upon his bulk; and this being done by every person in the room, where there are a great number employed, it raises such a loud drumming as is deafening, more particularly when they give what they call a “good” wash: this is customary both in the composing room and the press room. For the old manner of doing this, _see_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

WASH THE FORM.

If a form gets foul in working, the pressmen will take it off the press and brush it over with lye, and after that rinse it with clean water, to remove the foulness. He also washes the form when the given number is all printed.--_M._

WASTE.

The surplus sheets of a work.

After a work has been finished at press and dried, it is gathered, collated, the gatherings folded and pressed, and then booked, if it contain more gatherings than one; and when the regular number of copies has been made up, the surplus sheets, which vary in number, are tied up in a bundle, and termed Waste: out of this waste deficient sheets are supplied, and damaged sheets exchanged. It is always delivered to the publisher with the last copies of the work.

WAYZ GOOSE.

A stubble goose.--_Bailey._ Called Way Goose, and so spelt by Moxon. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.

July is the month in which the different offices in the metropolis generally have each their Way Goose, or annual dinner, and Saturday is the day commonly chosen.

WEAK INK. _See_ SOFT INK.--_M._

In common work, where despatch is requisite, weak ink is used; it distributes with more facility than strong ink, and enables the pressmen to make a greater riddance. It receives its name from the varnish not being made so tenacious as that for better ink.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

5 & 6 W. 4. c. 63. § 31.--“And be it enacted, That from and
after the First Day of January One thousand eight hundred and
thirty-six, if any Person or Persons shall print, or if the Clerk
of any Market or other Person shall make any Return, Price List,
Price Current, or any Journal or other Paper containing Price
List or Price Current, in which the Denomination of Weights and
Measures quoted or referred to shall denote or imply a greater
or less Weight or Measure than is denoted or implied by the
same Denomination of the Imperial Weights and Measures under
and according to the Provisions of this Act, such Person or
Persons or Clerk of the Market shall forfeit and pay any Sum not
exceeding Ten Shillings for every Copy of such Return, Price
List, Price Current, Journal or other Paper which he or they
shall publish.”

WELSH.

The Welsh alphabet, as now popularly used, contains twenty-eight letters: _a_, _b_, _c_, _ch_, _d_, _dd_, _e_, _f_, _ff_, _g_, _ng_, _h_, _i_, _l_, _ll_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _ph_, _rh_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _th_, _u_, _w_, _y_.

_J_, _q_, _x_, and _z_, are not properly Welsh letters, nor are they wanted in words purely Welsh.

_K_ and _v_ occur frequently in old Welsh, but are now generally disused; the place of the former is supplied by _c_, which always has the hard sound, and that of the latter by _f_.

In addition to the common accented letters, the Welsh requires _ŵ_ and _ŷ_ to be accented likewise; as, gŵr, _a man_; tŷ, _a house_.

Of the twenty-one Welsh consonants twelve are immutable, namely, _ch_, _dd_, _f_, _ff_, _ng_, _k_, _l_, _n_, _ph_, _r_, _s_, _th_; the remaining nine, _b_, _c_, _d_, _g_, _ll_, _m_, _p_, _rh_, _t_, are mutable. These are divisible into three classes of three letters each. The first, containing _c_, _t_, _p_, is susceptible of three kinds of modification, viz. the obtuse, the liquid, and the aspirate; the second class, comprising _g_, _d_, _b_, is affected by two kinds, the obtuse and the liquid; and the third, comprising _ll_, _m_, _rh_, is susceptible of the obtuse form only.

The following table will show at one view the various changes of the mutable initial consonants:--

+------------------+----------------+----------+----------+
|Primitive Letters.| Obtuse. | Liquid. | Aspirate.|
+------------------+----------------+----------+----------+
| {c | g | ngh | ch |
|CLASS I. {t | d | nh | th |
| {p | b | mh | ph |
| | | | |
| {g |initial omitted.| ng | |
|CLASS II. {d | dd _or_ dh | n | |
| {b | f | m | |
| | | | |
| {ll | l | | |
|CLASS III. {m | f | | |
| {rh | r | | |
+------------------+----------------+----------+----------+

The following examples may be given to show more clearly the nature of these mutations:--1. Câr, _a kinsman_; 2. Gwâs, _a servant_.

Primitive. Câr agos, _a near kinsman_.
Obtuse. Ei gâr, _his kinsman_.
Liquid. Fy nghâr, _my kinsman_.
Aspirate. Ei châr, _her kinsman_.

Gwâs ffyddlon, _a faithful servant_.
Ei wâs, _his servant_.
Fy ngwâs, _my servant_.

The obtuse sound is assumed after--

1. All verbs, except of the infinitive mood, and interjections.

2. All personal pronouns; the possessives DY, _thy_; MAU, _mine_;
TAU, _thine_; and EI (masc.) _his_; but not when fem.; the
relatives PA, _which_; PWY, _who_; and À, _that_.

3. Adjectives and formative adverbs, and interjections.

4. The duals DAU and DWY, _two_.

5. All prepositions, except YN, _in_, and TUA, _towards_.

6. Pronominal prepositions.

7. The article Y, _the_, if the object be feminine.

8. The participial sign YN.

9. The disjunctive sign NEU, _or_.

The liquid sound is assumed after--

1. The possessive pronoun MY or FY, _my_.

2. The word YN when used as the English preposition _in_.

The aspirate sound is assumed after--

1. The possessive pronoun EI (fem.) _her_.

2. The adverbs TRA, _over_; and NI, and NA, _not_.

3. The conjunctions A, _and_; NO, _than_; NEU, _or_; and ONI,
_unless_.

4. The preposition Â, _with_.

5. The numerals TRI, _three_; and CHWE, _six_.

All vowel initials take _h_ before them, after EI (fem.) _her_; EIN, _our_; and EU, _their_.