Chapter XXVII: Part 27

“Fig. 4. is a printing-press, chiefly of use for books and
papers. 1 2 3 4 represents a long table, with ledges on each
side; so that the two cylinders A and B can run backwards and
forwards without any side shake. In one of these ledges is
placed a strip or plate of metal cut into teeth which lock into
correspondent teeth in each cylinder; by which means the two
cylinders roll along, without the possibility of changing the
relative positions of their surfaces at any determinate part of
the table. This may also be effected by straps, and may indeed
be accomplished, with tolerable accuracy, by the mere rolling of
the cylinders on the smooth or flat ledges without any provision.
A is the printing-cylinder, covered with woollen cloth, and B is
the inking-cylinder, with its distributing-rollers. The table
may be divided into four compartments, marked with a thicker
bounding-line than the rest, and numbered 1 2 3 4. At 1 is
placed a sheet of paper; at 2 is the form or chase, containing
letter set and imposed; at 3 is an apparatus for receiving the
printed sheet; and 4 is employed in no other use than as a place
of standing for the carriage E, after it has passed through one
operation, and when it takes ink at F. Its action is as follows:
the carriage is thrust forward by the workman, and as the roller
A passes over the space numbered 1, it takes up the sheet of
paper previously laid there, while the roller B runs over the
form and inks the letter. The sheet of paper, being wrapped round
the cylinder A, is pressed against the form as that cylinder
proceeds, and consequently it receives an impression. When A
arrives at the space numbered 3, it lets go the sheet of paper,
while the prominent part of the carriage, G, strikes the lever P,
and raises the inking-piece, which applies itself against one of
the distributing-rollers. In this manner therefore the cylinder A
returns empty, and the cylinder B inked, and in the mean time the
workman places another sheet of paper ready in the space numbered
1. Thus it is that the operation proceeds in the printing of one
sheet after another.

“The preceding description is not incumbered with an account
of the apparatus by which the paper is taken up and laid down.
This may be done in several ways: Figs. 9 and 10 represent one
of the methods. D E is a lever, moving on the centre pin C, and
having its end D pressed upwards by the action of the spring G.
The shoulder which contains the pin C is fixed in another piece
F, which is inserted in a groove in the surface of the cylinder
A; (Fig. 4;) so that it is capable of moving in and out, in a
direction parallel to the axis of that cylinder. As that cylinder
proceeds, it meets a pin in the table; which, (letter P, Fig.
9,) acting on the inclined plane at the other end of the lever,
throws the whole inwards, in the position represented in Fig. 10;
in which case the extremity D shoots inwards, and applies itself
against the side of the cylinder.

“In Fig. 11 is a representation of part of the table; the dotted
square represents a sheet of paper, and the four small shaded
squares denote holes in the board, with pins standing beside
them. When the lever DE (Fig. 10) shoots forward, it is situated
in one of these holes, and advances under the edge of the paper,
which consequently it presses and retains against the cylinder
with its extremity D. Nothing more remains to be said respecting
the taking up, but that the cylinder is provided with two pair
of these clasps or levers, which are so fixed as to correspond
with the four holes represented in Fig. 11. It will be easy to
understand how the paper is deposited in the compartment No.
3. (Fig. 4.) A pin P, (Fig. 10,) rising out of the platform or
table, acts against a pin E, projecting sideways out of the
lever, and must of course draw the slider and its lever to the
original position; the paper consequently will be let go, and
its disengagement is rendered certain by an apparatus fixed in
the compartment numbered 3, (Fig. 4,) of exactly the same kind
as that upon the cylinder, and which by the action of a pin duly
placed in the surface of the cylinder A, takes the paper from the
cylinder in precisely the same manner as that cylinder originally
took it up in the compartment numbered 1. (Fig. 4.)

“Figs. 5, 6, and 7, represent a simpler apparatus for
accomplishing the same purpose. If A_a_ B_b_ (Fig. 7) be supposed
to represent a thick plate of metal of a circular form, with two
pins A and B proceeding sideways or perpendicularly out of its
plane, and diametrically opposite to each other, and G another
pin proceeding in the direction of that plane, then it is obvious
that any force applied to the pin A, so as to press it into the
position _a_, (by turning the plate on its axis or centre X,)
will at the same time cause the pin G to acquire the position
_g_; and, on the other hand, when B is at _b_, or the dotted
representation of the side-pin, if any pressure be applied to
restore its original position at B, the pin _g_ will return back
to G. Now the figures 5 and 6 exhibit an apparatus of this kind,
applied to the cylinder A; and that cylinder, by rolling over
the pins P and _p_, properly fixed in the table to re-act upon
the apparatus, will cause its prominent part G, either to apply
to the cylinder and clasp the paper, or to rise up and let it
go. The compartment numbered 3 (Fig. 4) must of course have an
apparatus of the same kind, to be acted upon by pins from A, in
order that it may take the paper from that cylinder.

“There is one other circumstance belonging to this machine which
remains to be explained. When the carriage E (Fig. 4) goes out
in the direction of the numbers 1 2 3 4, both rollers, A and
B, press the form of letter in their passage; but in their
return back again the roller A, having no paper upon it, would
itself become soiled, by taking a faint impression from the
letter, if it were not prevented from touching it: the manner
of effecting this may be understood from Fig. 12. The apparatus
there represented is fixed upon the outside of the carriage E,
near the lower corner, in the vicinity of the roller A; the whole
of this projects sideways beyond the ledge of the table, except
the small truck or wheel B. The irregularly triangular piece,
which is shaded by the stroke of the pen, carries this wheel,
and also a catch movable on the axis or pin E. The whole piece
is movable on the pin A, which connects it to the carriage. C
D, or the part which is shaded by dotting, is a detent which
serves to hold the piece down in a certain position. It may be
observed, that both the detent and the triangular piece are
furnished each with a claw, which holds in one direction, but
trips or yields in the other, like the jacks of a harpsicord, or
resembling certain pieces used in clock and watch making, as is
clearly represented in the drawing. These claws over-hang the
side of the table, and their effect is as follows. There is a
pin C (Fig. 4) between the compartments of the table numbered 2
and 3, but which is marked F in Fig. 12, where G H represents
the table. In the outward run of the carriage these claws strike
that pin, but with no other effect than that they yield for an
instant, and as instantly resume their original position by
the action of their respective slender back-springs. When the
carriage returns, the claw of the detent indeed strikes the pin,
but with as little effect as before, because its derangement is
instantly removed by the action of the back-spring of the detent
itself; but, when the claw of the triangular piece takes the pin,
the whole piece is made to revolve on its axis or pin A, the
wheel B is forced down, so as to lift that end of the carriage,
and the detent, catching on the piece at C, prevents the former
position from being recovered. The consequence of this is, that
the carriage runs upon the truck B, (and its correspondent truck
on the opposite side,) instead of the cylinder A, which is too
much raised to take the letter, and soil itself; but, as soon as
the end of the carriage has passed clear of the letter, another
pin R (Fig. 4) takes the claw of the detent, and draws it off the
triangular piece; at which instant the cylinder A subsides to its
usual place, and performs its functions as before. This last pin
R does not affect the claw of the triangular piece, because it is
placed too low; and the claw of the detent is made the longest,
on purpose that it may strike this pin.

“Fig. 8 represents an instrument for printing floor-cloths,
paper-hangings, and the like, with stiff paint and a brush.”

“Lastly, I must take notice, that in these and every other of my
machines, as well as in every machine whatever, the power may be
wind, water, steam, animal strength, or any other natural change
capable of producing motion; and that the mechanism by which
such powers may be applied to produce a regular unceasing, or an
intermitting, motion, as circumstances may require, may be used
with these machines, though I have held it totally unnecessary
either to specify or annex those methods. The materials, the
adjustments, the fittings, and that degree of accuracy necessary
to the perfection of every machine, have likewise made no part
of my specification, because every workman must know that no
mechanism can be completed without a due attention to these
well-known particulars. In witness whereof, &c.”--_Repertory of
Arts, &c. vol._ v. 1796.

_“Observations on the Art of Printing Books and Piece Goods by
the Action of Cylinders._”----Experto credite.

“We may conceive three ways of delineating figures, or writing.
The first and most ancient consists in making the traces
successively by a brush, a pen, or other instrument. This is
design, painting, or writing. In the latter methods, either the
whole or the greater part of the figures are made by the action
or pressure of an original pattern against the material intended
to be written or painted upon. It is the art of printing. The
colouring is either deposited from the face of prominent parts
of the original form, which is usually called a block or type;
or else it is pressed from cavities cut in the face of the
original, which in this case is called an engraved plate. Most
books are printed from original patterns, in relief; and most of
the imitations of paintings are performed by means of engravings.
These arts are most frequently distinguished by the names of
letter-press and copper-plate printing.

“It can scarcely be matter of new information to those who
are but moderately acquainted with the state of the Arts, to
be told that letter-press or book-printing is performed by an
assemblage of single metallic letters, called types, made of
lead hardened by an addition of antimony in the metallic state;
that these letters are composed in the form of book pages, and
wedged together in iron frames called chases; that the ink is
a composition of linseed oil and lamp black, of so singular a
nature, that it will adhere to a ball covered with a pelt or
sheep’s skin soaked in water, and kneaded to extreme softness
under the feet, but quits this skin with great readiness to apply
to the face of the letter when dabbed with the ball; and still
more, that it almost totally quits the letter to adhere to paper
rendered semitransparent by soaking in water; or lastly, that the
paper is applied and pressed against the form of composed letter
by means of a flat piece of wood urged downwards by a screw.
These and numerous early discovered principles of this most
useful art are generally known, and require no more than mere
recapitulation in this place.

“The genius of the Chinese language not permitting that people
to analyse its sounds into an alphabet, as has been done by most
other nations, has induced them to retain those signs of things,
and of their correspondent words, which probably constituted the
first picture or hieroglyphic writings of every rude society.
Changed and complicated as these may have become by the rapidity
of transcription, the corruption of ignorance, or whatever other
causes may have operated through a long succession of ages, they
still for the most part use words that properly denote things,
and not sounds. Such words cannot, therefore, be subdivided;
and it has accordingly been found most convenient, by these
first possessors of the art, to print from entire blocks, as was
also done by the first printers in Europe. But our artists soon
discovered that a few of the simplest characters, namely, the
letters of the alphabet, would be in many respects more useful,
as the elements for composing blocks for printers, than a number
of blocks originally cut for every page of every individual book.

“Book-printing, therefore, though in fact of the same nature as
block-printing, has been carried into effect by very different
machinery from that made use of in the arts which still retain
the latter method. In book-printing, the heavy metallic form lies
on a kind of table, and the colour and the paper are successively
applied to its face: but in block-printing, the block is carried
and applied to the colour, and afterwards to the work intended to
be printed. Thus, for example, in the printing of paper-hangings,
the colour is spread with a brush upon a woollen cloth stretched
over a surface of parchment or skin evenly supported by a
half fluid mass of water and mashed paper. To this the block
is carefully applied by a slight perpendicular stroke or two;
after which it is applied to the dry paper on a table, and
pressed against it either by one or more blows with a mallet,
or by the regular action of a lever. The mechanical part of
callico-printing is effected nearly in the same manner; but with
smaller blocks, because of the greater difficulty of making the
successive fittings on so flexible a material. And in both these
arts, as well as in book-printing, in red and black, the variety
of colours are produced by repeated applications of forms or
blocks, of which the prominent parts are made to fit each other
according to the nature of the design.

“In the art of printing from copper-plates, a colour somewhat
more fluid than for book-printing is made use of. It is pressed
into the cavities of the plate by smearing it over the surface;
and by subsequent careful wiping the redundant colour is cleared
away. In this state, if soaked paper, for which purpose the most
spongy texture is the best, be strongly pressed against the
plate, by passing both together between two cylinders of metal or
hard wood, properly defended by woollen cloth, the greatest part
of the colour adheres to the paper, and forms what is called a
print.

“In all these processes, it is easily seen, that in the
successive applications of colour, the accurate filling of the
form or original with the material intended to receive the
impression, and in various other parts of the manipulation,
there is much room for the display of skill, or for injury from
the want of it. It may moreover be collected, that the motions
attendant on the various steps of manufacture, are in many
instances difficult to be performed with rapidity and ease,
until by long continued habit the workman himself is converted
as it were into a machine. A very slight degree of attention to
this subject must also shew that, if the originals were of a
cylindric form, with a contrivance for regularly applying the
colour and performing the subsequent operations, it would be easy
to print books and piece goods with a degree of rapidity and
uniformity, of which the usual method of successive applications
seems scarcely capable without uncommon care and skill. This
obvious conclusion has no doubt led to numerous experiments; none
of which, so far as I can gather, whatever may have been their
particular utility, have given much promise to supersede the
ordinary methods. But as the increased demand for the manufacture
of printed goods has rendered such an improvement an interesting
object to manufacturers, as well as to those indefatigable
artists who have directed their efforts towards improvements;
and as the latter generally take up a new object under a strong
persuasion that it has not before been pursued by others, it will
certainly be of advantage to these deserving classes of men, to
relate a few of the difficulties of this new art.

“The difficulties attendant on any improvement in the arts may
be considered either as moral or physical. Under the moral,
I would class every thing that relates to the prejudices of
men in favour of the old methods, and their fears of risk,
together with the œconomical and commercial inconveniencies
attending the new processes. The physical difficulties are
such as attend the actual performance of any project after the
same has been carefully arranged in the mind of the inventor.
It happens unfortunately here also that the inventor is seldom
aware of the moral impediments; but almost always concludes,
that if he can succeed in accomplishing the purpose that he has
in view, his cares and labour will then be at an end; and that
the manufacturer, in particular, instead of pointing out new
impediments discernible only from long continued experience,
will more readily embrace and approve of the new processes, in
consequence of his superior knowledge of their intrinsic value.

“Every good invention appears simple in the prospect, but it
scarcely ever happens in the execution that the most direct
road is taken; and in every case there will infallibly be many
things unknown or unforeseen, which practice only can point out
as necessary to be done for the complete accomplishment of the
object in view. Hence, and likewise because few men possessed of
independent fortune are likely to engage or persevere in a labour
of this kind, it almost invariably happens that the expences
exceed the ability of the inventor himself. For these and other
reasons, new undertakings are generally brought forward by the
inventor, a man strongly prejudiced in favour of his leading
pursuit, together with a moneyed friend, who hopes speedily to
increase his capital from the abilities of the other. It is not
necessary in this place to describe the usual consequences of a
partnership, where the minds, the views, and the circumstances of
both individuals are so very different, and which may be modified
still more essentially if either of the parties be deficient
in the common principles required to bind men to each other.
It is certainly of the highest importance to both, that the
circumstances of such connections should be very maturely weighed
before they are entered into.

“The commercial difficulties or facilities attending any
invention, are also of great consequence. Every inventor ought
to enquire not only what has been done before, but likewise into
the present state of the manufacture he means to improve. In
this way it is ascertained how small a part the mere press-work
constitutes in the price of a book. He will find that twelve
yards of paper-hangings are printed for one penny, in a single
colour, by hand, which afterwards, by the accumulation of price,
in paper, colour, duty, and ordinary profit, are sold for three
shillings; none of which the inventor can pretend to diminish;
and if he could annihilate the whole labour, his advantage would
therefore be less than three per cent. without reckoning the cost
and operation of his machinery. In the callico-printing, with a
more expensive material, dyeing and field-processes, duty and
profits of manufacture and vender, the price of laying the block
will turn out to be an object still less considerable. Again:
it will be seen that small flat blocks cost but little money in
comparison with cylinders of sufficient diameter to retain their
figure, and long enough to apply to the whole breadth of the
cloth.

“Under these and other similar points of view, the inventor,
who may consider the subject in a superficial manner, would be
ready to abandon his undertaking. But this again ought not to be
rashly done. It is true, that where the great force of capital
is employed on objects not comprehended within his project, the
saving, however large in its absolute amount, or desirable to a
manufacturer, will scarcely come within the reach of the inventor
by any bargain he can make short of an actual partnership.
But it may be possible to separate the respective departments
of a manufactory. A spinner is not necessarily a weaver; nor
a printer a linen-draper or a dealer in paper-hangings. The
several departments of manufacture and commerce are, generally
speaking, in the hands of acute men, who seldom reason ill with
regard to the advancement of their peculiar interests; and these
departments are continually fluctuating in their arrangement,
as convenience, profit, or the accumulation of capital may
lead. Experiments are for ever on foot, from day-work to
piece-work, and from piece-work to the employ of master-workmen
with others under them, all supported by the capital of the
large manufacturer, who himself in many instances is the mere
instrument maintained by the advances or acceptances of the
warehouseman, the factor, or the merchant. An inventor, who has
not capital, may seek for employ on the goods or the capital of
others; and if he has skill to maintain his ground against the
numerous enterprises which the activity of opposite interests
will raise against him, he will find that the old order of things
will readily alter, as soon as an evident interest in favour of
the new is shewn by actual and continued proofs in the market.

“Most of the physical difficulties attendant on any new process
are such as experience only can shew. Thus, in the forging of
iron by the pressure of rollers instead of hammers, a scheme
upon which many thousands of pounds have been expended in this
country, it was apprehended that the more impure parts, which
are also the most fluid, might be pressed out by the action of
cylinders, with equal or perhaps more advantage than by that of
hammers; at the same time that the determinate figure of bars of
any required size might be given without skill in the operator.
Experience nevertheless has shewn, that the more fluid part is
driven out much more effectually by the sudden action of a blow,
than by the slower compression of a cylinder, which allows time
for much of the fluid matter to extend itself within the mass.
Various similar effects present themselves when cylinders for
printing are substituted instead of planes. Instead of the action
of dabbing, the colour is usually applied by simple and gradual
contact, to much less effect; and the impression, though not
essentially different from that of the block, is performed by a
gradual action, which affords time for the cloth or paper to fold
itself in a minute degree into the cavities of the sculpture.
Hence it is found that the length of paper or cloth printed from
a cylinder by a definite number of revolutions, will be greater
or less than another piece manufactured precisely in the same
way, but with a less or greater degree of pressure. In a block
this defect is much less, not only from the considerable hold
it takes upon the surface of the material, but also because the
error is rectified at every successive application. One of the
chief difficulties of cylinder printing consists, therefore, in
the difficulty of laying one colour after another; and this would
continue to be so even if the materials were not susceptible
of change, the contrary to which is the fact. There are two
projects for obviating this. The one consists in confining the
whole piece to a long table, or to the circumference of a large
cylinder; and causing the printing cylinder to move, not by the
successive apposition of its carved surface, but of a bearing
face regulated by a toothed wheel. The other method consists
in the use of a frame to confine two or more cylinders, each
provided with its own toothed wheel, and revolving against a
large clothed cylinder provided with a suitable wheel to drive
the others. The piece is caused to pass between the large
cylinder and the others, in order to receive the impression. With
regard to the first of these methods, it does not appear easy to
confine paper, and still less cloth, in such a manner that its
parts may continue without shift or wrinkle during the action of
a cylinder, which not being allowed to roll without the check of
a wheel, must draw the surface either the one way or the other.
The difficulty of confinement will be very much increased by the
indispensable requisite that the paper should be afterwards hung
up to dry, and the callico be carried to the dye-house and the
bleach-field, between the successive impressions, by which means
the dimensions of both will be greatly altered. In the second
method, it is observable that no colours can be printed but such
as fall clear of each other. In this way, moreover, the gathering
action of the cylinders may prove very mischievous. For, if we
suppose the paper or cloth to pass between the great cylinder
and the first printing roller by an action of the latter which
tends to make it slip forward on the face of the great cylinder,
and that when it arrives at the second printing roller it there
experiences an action of a contrary nature, the consequence will
be, that the material will become slack between the two rollers,
and the fittings will be false. Not to dwell on that experience
which brings forward this obstacle among others, its great
probability may be deduced from the allowable supposition, that
the circumference of the first printing cylinder should be one
thousandth part of an inch too large, and that of the second the
same quantity too small. For, in this case, the material will
be shifted one-twentieth of an inch in fifty turns by the first
cylinder, and the same quantity in the contrary direction by the
second; a quantity upon the whole quite sufficient to destroy the
effect of the colours in the progress of one single piece. Such
minute differences can hardly be avoided in the first instance;
in addition to which, we may place the varying dimensions of
the printing cylinder, if not made of metal; and of the great
clothed cylinder, which in effect has a larger or smaller
diameter in proportion to the pressure which operates to render
its elastic covering either thicker or thinner. The only method
of diminishing these evils seems to be, that all the printing
cylinders should, by dimension or pressure, or both, be made
to draw the same way, the outer cylinder most, and the others
gradually less and less, so that the material should have a
tendency to apply itself more tightly during its passage through
the apparatus.

“The application of the colour to the surface of a cylinder
block, is attended with some difficulty. An ingenious mechanic
may contrive various means to produce the action of dabbing, if
required. When a stuffed cylinder covered with cloth is made
to revolve in the colour, and thence, after passing a scraper,
to apply itself to the block cylinder, it is found to be no
inconsiderable difficulty that its dimensions change, and its
covering becomes wrinkled by the action of the scraper as well
as that of the block. A better method, therefore, consists in a
revolving web of woollen cloth, like a jack towel, stretched over
three horizontal cylinders parallel to each other, two of which
support the elastic surface of the web, which in its revolution
accompanies the block cylinder; and the other serves to guide
the same web to the colour, or a cylinder revolving in it. This
method would be very easy and pleasant in its operation, if it
were not for a property common to all straps which revolve on the
surface of two or more wheels. These are observed always to seek
the highest place; so that if a cutler’s wheel were made with a
groove to carry a strap, instead of a round edge, the strap would
infallibly mount the ledge, instead of remaining in the groove.
On this principle, the web would very speedily shift itself to
one end of the cylinders, if it were not confined sideways, or
the lower roller were not made considerably thickest in the
middle, and gradually tapering towards its extremities. This last
simple expedient is not without its difficulties; but, as I have
not actually tried it, I shall defer entering into any discussion
on that head.

“The running of the paper or piece-goods towards one end of
the leading cylinder is also one of the greatest difficulties
attending this method of printing. It is not perfectly removed by
tapering the leading cylinders.

“The nature of the trade of paper-staining in this country, which
requires a large sum to be immediately vested in the payment
of the excise duty, and consequently prevents any considerable
stock from being manufactured until orders are actually received,
and the varying fashions in printed callicoes, which render the
expence of cutting the block by for the heaviest part of the
disbursement for printing, are probably the chief reasons why
manufacturers in this country have been less solicitous for the
construction of machines calculated to afford profit only in the
case of very numerous impressions. The physical difficulties
of this art have likewise conspired, in no small degree, to
prevent its having been applied in the large way to any but a
few simple designs of the sort called running patterns in one
colour.”--_Nicholson’s Journal_, vol. i. 1797.

The following is the statement respecting König’s machine, which was the first that was made; it appeared in the Literary Gazette, with an engraving; and as that Gazette was at the time printed by Mr. Benjamin Bensley, at a machine, as well as from other circumstances, I am led to believe that the information contained in it was supplied by Mr. Bensley himself, and that, as far as it goes, it may be relied upon.

“The cylindrical mode of printing, which, in contradistinction to
the old process by the press, is called _Machine Printing_, was
invented by the late Mr. Nicholson, well known in the scientific
and literary world, who took out a patent in the year 1790,
though it does not appear that his plans and experiments ended
in any actually practical result. Whether M. König, who at a
later period more successfully attempted to print by machinery,
was indebted to Mr. Nicholson for his elementary principles, or
whether almost the same ideas spontaneously occurred to each
individual, is a question that can only be satisfactorily solved
by the former. Thus much is certain, that M. König’s labours
were the first which produced any fruit:--and surely more is
due to him who, after years of persevering toil, succeeds in
the application of hitherto unapplied principles, than to one
of whom we can only say that he was simply the first to suggest
ideas--since no evidence is offered of their ever having been
acted upon.

“M. König, by birth a Saxon, and by occupation a printer, many
years ago conceived it possible to print by Steam, though he
then expected no more than to be able to give accelerated
speed to the common press, to which end his first efforts were
bent. As from the nature of such an undertaking, considering
the state of scientific pursuits in his native land, he could
calculate on little success unaided by others, and failing in his
application for encouragement and support at the hands of the
most eminent printers in several of the continental capitals,
he turned his eyes towards England. Arriving in London about
1804, he submitted his scheme to several printers of repute,
who, not being disposed to incur the risk of property which a
series of experiments was sure to entail, and perhaps placing
little confidence in a successful issue, received his overtures
very coolly: and it is probable his applications in this country
would have shared the fate of similar attempts abroad, had he not
finally been introduced to Mr. Bensley senior, who, attracted
by M. K.’s plans, speedily entered into an arrangement with
him. After a short course of experiments on the fabrication of
a press which should have accelerated motion, and at the same
time render the work of the man who _inks_ the type unnecessary,
the above gentlemen were joined by Mr. G. Woodfall and Mr. R.
Taylor, the former of whom however soon retired; the remaining
three, in nowise discouraged by the tediousness and expense
which all who are conversant with the progress of any invention
in machinery well know to be unavoidable, persevered amidst
unforeseen perplexities, which were doubtless not diminished by
the parties’ deficiency in practical mechanical knowledge. It
was at length discovered that the intended improvement of the
common press could not be brought to bear--and that much labour
and prodigious expence would be thrown away, unless more radical
alterations were invented. Cylindrical printing was now thought
of--and after some two or three years of renewed exertion, a
small machine was brought forth, the characteristic of which was,
that instead of the printing being produced by a flat impression
(similar to the press) the sheet passed between a large roller
and the types still flat; and in lieu of the old fashioned balls,
used by hand to beat over the types and so to communicate the
ink to their surface, skins were strained round smaller rollers,
on which it was contrived to spread the ink, and under which the
Form, _i. e._ the frame in which the types are fixed, passed in
its way to the printing cylinder. Considerable promise of success
attended this production; and after continued experiments, it was
deemed practicable to extend the general principles to a more
powerful machine. To print a newspaper was considered highly
desirable--and on exhibiting to Mr. Walters, proprietor of the
Times Newspaper, the Machine already erected, and shewing what
further improvements were contemplated, an agreement was entered
into with that gentleman for the erection of two large machines
for printing his Journal. So secret had been the operations
of the patentees, that the first public intimation of their
invention was given to the reader of _The Times_ on Monday the
28th of November, 1814, who was told that he then held in his
hand one of many thousand impressions thrown off by steam. At
this time but few persons knew of any attempt going on for the
attainment of the above object; whilst among those connected with
printing, it had often been talked of, but treated as chimerical.

“The machines at the Times Office, cumbrous and complicated as
subsequent improvements have made them appear, are yet in many
respects admirably adapted to the purpose for which they were
erected, and it is believed will outlast many contrivances for
printing which have been since brought out.

“The next advance in improvement was the manufacture of a machine
for Messrs. Bensley, distinguished from those before mentioned
by the mode of _perfecting_ (or printing on both sides)--so that
the sheet of white paper is placed in the feeder, and delivered
from the machine printed on both sides! In addition to the
essential difference between this machine and those previously
made, it came forth with many obvious improvements, though still
unquestionably complex:--and for the first attempt at effecting
register (causing the pages to fall precisely on the back of
one another) a greater degree of success than might have been
expected was attained, subsequent experience shewing the many
difficulties to be surmounted in the accomplishment of this
object. Deficiencies were now detected in the _inking_: the
strained skins were found uneven in their surface; and attempts
were made to clothe the rollers with an elastic preparation of
glue, treacle, &c. which has at length attained perfection.

“By this time the invention had attracted the attention of
various individuals, who thought the manufacture of printing
machines an easier task than they afterwards found it to be; and
far the greater number of attempts, we believe, failed almost as
soon as undertaken. A machine, however, similar in its capacities
to that last mentioned, but much more simple in its construction,
has been brought out--under the direction of some eminent
engineers. It was not long before these gentlemen were requested
to apply their _inking_ apparatus to Messrs. Bensley’s machine;
and at one stroke, as it were, _forty wheels_ were removed--so
great was the simplification: and at the same time the defects of
the former system, of communicating the ink to the types, were
most effectually remedied. Massive and complicated as it was,
yet as an immense expense had been incurred in its erection,
Messrs. Bensley went on using their machine until the destruction
of their establishment by fire in 1819. And even after the
rebuilding of the premises, the machinery, which had been only
partially damaged, was reinstated, and worked for some time:--it
has now, however, given place to two large and admirable machines
built on the improved plan, which when inspected by a judicious
eye can only create wonder at the heretofore circuitous manner
adopted to attain ends so apparently within easy reach. The
writer has no hesitation in stating that the original machine
contained upwards of _one hundred_ wheels; whereas the new
machine, with about _ten wheels_, accomplishes, in point of
_quantity_, exactly the same object, and with a marked advantage
in regard to the _quality_ of the printing. Another important
point respecting the new machine is, that it occupies scarcely
half the space of the original one.

“The printing machine in its present state appears susceptible of
little improvement. It produces excellent work, and its movements
are attended with certainty and despatch--the double, or
perfecting, machine throwing off 800 to 1000 sheets, printed _on
both sides_, within the hour,--and the single machine delivering
1500 or 1600 done _on one side_: which, in cases where one
form of the types (as in newspapers) is ready to be worked off
while the last side is preparing, is attended with the greatest
advantage, since the rate of delivery thereby becomes doubled.
The first is that by which our Gazette is printed, and the last
described is that with which Mr. B. Bensley is now (and has
for a considerable time been) printing the _Morning Chronicle_
newspaper.

“Other leading daily newspapers are also wrought off by steam;
as well as several publications of extensive circulation.
Like almost every ingenious invention, this has had no small
portion of prejudice to encounter, and perhaps has been longer
in forcing its way than many other schemes of real utility. The
various advantages, however, which it holds forth have attracted
the attention of several proprietors of the more extensive
printing concerns, who have introduced it with benefit to the
public--to whom, by means of this great reduction of labour, the
productions of the press may be furnished at a reduced rate of
charge.”--_Literary Gazette, October 26, 1822._

It may, perhaps, be allowable to make a few observations on this statement, more particularly as Mr. Nicholson is seldom spoken of in connexion with printing machines, and when he is, it is in such a manner as to convey the impression that he was a visionary man, who had some imaginary scheme in his head which he was incompetent to carry into effect. To rebut this opinion I have given the specification of his patent, with his own observations on his invention, which certainly do not discover any symptoms of a weak or a speculative man. I knew Mr. Nicholson personally, and I have no doubt that, had he lived, he would have carried his invention into effect; but he had a number of other pursuits which occupied his time. He published a work on navigation, which I have seen quoted as authority for its opinions; he was the author of a Dictionary of Chemistry, in two quarto volumes; he edited and published monthly Nicholson’s Journal of Science, &c. which was in high repute; he wrote the Prospectus for the Royal Institution, on its establishment in 1799; and he likewise kept a large school in Soho Square, the leading feature of which was, a scientific education. I was, for ten years, in the habit of hearing in an undisguised manner the opinions of the most eminent scientific men in England,--as I held the office of Assistant Secretary to the Board of Managers of the Royal Institution, (the Secretary being an honorary officer,) also that of Secretary to the Patrons of the Library, and Secretary to the Committee of Chemistry, as well as Superintendant of their Printing Office,--and in all that time I never heard his name mentioned but with respect among these gentlemen, nor did I once hear him spoken of as a visionary who would project schemes that he was unable to execute. In addition to his multifarious pursuits, he was agent to the late Lord Camelford, whose sudden death left Mr. Nicholson involved in difficulties, from which he could never extricate himself.

Could this man, then, who planned the printing machine, and the manner of printing calico, &c. in an improved and expeditious manner, who moreover published the details of his process, with drawings of the requisite machines, be deemed, with justice, nothing more than “one of whom we can only say that he was simply the first to suggest ideas,” this being all the merit that is allowed him by the Literary Gazette? Now it appears to me that the term “suggesting ideas” refers with rather more truth to Mr. König, who, coming to England with the idea of applying steam as the moving power to presses, and being supported by English capital, spent some years in unavailing efforts to reduce his ideas to practice, and when he could not succeed, gave up the attempt as one completely foiled, and turning round upon Mr. Nicholson’s plan, produced a cylindrical printing machine.

Dr. Olinthus Gregory, in a lecture delivered by him before the Mechanics Institution at Deptford, in 1826, among other topics illustrative of the patronage afforded to the arts and sciences by the intelligence and enterprise of this country, directed the attention of his audience to “the case of Mr. König, a truly ingenious foreigner, and his invention of an improved printing press, in which, by duly blending the alternating and rotatory principles of motion, the apparatus is capable of working off 1100 sheets an hour, with the superintendance of two boys. Tracing the history of his invention, of his difficulties, and of his want of encouragement, through the greater part of the continent of Europe, Mr. König says, ‘I need hardly add, that scarcely ever was an invention brought to maturity under such circumstances. The well known fact, that almost every invention seeks, as it were, refuge in England, and is there brought to perfection, seems to indicate that the Continent has yet to learn from her the best manner of encouraging the mechanical arts. I had my full share in the ordinary disappointments of continental projectors; and, after having spent in Germany and Russia upwards of two years in fruitless applications, I proceeded to England.’

“What could not be accomplished by the encouragement of princes on the Continent,” proceeds Dr. Gregory, “was effected by the aid of private individuals in London. A few enterprising printers,--and their names cannot be mentioned but with honour on such an occasion; Mr. Thomas Bensley, Mr. George Woodfall, and Mr. Richard Taylor,--liberally assisted this ingenious foreigner in bringing his invention to maturity. The machine was set to work in April 1811, and 3000 copies of sheet H of the “New Annual Register for 1810,” was printed by means of it. This was, doubtless, the first part of a book ever printed solely by a machine. Messrs. Bacon and Donkin were, it is true, simultaneously at work upon analogous contrivances, and, since then, other ingenious artists, especially Applegath and Cowper, have contributed greatly to the simplification of this class of machinery.”

In 1818, Messrs. Donkin and Bacon obtained a patent for a most ingenious but complex machine, which claims the merit of having been the first to print with a circular movement of the types. It is said that the invention of this machine was simultaneous with that of König. A great point was gained in it, for the composition inking rollers were first introduced in this machine, Mr. König’s having rollers covered with leather, which were not found to answer the purpose so well.

In this machine the patent specified the fastening of the pages of type to the surface of a prismatic cylinder having any number of planes from four to eight; to these types the ink was immediately supplied by a large elastic roller placed over the type cylinder, and made to rise and fall in accordance with the irregular motion of the surfaces of the latter; two other and smaller rollers conveying the ink from a receptacle to the larger roller. The sheet of paper to be printed was applied to another revolving prism, composed of segments of cylinders exactly adapted to meet the irregularities of the type roller. To insure the niceties and regularities of motion and of contact required in printing, toothed wheels, corresponding in shape to the prisms, were placed upon the axis; and however strange, at first sight, may appear to non-mechanical persons the working together of metal wheels of such angular shapes, yet by providing for a free vertical motion of the gudgeons of each roller, the operation of the whole machine was steady and uniform. The annexed diagram, representing a section of the principal parts, will enable the reader to form a more correct idea of this curious machine.

A, the quadrangular prismatic roller, with its surfaces of stereotype plates.

B, the roller for distributing the ink, which it receives from the two smaller rollers _a_ _e_, in contact with the box _i_.

C, the pressing cylinder, covered with cloth or felt.

D E, the track of the paper in the direction of the arrows.

The Norwich Mercury, a paper published by Mr. Bacon, contains a prospectus of his newly invented machine, to which is added a notice respecting its merit as compared with that of Mr. König, erected at the Times printing office, from which statement the following is an extract:--

“In Messrs. Bacon and Donkin’s machine, there is no reciprocating motion. The types are placed on a prism of as many sides as the nature of the form requires. This prism occupies the centre of an upright frame, like the roller in a copperplate press; below this is a kind of compound-faced roller, suited to the form of the prism; through between these the sheets to be printed (attached to the face of a piece of cloth) are passed in succession, and in the meantime the revolution in the type prism brings its different portions in succession under a system of inking rollers placed over it, by which it receives successive charges of ink, to be delivered to the sheets as they pass in succession between the lower rollers.”

Mr. Hansard, in his “Typographia,” says, that “one machine would not answer for all kinds of work.” And “the only one of these machines that was, I believe, ever made, rests in peace as not being found useful.”

On the erection of the machines for printing the Times newspaper, Mr. Bensley being apprehensive that there would be impediments thrown in the way of their general introduction by the workmen, who had already shown symptoms of opposition, was desirous that I should see them at work, that he might have my opinion on the subject. I accordingly went with Mr. Joseph Bensley, his eldest son, to look at them, and view their manner of working, and on my return, Mr. Bensley was anxious to see me, that he might have my report. I told him that truly they surpassed any thing I had imagined, and did the work so well, and so expeditiously, that I did not believe any opposition on the part of the workmen could prevent their coming into use. This opinion was gratifying to him: but I also told him that I foresaw another thing that might probably take place, which would have an equally injurious effect with respect to him. With considerable anxiety he asked to what I alluded; I told him that I thought some man of abilities would step in and simplify them, for they appeared to me complex in their construction. He treated this suggestion with indifference, as a thing that could never happen, and expressed himself perfectly satisfied that no person would ever make the attempt. My prognostication, however, was fulfilled; for immediately after, Mr. Edward Cowper, of the firm of Applegath and Cowper, printers, proved not only its possibility, but its practicability, by sweeping away at once wheels, &c. which had cost, as I was credibly informed at the time, at least 1500_l._ in the course of their experiments; and thus made the machine more simple, and less liable to be out of order, while he at the same time improved it greatly in its facility of working, and in the quality of the work it produced. Mr. Cowper took out a patent for his improvement; and, as I was told, in consideration of the expense that Mr. Bensley had been at in the pursuit, which amounted to at least 16,000_l._, offered him, as an act of justice, a share of the patent, which was accepted. The machine erected for “The Times” cost the proprietor of that newspaper 3,000_l._

Messrs. Applegath and Cowper then commenced manufacturing these machines, which met with general approval; they also much improved the inking apparatus. After the dissolution of their partnership, Mr. Cowper established a manufactory for them at Manchester, in conjunction with his brother, he himself continuing to reside in London.

In the year 1824 a new mode of machine printing was introduced, that of printing with two colours simultaneously in the same impression. This arose out of the Commission appointed by Government to inquire into the best means of preventing the Forgery of Bank Notes. A pamphlet was published by Sir William Congreve, describing the process as inimitable, except by their machine, for which they had a patent, so that no one else could possibly produce a facsimile. A design was made, generally composed of a great number of lines in a flourishing style, and, when engraved on two pieces of metal, these lines were printed with two colours, one part sinking below the other after each impression, and, there being two sets of inking rollers, each part was inked at the same time, when the lower part rose again to a level with the other, so that one part of these complicated lines should be black, and the continuation of them should be blue or red, or any other colour that might be thought proper, and any device that might be included in the design should also be in two colours, such, for instance, as the King’s arms, and the register should be exact, so that each line should uniformly be perfectly continuous, notwithstanding the change of colour. Government adopted the plan for printing a new stamp on the backs of country bank notes, and also for the Excise Stamps for paper. So far, however, from being inimitable, I have no hesitation in saying, that there never was a plan suggested that was more easy of imitation, even with the common press, and by the customary workmen. The machines were made by Messrs. Donkin and Co.

A single machine, that is, a machine which prints one side of the paper only, may be estimated to produce upon the average one thousand impressions in an hour; and were I to attempt to describe the one by which the Times newspaper is now printed, I should state that it is the mechanism of four single machines combined in one frame, all being worked simultaneously by steam as the motive power: thus there are four places at which to feed it with paper, four printing cylinders, and four places at which the sheets are delivered when printed, so that the actual speed of each part of the machine is rather more than one thousand an hour. This ingenious and skilful combination is the production of Mr. Augustus Applegath.