Chapter XVI: Part 16

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 12 12 0 0 12 12
0 1 1 25 0 1 1 25
0 2 2 50 0 2 2 50
0 3 3 75 0 3 3 75
0 4 4 100 0 4 4 100
0 5 5 125 0 5 5 125
0 6 6 150 0 6 6 150
0 7 7 175 0 7 7 175
0 8 8 200 0 8 8 200
0 10 10 250 0 10 10 250
0 12 12 300 0 12 12 300
0 14 14 350 0 14 14 350
0 15 15 375 0 15 15 375
0 16 16 400 0 16 16 400
0 18 18 450 0 18 18 450
0 20 20 500 1 0 20 500
1 3 12 600 1 5 0 600
1 7 16 700 1 9 4 700
1 9 18 750 1 11 6 750
1 11 20 800 1 13 8 800
1 16 0 900 1 17 12 900
1 20 4 1000 2 1 16 1000
2 9 2 1250 2 12 2 1250
2 19 12 1500 3 2 12 1500
3 8 10 1750 3 12 22 1750
3 18 20 2000 4 3 8 2000
5 17 12 3000 6 5 0 3000
7 16 4 4000 8 6 16 4000
9 14 20 5000 10 8 8 5000
11 13 12 6000 12 10 0 6000
13 12 4 7000 14 11 16 7000
15 10 20 8000 16 13 8 8000
17 9 12 9000 18 15 0 9000
19 8 4 10000 20 16 16 10000

JOBS.--HALF SHEETS.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 6 12 0 0 6 12

JOBS.--THREE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 4 12 0 0 4 12

JOBS.--FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 3 12 0 0 3 12

JOBS.--FIVE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 3 12 0 0 3 15

JOBS.--SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 2 12 0 0 2 12

JOBS.--EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 2 12 0 0 2 16

JOBS.--NINE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 2 12 0 0 2 18

JOBS.--TWELVE ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 12

JOBS.--SIXTEEN ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 16

JOBS.--EIGHTEEN ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 18

JOBS.--TWENTY ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 20

JOBS.--TWENTY-FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 24

JOBS.--THIRTY-TWO ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 32

JOBS.--THIRTY-SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 36

JOBS.--FORTY ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 40

JOBS.--FORTY-EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 48

JOBS.--SIXTY-FOUR ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 64

JOBS.--SEVENTY-TWO ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 72

JOBS.--NINETY-SIX ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 96

JOBS.--ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-EIGHT ON A SHEET.

Perfect Paper. No. Imperfect Paper. Total
21½ Quires to the 20 Quires to the Number
Ream; equal 516 Ream; equal 480 the Paper
Sheets. Sheets. will make.

Rms. Qu. Sh. Rms. Qu. Sh.
0 0 1 12 0 0 1 128

FRACTIONAL PARTS

Of a Bundle, Perfect, 1032 Sheets.

⅞ 903
⅘ --
¾ 774
⅔ 688
⅝ 645
⅗ --
½ 516
⅖ --
⅜ 387
⅓ 344
¼ 258
⅕ --
⅙ 172
⅛ 129
1/10 --
1/12 86

Of a Bundle, Imperfect, 960 Sheets.

⅞ 840
⅘ 768
¾ 720
⅔ 640
⅝ 600
⅗ 576
½ 480
⅖ 384
⅜ 360
⅓ 320
¼ 240
⅕ 192
⅙ 160
⅛ 120
1/10 96
1/12 80

Of a Ream, Perfect, 516.

⅞ --
⅘ --
¾ 387
⅔ 344
⅝ --
⅗ --
½ 258
⅖ --
⅜ --
⅓ 172
¼ 129
⅕ --
⅙ 86
⅛ --
1/10 --
1/12 43

Of a Ream, Imperfect, 480.

⅞ 420
⅘ 384
¾ 360
⅔ 320
⅝ 300
⅗ 288
½ 240
⅖ 192
⅜ 180
⅓ 160
¼ 120
⅕ 96
⅙ 80
⅛ 60
1/10 48
1/12 40

Number of Sheets in any given Number of Quires, from one to twenty-one, inclusive.

Quires. Sheets.
1 24
2 48
3 72
4 96
5 120
6 144
7 168
8 192
9 216
10 240
11 264
12 288
13 312
14 336
15 360
16 384
17 408
18 432
19 456
20 480
21 504

GOOD COLOUR.

Sheet printed neither too black nor too white--_M._

GOOD COPY.

Printed copy, or manuscript that is written in a clear and legible hand.

GOOD OF THE CHAPEL.

Forfeitures and other chapel dues are collected for the good of the chapel, viz. to be spent as the chapel approves.--_M._

GOOD WORK,

is called so in a twofold sense: the master printer calls it good work when the compositors and pressmen have done their duty; and the workmen call it good work, if it be light easy work, and they have a good price for it--_M._

GOTHIC, ANCIENT.

The Scythian or Gothic tribes, descended from Magog, were the second source of European population. They entered into Europe from Asia, like the Kelts, about 680 years B. C. In the time of Herodotus they were on the Danube, and extended towards the south. In Cæsar’s time they were called Germans; and had established themselves so far to the westward as to have obliged the Kelts to withdraw from the eastern banks of the Rhine. They became known to us in later ages by the name of Goths.

From this Scythian or Gothic stock sprung the Saxons, who occupied the north-west part of Germany. We may here observe, the terms Kimmerians and Scythian are not to be considered merely as local, but as generic appellations; each of their tribes having a peculiar denomination.

As a distinctive denomination, they prefixed to Goths the name of the country they inhabited or subdued; as, the Mœso-Gothi, Scando-Gothi, Norreno-Gothi, &c. Their chief seat is reported to have been in Gothland, now a part of the Swedish dominions. The Mœso-Goths, as their name imports, were those Goths that inhabited Mœsia, on the frontiers of Thrace. The language of these Goths is not only called Mœso-Gothic, but Ulphilo-Gothic, from Ulphilas, the first bishop of the Mœso-Goths. He lived about A.D. 370, and is said to have invented the Gothic alphabet, and to have translated the whole Bible from Greek into Gothic. These Gothic characters were in use in the greater part of Europe after the destruction of the western empire. The French first adopted the Latin characters. The Spaniards, by a decree of a synod at Lyons, abolished the use of Gothic letters A.D. 1091.--_Bosworth._

The ancient Goths were converted to Christianity by the Greek priests, and they probably introduced their letters with their religion, about the reign of Galienus. Towards the middle of the third century, Ascholius, Bishop of Thessalonica, and a Greek priest named _Audius_, spread Christianity among the Goths; the former of these is much extolled by Basil the Great, and the latter by Epiphanius. The ancient Gothic alphabet consisted of sixteen letters; they are so similar to the Greek, that their derivation cannot be doubted.

Those writers are certainly mistaken, who attribute the invention of the Gothic letters to Ulphilas, Bishop of Mœsia, who lived in the fourth century. The gospels translated by him into the Gothic language, and written in ancient Gothic characters about the year 370, were formerly kept in the library of the monastery of Werden; but this MS. is now preserved in the library of Upsal, and is known among the learned, by the title of the Silver Book of Ulphilas, because it is bound in massy silver. Several editions of this MS. have been printed. See a specimen of it in Hickes’s Thesaurus, vol. i. pref. p. 8. Dr. Hickes positively disallows this translation to be Ulphil’s, but says it was made by some Teuton or German, either as old, or perhaps older than Ulphil; but whether this was so or not, the characters are apparently of Greek original.--_Astle._

_The Mœso-Gothic Alphabet._

+------------+-----------+
| Form. | Sound. |
+------------+-----------+
| [#] | A |
| [#] | B |
| [#] | G[1] |
| [#] | D |
| [#] | E |
| [#] | F |
| [#] | G or J[2] |
| [#] | H |
| [#] | I |
| [#] | K |
| [#] | L |
| [#] | M |
| [#] | N |
| [#] | O |
| [#] | P |
| [#] | HW[3] |
| [#] | R |
| [#] | S |
| [#] | T |
| [#] | TH |
| [#] | U |
| [#] | CW[4] |
| [#] | W[5] |
| [#] | CH[6] |
| [#] | Z |
+------------+-----------+

[1] And as _n_ before another _g_.

[2] As _j_ in _j_our, or _y_ in _y_our.

[3] _Hw_ in Saxon, or _wh_ in English. The proper sound of these letters can hardly be ascertained; but that which is given appears the most probable. Astle gives this character as Q.

[4] And in middle of words sometimes _c_.

[5] _W_ in the beginning, and _u_ in the middle of a word.

[6] Astle says _ch_ or _x_.

_Gothic in the British Founderies._

_Pica._ Caslon and Livermore. University of Oxford.

GO UP THE FORM.

Beating from the hither towards the farther side, is in pressmen’s phrase called, “_Going up the Form_.”--_M._

GOVERNOR.

The master printer is generally styled Governor, when spoken of by the workmen in the house; as, _The Governor said thus._ _The Governor ordered that._

GREAT NUMBERS.

Above 2000 printed on one sheet are accounted great numbers.--_M._ We now more commonly say long numbers. _See_ LAY ON, and SMALL NUMBERS.

GREAT PRIMER.

The name of a type, one size larger than English, and one smaller than Paragon. _See_ TYPES.

GREEK.

The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, as under.

_The Greek Alphabet._

+------------+---------+---------+
| Figure. | Name. | Power. |
+------------+---------+---------+
| Α α | Alpha | a |
| Β β ϐ | Beta | b |
| Γ γ [#] | Gamma | g |
| Δ δ | Delta | d |
| Ε ε | Epsilon | e short |
| Ζ ζ [#] | Zeta | z |
| Η η | Eta | e long |
| Θ θ ϑ | Theta | th |
| Ι ι | Iota | i |
| Κ κ | Kappa | k or c |
| Λ λ | Lambda | l |
| Μ μ | Mu | m |
| Ν ν | Nu | n |
| Ξ ξ | Xi | x |
| Ο ο | Omicron | o short |
| Π π ϖ | Pi | p |
| Ρ ρ ϱ | Rho | r |
| Σ Ϲ σ ς[1] | Sigma | s |
| Τ τ [#] | Tau | t |
| Υ υ | Upsilon | u |
| Φ φ ϕ | Phi | ph |
| Χ χ | Chi | ch |
| Ψ ψ | Psi | ps |
| Ω ω | Omega | o long |
+------------+---------+---------+

[1] Ϲ, initial; σ, middle; ς, final.

There are twelve diphthongs or compound vowels, viz.

Six proper--αι, αυ, ει, ευ, οι, ου; and

Six improper--ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, ηυ, υι, ωυ. The dot below signifies that ι is subscribed.

_Accents._--Accents are nothing more than small marks, which have been introduced into the language, to ascertain the pronunciation of it, and facilitate it to strangers. Wherefore the ancient Greeks, to whom it was natural, never used them, as is demonstrated from Aristotle, old inscriptions, and ancient medals. It is not an easy matter to tell, what time the practice of writing these accents first prevailed, though it is probable not till after the Romans began to be more curious of learning the Greek tongue, and to send their children to study at Athens, that is, about or a little before the time of Cicero.

Accents, by the Greeks called τόνοι, tones, are the rising or falling of the voice in pronouncing: which may be considered either separately in distinct syllables, or conjunctively in the same syllable.

Wherefore there are two sorts of accents; two simple, viz. the acute, οζὺς, figured thus (´), which denotes the elevation of the voice; and the grave, βαρὺς, shaped thus (`), to signify the falling or depression of the voice; and the circumflex, περισπώμενος, which was formed first of these two lines or points joined together thus (^), and afterwards was changed into a round sort of a figure like an inverted Upsilon, thus (⁀), but at length came to be figured like an s drawn crossway (~).--_Bell’s Greek Grammar._

The acute accent raises the voice, and affects one or more of the three last syllables of a word, if it has so many.

The circumflex lengthens the sound, and affects either the last syllable of a word, or the last but one.

The grave depresses the voice, and affects the last syllable only.

There are two spirits, or breathings: the asper (῾), which the Greeks use instead of the letter Η; and the lenis (᾿) which denotes the absence of the asper.

The apostrophe (’), marked at the head of a letter in the end of a word denotes that the vowels α, ε, ι, or ο, and sometimes the diphthongs αι or οι are cut off, the next word beginning with a vowel.

_Accents and Aspirates._

᾿ Lenis. ῎ Lenis acute. ͂ Circumflex. ¨ Diæresis.
῾ Asper. ῍ Lenis grave. ῏ Circumflex lenis. ΅ Diæresis acute.
´ Acute. ῞ Asper acute. ῟ Circumflex asper. ῭ Diæresis grave.
` Grave. ῝ Asper grave.

_Points._--A colon in Greek is a point at the head of a letter; as (·)

An interrogation is a Latin semicolon; as (;)

All other points in Greek are the same as in Latin.

The Greeks express their Numbers by Letters, thus:

α’ 1 ι’ 10 ρ’ 100 ‚α 1000

β’ 2 κ’ 20 σ’ 200 ‚β 2000

γ’ 3 λ’ 30 τ’ 300 ‚γ 3000

δ’ 4 μ’ 40 υ’ 400 ‚δ 4000

ε’ 5 ν’ 50 φ’ 500 ‚ε 5000

ϛ’ 6 ξ’ 60 χ’ 600 ‚ι 10,000

ζ’ 7 ο’ 70 ψ’ 700 ‚κ 20,000

η’ 8 ϖ’ 80 ω’ 800 ‚ρ 100,000

θ’ 9 ϟ’ 90 ϡ’ 900 ‚σ 200,000

The first of the above ranks is units, and consists of the eight first letters with the character ϛ’, called στίγμα, which signifies 6, and is therefore ranged in the sixth place.

The second rank consists of tens, and is formed of the eight following letters with this character ϟ’, κόππα, which signifies 90.

The third rank consists of hundreds, and contains eight letters with this character ϡ’, σαμπῖ, which signifies 900.

The accent under each letter in the fourth rank signifies a thousand, and the letter itself expresses the number of thousands signified.

The letters of the three first ranks are marked with a dash on the top to distinguish them from the letters marked with an accent below.

By compounding the above letters any number may be expressed; thus, ι’α’ makes 11; κ’β’, 22; λ’γ’, 33; ρ’δ’, 104; ‚αε’, 1005; ‚αψ’ο’ϛ’, 1776, &c.

Also the Greeks sometimes use these capitals instead of the numbers, of which they are the initial letters, viz. Ι for one, because ΙΑ signifies one (being formerly used instead of μ’ια), Π for five, Δ for ten, Η for a hundred, Χ for a thousand, and Μ for ten thousand. And these letters may be all four times reduplicated (except Π), thus ΙΙ, 2; ΙΙΙ, 3; ΙΙΙΙ, 4; ΔΔ, 20; ΔΔΔ, 30; ΔΔΔΔ, 40, &c. So ΔΙ, 11; ΔΔΙΙ, 22; ΠΙ, 6; ΔΠ, 15, &c.

Sometimes the above initials are enclosed in a great ∏, and then the number is five times repeated, thus |Δ̅| is five times ten or 50; and |Χ̅| is 5000: but Ι is never enclosed.

Fournier, in his Manuel Typographique, gives a great number of Greek ligatures: these I have copied, with additional ones from Fertel, and others from Jones’s Greek Grammar; together they make a more complete list than any that I have met with. Fournier, speaking of the article Greek, says, We see by the multiplicity of the sorts, that the Greek character is the most extensive and complicated of all characters. The founders may not always be able to give the Greek founts thus complete in sorts; but I give the representation, because, as I have before said, the engravers who have worked upon the characters have followed the ligatures which they found in the manuscripts which they imitated. There were never any but the Greek characters engraved by Garamond for Francis the First, which have been complete in all sorts of ligatures. It is this which has obliged me to give in different lines the figures which compose this fount, in which there are still some wanting, which I have been obliged to suppress in order not to multiply them without necessity.

For the classical works in Greek the ligatures or double letters are considerably diminished. I have adopted this usage in the little fount, which contains but the figures most in use.--_Fournier._

I have been induced to give this extended list of Greek ligatures, because the present taste in printing Greek is to discard them entirely, and to use a distinct character for each letter of the alphabet. Under these circumstances, should an old edition of a Greek work be put in hand as copy to be reprinted, it would be mortifying not to be able to decypher the ligatures, nor have any thing to refer to for explanation. I have myself been placed in this situation in a large house, with no person in it who could give me the necessary information, although there were some there that professed themselves good Greek scholars; neither could the editor of the work himself give me any assistance.

_Greek Ligatures._

Plan of the Old Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Χ | Ψ | Ω | ϗ | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| ος | ει | ς | ου | kern. | kern. | kern. ||
| | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ού| οὺ| οῦ| οὑ| οὐ| οὕ| οὓ| οὔ| οὒ| oὗ| οὖ| οϋ| οΰ| οῢ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++

++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ἂ | ἇ | ἆ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ἒ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | ϋ | ΰ | ῢ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ώ | ὠ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

Plan of the Old Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++
|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Hair | ||
| α | η | υ | ω | ου | sp. | σ ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++
| β | ϐ | [#] | γ | δ | ε ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+------------+-----------++
| κ | [#] | λ | μ | ν ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++
| | ζ | | | | Thick and ||
| ξ +-----+ υ | [#] | τ | thin sp. ||
| | [#] | | | | ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++

++-------+---+---+-------+------------+------------+
|| | | | | | |
|| ς | ρ | φ | ψ | ῥ | ῤ |
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ |
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| ο | π | ϖ | , | ρ |En quadrats.|Em quadrats.|
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| | | ; | : | |
|| α | ω +---+---+ Quadrats. |
|| | | . | ̈ | |
++-------+-------+---+---+-------------------------+

Plan of the New Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Χ | Ψ | Ω | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| | | | | kern. | kern. | kern. ||
| | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++

2 1 6 4 5 3 8 7
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ὰ | ἇ | ἆ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ὲ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ώ | ὼ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

Plan of the New Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s Offices.

+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++
|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Thin ||
| α | ε | η | ο | υ | ω | Sp. ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++
| β | ϐ | γ | δ | ε ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++
| κ | λ | μ | ν ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++
| | | | | | Thick ||
| ξ | ζ | υ | | τ | Sp. ||
| | | | | | ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++

++-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
|| σ | ς | ψ | ῥ | ῤ |
|| | | | | |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| ο | π | , | ρ | En | Em |
|| | | | |quadrats.|quadrats.|
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| | | ; | : | |
|| α | ω +-----+-----+ Quadrats. |
|| | | . | ̈ | |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+-------------------+

_Greek in the British Founderies._

_Double Pica._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J.
Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson;
Glasgow Homer.

_Great Primer._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J.
Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly Byddells. University of
Oxford. Wilson.

_English._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and
Besley (2). University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Small Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.
Thorowgood and Besley. Wilson.

_Long Primer._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.
Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s; one fount cut from the MS. of
the late Professor Porson. University of Oxford. Wilson; matrices
from type cast in which the Elzevirs printed some of their
editions.

_Bourgeois._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley.

_Brevier._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.

_Nonpareil._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley.

_Pearl._--Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly
Bynneman’s.

_Diamond._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.

_Alexandrian Greek, Pica._--Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s;
cut by Jackson, for Dr. Woide’s facsimile edition of the New
Testament of the Codex Alexandrinus.

For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of books in the Greek language within the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the Universities of Scotland, and the University of Trinity College, Dublin, _see_ PAPER.

GROOVES.

There is always a groove on the upper surface of the short cross of a chase, at each end, six or seven inches long. Their use is to receive the spur, when working with points, and to allow it to make a hole in the paper, without injury to itself. The grooves in wrought iron chases are of a good form, being cut with a tool tapering to the bottom like a wedge, which enables the spur to make a clean hole in the paper; those in cast iron chases are generally flat at the bottom and too wide, which causes the holes to gull. _See_ GULL.

GUIDE CRAMPS. _See_ CRAMP IRONS.

GULL.

When the points tear the point holes at press, they say, they are Gulled, or the Holes Gull. This may arise from two or three causes--if the point of the spur be turned again, it will cause it--in cast iron chases the groove to receive the spur is generally too wide, this may also cause it--and if the spur does not fall fairly into the groove, this may be another cause: the remedy is not difficult, unless the paper be very tender. In the first case, the spur ought to be filed to a smooth tapering point--in the second, it is usual to wedge a bit of reglet into the groove, to cut it down to the surface of the cross, and to make a hole in it with a bodkin for the reception of the spur--in the last, it is necessary that the spur fall fairly into the groove. If the fault arises from the bluntness and thickness of the spurs, they must be filed smaller and to a point.

GUTTER.

Gutter Sticks are used to set between pages on either side the crosses; they are made of an equal thickness their whole length; but they have a groove, or gutter, laid on the upper side of them, as well that the water may drain away when the form is washed or rinsed, as that they should not print, when, through the tenderness of the tympan, the platen presses it and the paper lower than ordinary.--_M._ We now mean by the term Gutter, the piece of furniture that separates two adjoining pages in a chase, as in an octavo that between pages 1 and 16, in a duodecimo that between pages 1 and 24, and so on. The pieces that are put at the sides of the pages next the cross, are called _Backs_; and those at the tops of the pages next the cross, are called _Heads_. I would recommend that the gutters should be cut a little longer than the page, the heads for each quarter being in two pieces, so that the gutter may be between them; one head will thus project a little over the sidestick, and will form an abutment for it, while the other will project a little over the back; by this method there will be no danger of any of them binding, and the gutters will answer for pages of different lengths.

GUY, THOMAS. _See_ DONATIONS.

GYPSUM.

Earl Stanhope says, “The best burnt gypsum mixes up most conveniently, for stereotyping, in the proportion of seven parts of water to nine parts of gypsum.”

H.

HALF A PRESS.

When but one man works at a press, it is called _Half a Press_.--_M._ It is still termed _a Half Press_. A man is said to be working Half Press.

HALF WORK.

He that works but three days in the week, does but _Half work_.--_M._

HANGS. _See_ LETTER HANGS.--_M._

HANG UP PAPER.

To hang the sheets upon the poles to dry after they have been printed.

For this purpose the warehouseman takes the peel in his hand, and lays it flat upon the heap that is to be hung up, so as to let the paper project beyond the left side of it; he turns over upon it from six to twelve or fourteen sheets of paper, with the wrapper, and then moves the peel two or three inches to the left, and goes on repeating the process, till he has got as many lifts on it as it will conveniently support; he then raises them above the pole on which they are to be placed, and holding the handle slanting the sheets open at the under side, so that when the peel is withdrawn the lifts are left suspended on the pole; he then inserts the end of the peel between the first and second lifts, which are undermost, where he shifted his peel in taking them up, lifts them a little, and moves them farther from each other on the pole, still letting the one overhang a little the other he leaves in its first place, and thus he proceeds till one by one he has separated all he had upon his peel; he then takes another peelful, repeating this process, and so he goes on till the whole heap is hung up.

He is guided by circumstances as to the number of sheets he should take in a lift: if the work is in a great hurry, or his vacant poles are not in a favourable situation for drying, or the weather be rainy and the atmosphere charged with moisture, he will hang the paper up thin; but if he is short of pole-room, and the work is not in a great hurry, if the situation is favourable for drying, and the weather dry and warm, he will make his lifts thicker; but I would caution him not to go to an extreme, as in that case the paper may mildew upon the poles, particularly in the fold.

Houses of extensive business have drying rooms fitted up with pipes, and heated either with steam or hot water, so that they can dry their printed paper expeditiously, without hinderance or drawback.

HANG THE PLATEN.

To tie the platen to the hose hooks, in a wooden press.

To perform this it is usual to lay on the press stone a form of solid type, and to turn the tympans down upon it, to place the platen in its place, square with the press, to pull the bar home, and to keep it in this situation by a letter board placed so as to take a bearing against the shoulder of the bar close to the handle, and also against the off cheek; but I prefer a piece of wide furniture with a notch cut in one end for the bar, and the other end against the off cheek, as it is more secure and less liable to be displaced; then to make a noose on a piece of laid cord, place this on one of the front hose hooks, and take a turn round the corresponding platen hooks, and continue these turns till a sufficient quantity of cord is wound round the hooks; take a hitch round one of the hooks to prevent the cord slipping, then begin to wind the cord round these layers, every two or three turns drawing it tight by taking a turn round a short piece of broad or narrow furniture, by means of which it may be drawn more forcibly, so as to bring the parts together, which makes it so firm that there is no danger of its giving way; the end may then be fastened to one of the hooks. The same process is repeated at the opposite angle, behind the press; then at the two other angles; the platen is then firmly hung, and is ready for work.

The same process is observed in iron presses, with the exception that the platen is not tied with cord; it is attached to the press by means of screws.

HANSARD, LUKE. _See_ DONATIONS.

HARD IMPRESSION.

When there is too much pull in working at press, particularly with engravings, and the lines come off strong which ought to be light and delicate, it is said the impression is hard.

HARD INK.

Ink very well boiled.--_M._ It is now called strong ink.

HARD JUSTIFYING.

If a compositor fills his stick very stiff with letters or spaces, they say it is hard justified.--_M._

HARD PULL.

In justifying the head of a press for a short pull, which is done by putting solid blocks of wood into the mortises of the cheeks, it is called an _Hard Pull_.--_M._ This relates to wooden presses; but, instead of the blocks of wood, scaleboard is now used, additional pieces of which are put into the mortises, by lowering the head, which is again tightly screwed up: in the Stanhope Press, and in Clymer’s, it is accomplished by shortening the coupling bar, by means of a screw; in Cogger’s press, by a screw through the head; and in Cope’s press, by putting pieces of plate iron upon the crown of the platen. In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press, by turning a screw attached to a wedge placed in the front, above the spindle; Mr. Hopkinson has adopted the same method in Cope’s press, placed on the near side.

HARD WORK.

With compositors, ill written copy, much Italick, Latin or Greek, or marginal notes, or few breaks, &c. is called _Bad_, _Heavy_, _Hard Work_: with pressmen, small letter and a large form is called _Hard Work_.--_M._ _See_ BAD WORK.

There has been an alteration in the mode of paying for work since Moxon’s time, which is to the advantage of the workman: foreign languages, Greek, and marginal notes are now extra charges; and the Pressman has an additional price for his work, as the type decreases in size and the size of the page increases. _See_ PRICES.

HEAD.

That part of a wooden press in which the nut of the spindle is fixed; it has a tenon at each end which fit into long mortises in the cheeks, not tightly, but sufficiently so to prevent lateral motion; and it is suspended from the cap by two long iron bolts, which go through the head and the cap, above which are iron washers and screws by which to lower the head, or screw it up tighter. The head is usually made of elm. The whole of the pressure in the process of printing is between the head and the winter.

HEAD BAND.

A thin bar of iron that connects the two sides of the tympans at the top: it is made thin, to allow it to run under the platen without impediment. The half of the frisket joints are riveted to the head band. _See_ FRISKET JOINTS.

HEAD BOLTS.

Two long bolts that pass through the head and the cap, in wooden presses, with a screw at the upper end: the head of the press is supported upon the heads of the bolts, and their screw ends pass through the cap, upon which they are secured by washers and female screws that can be tightened by the fingers; these screws are for the purpose of screwing up the head, to justify the pull.

HEAD LINE.

The top line of a page in which is the running title and the folio, but sometimes only a folio: the divisions and subdivisions of a work, when they are set in lines, and chapters, are also called _Head Lines_.

HEAD OF A PAGE.

The top or beginning of a page.--_M._

HEAD PAGE.

The first page of a work, and each page on which a new division of the subject commences, such as parts and chapters, provided they begin the page.

HEAD PIECES.

The same changes have taken place with regard to head pieces that I have described under the article FAC; from the beautiful drawings with which manuscripts and some of the first productions of the press were illuminated, they gradually descended to engravings on wood, which was the first step, then to cast metal ornaments, and then to the types called flowers, which were displayed in every variety of form that they were capable of, or that the ingenuity of the printer could devise; these gave place to a piece of double brass rule, that is now out of fashion; and head pieces at the present day are only spoken of as things that once existed. _See_ FAC.

HEAD STICK.

Pieces of furniture put at the head of pages when a form is imposed, to make the margin at the head of the page; they are called reglets, if they exceed not an English thick.--_M._ _See_ BOLTS.

HEAP.

So many reams or quires as are set out by the warehouse-keeper for the pressman to wet, is called a _Heap_; but then it is called a dry heap, till the pressman have wet it, and then it is indeed called a _Heap_.--_M._

When paper is given out for a work, and wetted, it is called a heap, and retains that name till it is made up into books.

In gathering the printed sheets in the warehouse, all the sheets of each signature are placed upon the gathering table, arranged in their regular order, except it be a long number, and then about a bundle of each; each signature in this situation is called a heap.

HEAP HOLDS OUT.

When it hath its full intended number of sheets.--_M._ At the present time, when accidents and other causes have not reduced the surplus so much as to prevent the warehouseman from delivering the proper number.

HEAVY WORK. _See_ BAD WORK and HARD WORK.

HEBREW.

The Chaldaic letters are derived from the ancient Hebrew or Samaritan, which are the same, or nearly so, with the old Phenicien. The prophet Ezra, is supposed to have exchanged the old Hebrew characters, for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldee, which are still in use.

Hebrew has no capitals; and therefore letters of the same shape, but of a large body, are used at the beginning of chapters and other parts of Hebrew work.

_The Hebrew Alphabet._

+---------+--------+-------+---------------------------------+-----+
| Names. |Figure. |Simil- | Sound or power of the letters. | Num-|
| | Finals.| itude.| | ber.|
+---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+
| | | | | | |
| Aleph | א | | | A _spiritus lenis_, or soft | 1 |
| | | | | breathing, indicating the bare | |
| | | | | opening of the mouth, and simple| |
| | | | | emission of the voice. | |
| | | | | | |
| Bheth | ב | | ב כ | _bh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 2 |
| | | | | בּ _b_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| Ghimel | ג | | ג נ | _gh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 3 |
| | | | | גּ _g_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| Dhaleth | ד | | ד ך ר | _dh_, very soft, as in that; | 4 |
| | | | | with dagesh, דּ _d_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| He | ה | | ה ח ת | a _spiritus densus_, or thick, | 5 |
| | | | | hard breathing. | |
| | | | | | |
| Vau | ו | | ו ז ן | _v_, or the digamma _vv_. | 6 |
| | | | | | |
| Zajin | ז | | | _z_ or _s_ between vowels, | 7 |
| | | | | as in _miser_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Hheth | ח | | | _hh_, a very hard or thick | 8 |
| | | | | breathing, harder than ה, | |
| | | | | softer than כ, somewhat similar | |
| | | | | in sound to the Greek χ _chi_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Teth | ט | | ט מ | _t_. | 9 |
| | | | | | |
| Jodh | י | | י ו | _i_ or _j_. | 10 |
| | | | | | |
| Chaph | כ | ך | | _c_ or _ch_, harder than ח with | 20 |
| | | | | a dagesh, it sounds like ק _k_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Lamedh | ל | | | _l_. | 30 |
| | | | | | |
| Mem | מ | ם | | _m_. | 40 |
| | | | | | |
| Nun | נ | ן | | _n_. | 50 |
| | | | | | |
| Samech | ס | | ם ס | _s_, sounds like the _hissing_ | 60 |
| | | | | of a goose or serpent. | |
| | | | | | |
| Ghnaiin | ע | | ץ ע | sounds like the bleating of a | 70 |
| | | | | calf in the absence of its dam. | |
| | | | | | |
| Phe | פ | ף | | _ph_ or _f_; with a | 80 |
| | | | | dagesh, פ _p_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Tzade | צ | ץ | | _ts_, with a harder _hiss_ | 90 |
| | | | | than ז. | |
| | | | | | |
| Koph | ק | | | _k_ or _q_. | 100 |
| | | | | | |
| Resh | ר | | | _r_, the canine or barking | 200 |
| | | | | letter, imitating, by the | |
| | | | | quivering of the tongue, the | |
| | | | | snarling growl of a dog. | |
| | | | | | |
| Schin | שׁ | | | _sch_, pointed on the right, | 300 |
| | | | | it sounds _sch_ or _sh_, | |
| | | | | on the left _s_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Sin | שׂ | | | _s_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Thau | ת | | | _th_, as in thief, smith; with | 400 |
| | | | | a dagesh תּ _t_, hard. | |
+---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+

Particular attention should be paid to the letters in the column “Similitude” in the Table of the Alphabet, which are liable to be mistaken, one for the other, on account of their great resemblance one to another.

The vowels properly so called are ten in number, viz.:

_Long._
Kamets בָ _ā_
Tseri בֵ _ē_
Great Chirek בִי _ēī_
Hholem or Cholem וֹ _ō_
Shurek וּ _ū_, or _ōō_

_Short._
Patach בַ _ă_
Segol בֶ _ĕ_
Little Chirek בִ _ĭ_
Kamets Catuph, or short (בֳ) בָ _ŏ_
Kybbutz בֻ _ŭ_

Sheva (בְ) is sounded like very short _e_. 1. At the beginning of a word. 2. In the middle after a long vowel, or instead of a long vowel. 3. After a companion, _i. e._ another (וְ). 4. Under dagesh, also under dagesh understood.

(בְ) never follows (בְ) in the beginning of a word, or in the middle after a perfect syllable; but the first is changed into (בִ) (בַ) or (בֶ) chiefly on account of a guttural and ר: very seldom into (בֳ).

Dagesh, from the Chaldaic, _he punctured_, is a point in the body of a letter, and is either _lene_ or _forte_.

Dagesh lene removes the aspiration from the six letters בְּגַדכְּפַת, and strengthens their pronunciation in some degree.

Dagesh forte doubles the letters in which it occurs. Regularly it follows a short vowel, and only a long one when accented.

Mappik is a point in הּ final only, but vanishes on an increase of the word.

ACCENTS.

Hebrew accents are either mere points, or lines, or circles.

Those which are mere points or dots, consist of one, or two, or three such points, and are always placed above the middle of the accented letter, thus

That consisting of

One, called _rebia_, ב֗, i. e. _sitting over_.

Two, called royal _zakeph katon_, ב֔, or, _the little
elevator_, from its figure which is composed of upright points.

Three, called royal _segolta_, ב֒, an inverted (∵).

The lines are either upright, inclined, or transverse.

The upright is either solitary or with points or dots.

The solitary is either

between two words ב׀ב, termed _pesick_, or musical pause, and
terminating a song.

or under a word

_Metheg_ בֽ, or _bridle_, an euphonic accent at the beginning
of a word.

Royal _silluk_, בֽ, _end_, which is placed before (׃)
_soph-pasuk_, i. e. towards the end.

With points, namely

two, above the letter, royal _zakeph gadhol_ ב֕, _the great
elevator_, strains the sound.

one, below the letter, royal _tebhir_, ב֛, _broken_ sound,
from its figure and tone.

Inclined lines hang either above or below.

Above, towards the right

Leader _pashta_, ב֙, _extension_, extends the voice or sound,
and is placed above the last letter of the word. Subservient
_kadma_, ב֨, _antecedent_, to the leader _geresh_; and is
placed above the penult or antepenult letter.

Above, towards the left

Leader _geresh_, ב֝, _expulsion_, is sung with an impelled
voice.

Gereshajim, ב֞, _two expellers_, from the figure being doubled.

Below, towards the right--Leader _tiphcha_, ב֖, fatigue, from the song, or note.

Below, towards the left

Of subservient _Merca_, ב֥, _lengthening out_, from its
lengthening out the song or note.

_Merca kephula_, ב֦, _a double lengthening_ out from its music
and figure.

The transverse line is either right or curved, thus: ֮־ .

The right line is placed between two words, connecting them together, thus, ב־ב, and is called _maccaph_, i. e. connexion.

The curved, or waved line, ב֮, is called leader, _zarka_, or, _the disperser_, from its modulation and figure.

Circles are either entire or semi.

The entire circle is placed always above, and has a small inclined line attached to it.

Either, on the left, when it is placed at the head of the word, ב֠, and is called leader _telisha the greater_, or, _the great evulsion_.

Or, on the right, when it is placed at the end, ב֩, and is called subservient _telisha the less_.

On both together, ב֟, called leader _karne para_, _the horns of the heifer_, from its modulation and figure.

The semicircle is either _solitary_ or _pointed_.

The solitary is either _angular_ or _reflected_.

The angular is on the right

Subservient _hillui_, ב֬, _elevated_, from the elevation of
the voice.

_Munach_, ב֣, _placed below_, from its position.

The angular is on the left

Leader _jethith_, ב֚, drawing back, from its figure.

Subservient _mahpach_, ב֤, _inverted_, also from its figure.

The reflected is

either single subservient _darga_, ב֧, a degree.

or double, leader, _shalsheleth_, ב֓, _a chain_, from its
figure and modulation.

When joined with other points, it is either above or below the letter.

When above the letter it has a small line attached to it on the left, ב֡, leader _paser_, _the dispersor_, from the diffusion of the note.

When below the letter, it is pointed either downwards, ב֑, called royal _athnach_, _respiration_, as the voice must rest on it, and respire; or upwards, ב֪, subservient, _jerah-ben-jomo_, _the moon of its own day_, from its figure.--_Bythner’s Lyre of David, translated by the Rev. Thomas Dee, A.B._ 8vo. Dublin, 1836.

The following observations are from Buxtorf’s Hebrew Grammar:

The finals are commonly called _Camnephatz_. But they are excepted in four places, namely, Isaiah ix. 6. where the final Mem is in the middle of a word; Nehemiah ii. 13. where the open Mem is at the end; and Job xxxviii. 1. and xl. 6. where נ is at the end.

These seven letters ﬡ ﬢ ﬣ ﬥ ﬦ ﬧ ﬨ are sometimes lengthened, either for the sake of elegance, or for filling out the line, which is never to be finished with a divided word.