Tactics, Volume 1 (of 2). Introduction and Formal Tactics of Infantry

Chapter III: Part 3

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Whether line or column is the preferable battle formation is a question belonging to a bygone age. The battles of the British in Spain and at Waterloo, the engagement at Groszbeeren, and the attack of the six battalions of Borke’s Brigade (the 8th) at the Katzbach,[61] amply demonstrate that the defeat of the Prussians at Jena was not due to the employment of linear battle formations alone. In a fight with an equal opponent, formed in columns, well trained and disciplined troops, formed in line that allows of the use of all the rifles and is suitable for shock action as well, have always carried off the victory.[62] On the other hand, in the battles of the Empire we find columns formed, which of necessity excluded a large part of the men from participation in the action, but which were designed to break through the hostile battle line by sheer momentum. At Wagram, Macdonald’s Corps was formed with eight deployed battalions in rear of each other in a single column, supported on the flanks by seven and eight battalions respectively, also in column. At Austerlitz and Waterloo we find attack formations in which from eight to twelve battalions of a division were deployed one in rear of the other at distances of twenty paces. Column and line must be examined with reference to their mobility, their vulnerability and their fire and shock power.

[61] FRIEDERICH, _Herbstfeldzug, 1813_, I, p. 305.

[62] RENARD, _Considérations sur la tactique de l’infanterie en
Europe_, Paris, 1857.

RÜSTOW, _Geschichte der Infanterie_, II, p. 316.

The column possesses greater mobility and is better adapted than the line for executing changes of front and for taking advantage of the cover afforded by the ground. In a column steadiness and shock power (produced by the crowding forward of the ranks in rear) and the influence exerted by the officers, is greater than in a line.

The line is more dependent on the terrain in its movements. The characteristics of the line are great frontal fire power, weakness of the flanks, difficulty of quickly changing front, and the ever present danger of being pierced. The line has been called the formation of the bold, the column that of the weak.

The column[63] was proposed as a battle formation in France as early
as 1774 by Mesnil Durand, but did not find practical application
until the wars of the Revolution. In those wars columns were used
because the raw levies lacked the training necessary for making
movements in line. Whenever a line formation was used, battalions,
owing to the scarcity of efficient officers, resolved themselves
into disorderly skirmish lines which were exceedingly difficult to
control. The adoption of the column was, therefore, the result of
practical experience, but as a formation it could be justified on
the battlefield only so long as it remained capable of development
for the purpose of firing. The endeavor to combine the advantages
of column and line by a combination of both formations led to the
placing of columns in rear of the wings of the battalions deployed in
line. This formation was employed for the first time in the attack
made by a demi-brigade during the battle on the =Tagliamento= (1797),
and subsequently it was used at =Marengo= (attack made by Desaix’s
Division).

[63] The development of the French column tactics is splendidly
portrayed by KUHL in his work _Bonapartes erster Feldzug, 1796_, p.
46, et seq.

During the first decade of the 19th Century the French leaders had
a marked _penchant_ for this formation, until it sank more and more
into insignificance in face of the deep column. (Ney at =Waterloo=,
and Macdonald at =Wagram=). Formations suggesting the above are found
even in the Prussian regulations of 1876. (Posting of sharpshooter
platoons of the companies at first in rear of the wings of the
deployed battalion, and later in rear of the outer flank platoons of
the companies).

On account of the increased penetrating power of infantry projectiles, especially at short ranges, a column will suffer greater losses than a line; at longer ranges the curvature of the trajectory causes bullets which pass over the first echelon to strike the second or third. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, lines, and on ground rising with respect to the line of sight, columns are exposed to greater losses when they come within the beaten zone.[64]

[64] At 1000 m., the projectile of rifle model ’98 falls 5 cm. for
each meter of the range, and at 1200 m. it falls 6 cm. per meter of
the range, so that the second and third platoons of a company in
column of platoons (7.2 m. distance between platoons) would offer a
target having a vulnerable surface 35 cm. high (¹⁄₅ the height of a
man), at 1000 m., 42 cm. high (¹⁄₄ the height of a man) at 1200 m.

3. THE COMPANY.

(a) Formation of the Company.

(Par. 83 German I. D. R.).

In the company the files are placed in two ranks according to height from right to left. Each four files form a squad or group, and the entire company is divided into three platoons (_Züge_). When a platoon consists of more than three squads it is divided into two sections (_Halbzüge_).

In the normal formation of the company, the three platoons, each in two ranks,[65] are posted on a line in numerical order from right to left. This formation facilitates firing and in garrison meets the requirements of barrack life, each two squads forming a section (_Korporalschaft_) under a non-commissioned officer. During the campaign of 1866 Prince Frederick Charles gave permission to arrange companies so that friends and relatives could serve together in the same squad or section. A company formed in this fashion would, of course, not look so well on parade as one formed regularly, the men according to height from right to left flank, but it would without doubt give a better account of itself in action. For details of the formation of a company and division into fractions see pars. 82-85, German I. D. R. The squad leaders and the two range finders in each platoon are posted as file closers at facing distance in rear of the rear rank of the company.

[65] The number of ranks is intimately related to the rate of
fire of the infantry weapon. During the days of slow loading, the
necessity of keeping at least a part of the rifles at all times ready
for firing led the Imperialists in the Thirty Years’ war (loading
was executed by 90 motions) to form their musketeers into sixteen
ranks, while Gustavus Adolphus was able to form his infantry into
six ranks owing to the greater loading facility of their rifles.
In the Seven Years’ war the Prussian infantry was formed in three,
that of the Austrians in four ranks, the fourth rank serving as a
reserve. The first rank fired kneeling. The British infantry was the
first to adopt the two rank formation for fire action, forming into
four ranks for shock action and frequently for warding off cavalry
attacks. Emperor Napoleon considered a third rank useless for fire
and shock action and initiated the double rank formation on the eve
of the battle of Leipzig. In 1888 the Prussian infantry--the last to
do so--gave up the three rank formation which had long since lost its
importance in battle and which was retained side by side with the
double rank formation for purposes of parade only.

The _non-commissioned officers_ are posted in the front rank, on the flanks and in the center of the platoons in Russia, Austria, and Switzerland. In Germany and Italy they are all posted in rear of the line as file closers, and it is their duty to supervise the men. In France a part of the non-commissioned officers are posted in the front rank, the remainder as file closers. A German company of 200 men has a front of 100 paces, or 80 m. The infantryman with field equipment occupies a space about 75 cm. square.

The German Infantry Drill Regulations define interval (_intervalle_)
as the space between two elements on the same line, and distance as
the space between two elements in the direction of depth. An interval
is measured from the left flank of the element on the right to the
right flank of the element on the left (or vice versa); and distance
in the company and in the battalion is measured from the rear of the
element in front to the head of the element in rear (or vice versa).
If the distance between two elements is equal to their front, the
column is called an “open column”, otherwise it is called a “close
column.”

FRONT AND FACING DISTANCE.

(b) Division of the Company Into Three or Four Platoons.

In Austria, France, and Italy, platoons are considered as distinct bodies, so long as they have sufficient numerical strength. They are placed side by side and constitute the company in line. In Germany and Russia the company is at each formation divided into platoons of approximately equal strength. In the armies of Austria, France, and Italy, it is contended that the soldier has nothing further to learn when once he is taken up for duty in the company. All movements are executed, after preparatory commands given by the company commanders, by commands of execution or signals given by platoon commanders. The execution of movements is retarded by this procedure and the movement itself becomes clumsy. It would also seem that the multiplicity of commands in the simple, oft-repeated movements, is superfluous, especially in the weak platoons at peace strength.

Column of platoons from line (par. 121 German I. D. R.: “Form column
of platoons”) is formed in Austria as follows (Austrian I. D. R. par.
360): At the preparatory command, “Column,” given by the company
commander, the leaders of the 1st, 3rd, and 4th platoons command
at once, as in forming column of fours to the front, “Fours right
(left), column right (left).” At the command “march,” the platoons
step off, each turning in column to the rear, and are conducted to
their new positions, halted, and dressed to the right (left).

The companies of all powers, those of Germany, Japan, and Belgium excepted, are divided into four platoons; each two platoons may in addition be combined into a half-company. The German, Japanese, and Belgian companies are divided into three platoons. “The platoon is not an independent subdivision by reason of the mere fact that it consists of a certain number of men, but because the term platoon denotes a force led by a man of superior intelligence. The officer commanding the platoon makes it what it should be. The strength of the platoon is therefore solely dependent upon the number of officers available.” (VON SCHERFF).

The obvious advantage of the three-platoon organization of the company is that fewer platoon commanders are required, which fact is well worthy of attention in the mobilization of units of both Line and Reserve, especially in view of the extraordinarily heavy casualties among the troop leaders in the course of a campaign.[66]

[66] See also _Taktik_, V, pp. 81, 88.

It is only necessary to recall the situation of the Guard Corps and
of the IIIrd Army Corps after the battles around =Metz=, and the
condition of the German troops during the advance to =Le Mans=. On
January 7th, 1871, there were 36 officers with the 57th Infantry, of
which 16 led platoons of the 36 platoons in the first line, and 8
lieutenants commanded companies. On mobilizing, 25 lieutenants were
assigned as platoon commanders and six as company commanders in the
57th Infantry.[67]

[67] HÖNIG, _Gefechtsbilder_, I, p. 25. For additional facts in
regard to the dwindling of the number of officers consult _Die
sieben Tage von Le Mans_, by V. D. GOLTZ; also _Supplement to
Militär-Wochenblatt_, 1873, p. 368; also VON KORTZFLEISCH, _Feldzug
an der Loire_, p. 43.

The eight infantry regiments and the Jäger-Battalion of the Xth Army
Corps had, at this time, instead of the required 506 officers, only
286, of which number 174 were for duty. The 22nd Infantry Division
had only 108 officers left; companies and even half-battalions were
led into action by very young officers of the Reserve, and, on many
occasions, even by vice 1st sergeants.

On the morning of August 17th, 1870, the 40th Füsilier Regiment
had two field officers and four captains present for duty. Two
captains, two first lieutenants and eight second lieutenants
(four of these belonging to the Reserve), led companies; only two
lieutenants of the Reserve, one cadet, and four vice 1st sergeants
remained available for duty as platoon commanders. The regiment
participated in the battle of =Gravelotte= with this small number
of officers.[68] The 6th Grenadier Regiment, which, in July, 1870,
had marched out with four field officers, seven captains, six first,
14 second lieutenants, and four cadets, all on the active list,
lost so many officers at =Wörth= and =Sedan= that a field officer
of the 46th Infantry had to take command of the regiment; three
first lieutenants of battalions; and four second lieutenants, two
officers of the Reserve, and six vice 1st sergeants of the companies.
The 12 companies had available five vice 1st sergeants as platoon
commanders. The 1st Battalion of the 58th Infantry had only seven
officers left (including its commander and the adjutant) after its
losses at =Weiszenburg=.[69]

[68] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 8/9, p. 162.

[69] _Geschichte des Regiments Nr. 58_, p. 56.

The 7th Grenadier Regiment lost 40 officers at =Weiszenburg= and
=Wörth=. On August 7th, three captains commanded the battalions and
three officers of the 5th Jäger-Battalion were detailed to command
companies in it.[70] At =Gravelotte= the Füsilier-Battalion of the
1st, the Ist Battalion of the 2nd, and the IInd Battalion of the
3rd Regiment of the Guard lost all of their officers. The French
organizations, having more officers and less men than we, were by no
means so badly off in 1870-71. Upon mobilizing in 1870, the German
army had 13.7 officers to every 1,000 men, the French army, 32.2
officers.

[70] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 14, p. 122.

On the other hand, it should be remembered that in armies consisting of militia it is considerably more difficult to command a platoon of 60-70 men than to command one of 40-50 men. A disadvantage inseparably connected with the four-platoon company is the small size of the platoons during peace exercises. On account of this circumstance most regulations permit the three-platoon formation when the company is small, because platoons consisting of less than ten files are of no instructional value. An advantage of the three-platoon company is the simplicity and rapidity with which changes from one formation to another may be effected.

The three-unit column of platoons is very broad for movements on the battlefield. It offers, when numbering 200 rifles, a target about 25 m. wide and only 15 m. deep. The four-unit column of platoons is better suited for movements. With a front of 17 m., its depth is only 15 m., when the distances between platoons are assumed to be 6 paces (Austria, France, Italy, Russia, 5 paces). (See p. 62).

For a company consisting of 200 rifles, the following would be the forms:

The other advantages praised by advocates of the four-unit company are:

1. That a smaller platoon is more suitable for field service--that a picket is perhaps only in the rarest cases to be made 60 men strong.

2. That a small platoon makes a better and more comprehensive employment of the company in action possible, as the company commander has an opportunity to use ¹⁄₄, ¹⁄₂, or ³⁄₄ of his company according to the requirements of the situation, while the three-unit company affords less favorable combinations, permitting only an employment of ¹⁄₃ or ²⁄₃ of its strength.

These advantages can also be obtained in the German company by the employment of sections (¹⁄₆, ¹⁄₃, ¹⁄₂, ²⁄₃, ⁵⁄₆) so that the objections to the three-unit company would appear to be groundless.

The platoons (in Italy called _plotone_, in France, _section_) are subdivided into sections (_demi-sections_, _Halbzüge_), in Austria into two skirmish groups (_Schwärme_) of 4-7 files each, and, when consisting of 16 files, into four skirmish groups (in Italy this is also done, the groups being called _squadriglio_). In Germany the platoons are divided into groups or squads of four files each, and in Russia the platoons are divided into sections of 8-15 files each and these again into groups or squads of 4-6 men each. If the squad is to have any importance at all in action, it must have a leader, and it might easily happen that a mobilized company lacks the number of leaders necessary to provide one for each group. The withdrawal from the line of a number of good shots for duty as squad leaders is compensated for, in our opinion, by the more thorough supervision over the men. This consideration has, however, apparently caused other states (Austria and France) not to count on the activity of the squad leaders in a fire action to the same extent as is the case in Germany.

4. LENGTH OF PACE AND MARCHING.

An extended, swinging step, without haste and without unduly taxing the lungs, is advantageous in all movements. When accustomed to this pace on the drill ground, the men will march with practically the same step on varied ground, and this appears more desirable than to shorten the step, while at the same time increasing the distance to be covered in a given time. The length of the pace depends largely upon the height of the individual, but even small men can maintain a step of 0.80 m. without undue exertion.[71] In Switzerland the cadence has been fixed at 116-120 steps per minute “with a view of suiting the peculiarities and the varying degree of mobility which characterize the inhabitants of the different cantons.”(!) For purely practical reasons it is advisable to fix upon some even number of paces in order that the cadence may be tested with the watch. (Austria excepted). The longest pace in conjunction with the highest cadence (_Bersaglieri_, whose march is almost a double time, excepted) is found in England and Switzerland. Such a performance could not be kept up by a fully equipped man without impairing health.

[71] When the leg is extended at an angle of 57 degrees the length
of pace would be as follows:

Height of man. Length of leg. Length of foot. Length of pace.
1.6 m. 0.8 m. 0.24 m. = 0.75 m.
1.675 „ 0.857 „ 0.253 „ = 0.776 „
1.70 „ 0.87 „ 0.26 „ = 0.80 „
1.75 „ 0.88 „ 0.26 „ = 0.82 „

===========+====================++====================++
| QUICK TIME. || ACCELERATED TIME. ||
+------+-------------++------+-------------++
| | PER MINUTE. || | PER MINUTE. ||
| +------+------++ +------+------++
|Length|Number| ||Length|Number| ||
| of | of | || of | of | ||
| pace.|paces.| || pace.|paces.| ||
| m. | | m. || m. | | m. ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Germany | 0.80 | 114 | 91.2 || 0.80 | 120 | 96.00||
| | | || | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Austria | 0.75 | 115 | 86.25|| 0.75 | 125 | 93.75||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Italy, Line| | | || | | ||
and Alpini | 0.75 | 120 | 90.00|| ... | ... | ... ||
Bersaglieri| 0.86 | 140 |120. || ... | ... | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
France | 0.75 | 120 | 90.00|| 0.80 | 124 | 99.00||
| | | || | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
| 0.71 | 118 | 84- || 0.71 | | ||
Russia | | | || | 122 |119. ||
| 0.89 | 122 |109 || 0.89 | | ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
Japan | 0.75 | 114 | 85.5 || ... | ... | ... ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
England | 0.84 | 128 |107.5 || 0.91 | 128 |116.5 ||
-----------+------+------+------++------+------+------++
| | 116- | 92.8-|| | 120- | 96- ||
Switzerland| 0.80 | | || 0.80 | | ||
| | 120 | 96.00|| | 140 |112 ||
===========+======+======+======++======+======+======++

===========++=====================
|| DOUBLE TIME.
++--------+------------
|| | PER MINUTE.
|| +------+-----
|| Length |Number|
|| of | of |
|| pace. |paces.|
|| m. | | m.
-----------++--------+------+-----
Germany ||0.75- | 170- |127-
||0.90 | 180 |162
-----------++--------+------+-----
Austria ||0.90 | 160 |144
-----------++--------+------+-----
Italy, Line|| | |
and Alpini ||0.90 | 170 |153
Bersaglieri||1.00 | 180 |180
-----------++--------+------+-----
France ||0.30[72]| 180 |136
|| | |
-----------++--------+------+-----
|| | 170- |181-
Russia ||1.066 | |
|| | 181 |192
-----------++--------+------+-----
Japan ||0.85 | 170 |144
-----------++--------+------+-----
England ||1.02 | 180 |183.6
-----------++--------+------+-----
|| | |
Switzerland||0.90 | 160 |144
|| | |
===========++========+======+=====

[72] The following, taken from _La marche du fantassin_ (_Journal
des sciences militaires, 1897_), is here inserted for comparison.

_French Drill Reg. of 1791_ (in force until 1862):
_Pas ordinaire_ 100 paces at 0.65 m. = 65 m. per minute
_Frederick The Great’s
Infantry_ 75 „ „ 0.70 m. = 52 m. „ „

_Prussian Drill Reg. of 1812_: _Ordinary pace_ 75 „ „ 0.70 m. = 52 m. „ „ _Accelerated pace_ 108 „ „ 0.70 m. = 75.6 m. „ „ In general, double time is considered of little value. In Austria double time is to be maintained for periods of two minutes, quick time of five minutes duration alternating, up to sixteen minutes, _i.e._, until a distance of 1,726 m. has been covered. In Germany, an alternating quick and double time march in heavy marching order is prescribed. A different practice prevails in Italy. According to the Italian Regulations all troops are to be trained to march in double time without rest and without knapsacks for 2 kilometers (with knapsacks, 1 km.); _Bersaglieri_ without knapsacks, 3 km. (with knapsacks, 1¹⁄₂ km.), also without rest (_i.e._, 13 and 16.8 minutes respectively). When we consider that in double time with the necessary alternating step, 2,000 m. can be covered in 17 minutes, and in accelerated step, in 19-20 minutes, the time gained is unimportant when compared to the fatigue of the men and the exertion of the lungs, which interferes with deliberate, accurate firing. During an Austrian firing test the number of hits fell from 76.5%, attained while advancing in quick time, to 51% after a period of double time.

The run, without keeping step (_Marsch! Marsch!_) is employed in rapidly crossing short, fire-swept spaces, in changing quickly from one formation to another, and in the charge.

5. MOVEMENTS OF THE COMPANY IN LINE.

The commander of the center platoon is the guide.

A change of direction is effected by inclining toward the new direction (at the command: “Half right, march!” when the angular change of direction is less than 45 degrees), by indicating a new point to march on, or by executing a turn.

6. THE COLUMNS OF THE COMPANY; MOVEMENTS IN COLUMN; FORMATION OF LINE.

Column of Twos.[73]

[73] _Reihenkolonne._

Column of twos is formed by facing in the indicated direction. Marching at attention the depth of an organization in column of twos is equal to its front when in line. The column of twos is used in marching by the flank for short distances only, as the march at attention in this formation unduly fatigues the men. In addition, this formation may be used, in exceptional cases, on narrow roads; but the column becomes considerably elongated (as much as 165%), when marching at route step. Line is formed from column of twos either by facing, or by executing front into line.

Column of Squads.

This is an open column formed (the company being in line at a halt or in motion) by each squad executing a turn of 90 degrees. It may also be formed from line at a halt by the squad on the designated flank moving straight to the front, the others executing a turn of 90 degrees toward the proper flank, then following the leading squad.[74] Column of squads may also be formed by executing “Squads right (left), column right (left).” Line is formed by each squad executing a turn of 90 degrees or by executing front into line (without regard to the original front).

[74] “Right forward, fours right.” _Translator._

Route column is formed from column of squads by the squads in each section closing to facing distance, the file closers, musicians, and hospital corps men forming ranks of four men, in the gaps thus created. (Par. 91 German I. D. R.) With the exception of Russia, which employs a section column, of Switzerland, which uses a column of squads, and of France, which has adopted a wheel by fours like that of the cavalry, all other armies employ the _column of fours_[75] as their march formation.

[75] _Doppelreihenkolonne_.

Column of fours is, as a rule, formed as follows:

The even numbered men place themselves on the right or left of the odd numbered men by making an appropriate turn, thus forming a column of fours whose length is equal to the front of the company in line. In the plate below let the Roman numerals represent front rank men, the Arabic numerals rear rank men, and the horizontal line the original front occupied; column of fours will then be formed to the right, in the different states, as shown:

Russia, England, Belgium, Sweden, and Japan.

Italy. Netherlands.]

For the purpose of increasing the front of the column, the double column of squads, having a width of 8 files, may be employed. This is formed in practice by placing the columns of two organizations (companies or battalions) side by side. In large bodies of troops, the depth of a column is reduced in this manner by one-half. A column of fours formed by closing on the center instead of by wheeling to a flank, is employed in Italy and Russia for the purpose of reducing the front of an organization.

Comparison of Column of Fours with Column of Squads.

The column of fours has the advantage over our column of squads in that it can be more quickly and easily formed; that the front rank men must make a turn, while, at the same time, observing the march direction, can scarcely be considered a disadvantage.

The column of fours and the column of squads have the same depth. The Austrians consider movements made in column of fours on the battlefield more clumsy and fatiguing than when made in column of squads, because checks are transmitted to the whole column of fours owing to its rigidity, while in column of squads the march is easier, more rapid and more orderly. The squad organization, moreover, facilitates the employment of small parties in the service of security and increases the importance of the squad leader in fire action. For the last named reason we should not like to dispense with the column of squads.

The Employment of the Column of Squads.

The route column is suitable for movements under frontal artillery fire, as the cone of dispersion of bursting time shrapnel combines small lateral spread with great effect in the direction of depth, and as it is very difficult for the opponent to observe whether a shot falls short or goes over, unless it strikes just in front of the column. When artillery can bring a flanking fire to bear on the column it becomes necessary to neutralize this by placing the platoons side by side so as not to present an easily observed target to the enemy.

Movements by the flank and changes of front are easily made in column of squads, and after some practice the deployment into line of skirmishers from this formation offers no difficulties. This column is best adapted for movements over varied ground. In column of squads difficult terrain can be crossed and advantage can be taken of the most insignificant cover. In addition, it is difficult for an enemy to observe a force moving in column of squads along the edge of woods and rows of trees, and such a column entails the least expenditure of energy on the part of the men. The leaders must insist, however, that the men cover in file, and that elongation of the column does not take place. The column of squads or the route column is therefore to be employed on the battlefield as long as possible.

A column of squads or route column may be shortened by placing the platoons, each in column of twos or squads, side by side. By this means the =Company Column= (_Kompagniekolonne_) is formed.

The normal interval between platoons in this formation, measured from the leading guide of one platoon to the leading guide of the next in line, is nine paces. This interval may be increased as required by the nature of the ground and the intended deployment for action (deployment on a broader front). Movements in company column are facilitated by the fact that platoon commanders are posted four paces in front of the center of their respective platoons. The leading squad follows the platoon leader, the guide of that squad moving directly in that officer’s tracks. Thus, small, unimportant deviations, unavoidable on varied ground, can easily be adjusted, while too definite rules would tend to restrict the mobility of the platoon commanders in front of their platoons. The principal thing is that the platoon follow its leader who guides it without command.

The musicians distribute themselves in rear of the platoons in readiness for their subsequent duty in action--that of maintaining communication between the several parts of the company. The intervals of nine paces between platoons are not rigid, but rather the reverse. The flexibility of the formation considerably facilitates movements in difficult country. This “meandering” of the company over the terrain requires special training. The old, historic company column, in which the platoons were formed in line one in rear of the other at a distance of nine paces (Russia 5 paces = 3.55 m., Austria, Italy, France, 6 paces = 4.50 m., and Japan, 8 paces = 6 m.), their commanders on their respective right flanks, is now called the

Column of Platoons.

Austria, France, and Italy have retained the old designation.

The front of the column of platoons may be decreased by forming column of sections. The column of sections is suitable as a route formation on broad roads; the transition from column of sections to column of squads is not difficult, and for the purpose of passing through occasional narrow stretches of road, the files on the flanks may be removed. In most cases it is, however, more desirable to place several columns abreast than to employ column of sections, because deployment is facilitated in the former case.

Company in Column of Platoons.

=Russia.= The four squad leaders of each platoon are posted on the
flanks of the rear rank and in the center of each rank. The ranking
non-commissioned officer of each platoon stands on the left flank of
the front rank of his platoon. The 1st sergeant, the guidon bearer,
and one trumpeter, and behind them two drummers, are posted in rear
of the company.

The staves of the guidon flags (_Jalonneurflaggen_) are inserted into
the rifle barrel of a soldier (in case of a battalion into the rifle
barrel of a N. C. O.) and serve to indicate battalions and companies.

According to the color scheme used in Russia: red = 1, blue = 2,
white = 3, green = 4. “R” indicates the number of the regiment in
the division, “B” the number of battalion, and “K” the number of the
company. A red flag is carried by the 1st Company, and a red flag
with one green horizontal and one blue vertical stripe is carried by
the 8th Company of the 1st Regiment of an infantry division. In Japan
and England so-called storm-flags (small national flags) have been
adopted to facilitate mutual recognition of friendly troops.

Posts of Platoon Commanders.

In Switzerland, in Russia, and in Germany, the post of platoon commanders is on the flanks of their respective platoons when the company is in column of platoons. In England and Austria platoon commanders are posted in rear of their platoons, with the exception of the commander of the leading platoon, who is posted beside his guide. In all other states platoon commanders are posted in front of their platoons. Officers are posted in front of their platoons so as to facilitate observation on their part, and so that their platoons can follow them. This position becomes a necessity when the regulations require that all movements of the company be executed at commands given by platoon commanders. When they are posted in front of their platoons, they cannot supervise their men unless they turn around to do so.

The column of platoons is a close column from which line cannot be formed directly. It has not been found necessary in Germany to provide an open column permitting prompt deployment toward a flank. The column of platoons unites the company on the smallest space and facilitates supervision, but in companies at full war strength it is not well adapted for executing changes of front and for taking advantage of cover, on account of the size of the platoons (40 files each). In platoons at war strength the men look more toward the point upon which they are to march than upon the enemy, and the deployment of the rear platoons offers difficulties which occur principally when a deployment in an oblique direction or one by the whole company becomes necessary.

The column of platoons is formed by the flank platoons placing themselves in rear of the center platoon. Line is again formed by rear platoons moving to right and left and abreast of the leading platoon.

The German company column is much more flexible, and the advantage of a prompt deployment for action, made possible by the fact that all platoon commanders and the heads of platoons are in the lead and therefore can see the objective, should not be underestimated. The company column is formed from line by the center platoon forming column of squads to the front (or rear), the flank platoons, each in column of squads, closing on the center platoon, heads of the three columns on the same line. Company column is formed as follows from column of platoons: the leading platoon executes squads right (left), column left (right), the two rear platoons execute squads right (left), and are led to a position abreast of the leading platoon. Company column from column of squads is formed by rear platoons moving to the right and left respectively, and abreast of the leading platoon.

When line is to be formed from company column, the flank platoons have to incline to the right and left respectively in order to gain sufficient interval.

Movements in Column.

For marching short distances to a flank, column of twos may be employed; for longer distances, column of squads (or fours); and the march direction may be changed by inclining in the proper direction.

* * * * *

Since March 1904, experiments, which deserve to be mentioned here, have been made in France under the direction of Colonel Fumet, having for their object the simplification of the drill regulations. In the experiments a four-rank formation is being considered. In this proposed scheme the platoon is formed so as to place the four single-rank squads (_escouades_) in rear of each other at the very close facing distance of 0.50 m., the leaders of the _escouades_ taking post on the right flank, a first class private being posted on each flank and in the center of each _escouade_.

The platoon at war strength (50 men) has a front of 8-10 m. and a depth of 3 m. The movements are very simple. Route column is formed by simply facing to flank, without first dividing the platoon into squads. Double rank line may be formed from column of fours, by executing right and left front into line. The double rank line may be deployed into half-platoons. Furthermore, a single rank line may be formed by the men of the rear rank stepping up into the front rank. One drawback of this scheme is, that, in forming route column, facing distance of 0.80 m. between ranks is to be gradually gained after stepping off. The deployment of half-platoons into line of skirmishers offers no difficulties. It is otherwise, however, when the platoon is formed in four ranks and marching in platoon front, for then line of skirmishers can be formed only by deploying each rank in turn. The depth of the column may be decreased by placing platoons (formed in column of twos or fours) abreast, this expedient affording a suitable route formation on broad roads. The company is formed by placing the platoons on a line and abreast of each other at intervals of 2 m. In the battalion, column of platoons and “mass” are the only formations considered. In the “mass” formation the companies, each in line, are in rear of each other.

7. THE BATTALION.

The movements of the battalion have been considerably simplified in all armies. Battalion drill is, however, necessary, since, as shown by the advance of the IInd Army on the morning of August 18th, 1870, simultaneous movements of large masses across country will be unavoidable in future wars on account of the great size of modern armies.[76]

[76] Additional examples: Advance of the 6th Infantry Division on
Vionville. _Gen. St. W._, I, p. 556. The flank march made by the 3rd
and 4th Bavarian Brigades from La Maladerie toward Schloss Goury (5
km. battle of Loigny). HÖNIG, _Volkskrieg_, IV, p. 22.

Advance of the 33rd Infantry Brigade from Champdoux against Loigny
(_ibid._, IV, p. 80).

Advance of the 22nd Infantry Division from Lumeau on Poupry, 4.5
km. (_ibid._, IV, p. 139).

Advance of the French to the battle on December 1st, 1870 (_ibid._,
III, p. 164).

Normal Formation of the German Battalion.

The four columns of platoons, or the company columns of a battalion, may be placed, as dictated by space or purpose, abreast of each other as a =broad column= (_Breitkolonne_), or in rear of each other as a =deep column= (_Tiefkolonne_). The numerical order of companies is immaterial.

The deep column is employed for assembling troops if the terrain necessitates a formation on a narrow front. If sufficient distance is allowed between companies, line may be formed to a flank, but this increases the depth of the column to such an extent that movements at attention are impossible. The deep column may be used as a route formation in addition to the column of squads. During the change from route formation to that of action, the deep column formation may be retained so long as the depth of the whole column does not have to be further reduced. When necessary, the deep column may be replaced by a formation in which the four companies, each in route column, are placed abreast of each other.

The broad column finds proper employment, aside from parades, in cases where the terrain or the contemplated deployment requires more front than depth. It is also advisable to assemble the widely scattered troops in a broad column after an action. The broad column does not lend itself, however, to the execution of changes of front by battalion; but should such changes of front become necessary, they are always to be executed by company.

The color is posted between the right and left center companies, in broad column, and on the right flank of the third company, in deep column. In action the color remains with the company with which it happens to be at the moment.[77] Should this company also join the firing line, the color accompanies it; but under all circumstances one squad must remain with the color. (Par. 236 German I. D. R.). It has been contended that this is a disadvantage, as the enemy can direct his fire on the color and the men in its vicinity. If the colors, upon which the soldiers have been sworn, are taken into the field, it is always better to endure the unavoidable losses incidental to carrying them, and even to expose them to capture, than to send them back to a safe place under escort.[78] At the Albrechtshaus farm (Wörth) the colors served as rallying points around which the disordered skirmishers rapidly assembled.[79]

[77] In Japan the color joins the battalion commander. British
troops leave their colors in their garrisons. In Russia and France
the color is carried only by one battalion of each regiment.

[78] See KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 14, p. 180,
battle of Wörth. A platoon of the Füsilier-Battalion of the 47th
Infantry was sent to the rear with the color, and a squad of the
Füsilier-Battalion of the 46th Infantry finally had six colors
to guard. In the 88th Infantry, out of a total of 48 sections, 9
sections remained in rear as a guard for 2 colors, but finally 6 of
these sections crossed the Sauer.

[79] KUNZ, _Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele_, 13, pp. 77, 152.

The figures given on pages 72 and 73 of the German Infantry Drill Regulations illustrate formations with organizations at peace strength. The approximate dimensions of broad and deep columns at war strength are as follows:

=Russia.= Numerous formations are prescribed. In addition to route
column, columns with half company front and with company front are
prescribed. Reserve columns are mentioned. These, according to the
number of companies on the same line, are called single platoon
column (deep column), two platoon column (double column), or four
platoon column.

=Austria.= _The mass_, in which the companies of the battalion are
on the same line, each company in company column[80] with intervals
of three paces between companies, is employed for assembling the
battalion in a restricted space in a position in readiness when out
of range of hostile fire, or for assembling the battalion under
cover. The _line of columns_, in which the companies, each in column
or some other suitable formation, are formed abreast of each other at
deploying intervals plus three paces, is also used.

[80] In the Austrian company column (_Kompagniekolonne_), the
platoons, each in line, are formed one in rear of the other. This
formation was formerly called company column (_Kompagniekolonne_)
by the Germans also, but at present they designate it by the term
“column of platoons” (_Zugkolonne_). _Translator._

_The line._ In this formation the companies, each in line, are placed
abreast of each other at intervals of three paces.

_The column._ In this formation the companies are placed in rear of
each other, each either in line or in column, with distances of nine
paces between companies. The companies are numbered 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
4th, etc., from head to rear, if in column, and from right to left,
if in line.

=Italy.= The formations are like those of Austria, but the double
column has been retained.

=Japan.= The only formations prescribed are the broad and deep column.

=France.= The companies are formed in column or in _ligne de sections
par quatre_, intervals and distances being 10 paces. Distances and
intervals may be increased when required. The _battalion in line_ in
which the companies are formed in line in numerical order, abreast of
each other at intervals of six paces, is only retained as a parade
formation.

_Line of company columns_ (_ligne de colonnes_). Companies abreast
with intervals of six paces.

_Deep column_ (_colonne de bataillon_). The companies in normal
formation in rear of each other at distances of 10 paces.

_Double column_ (_colonne double_). Intervals and distances 10 paces.

The formation in which the companies are abreast of each other, each
in column of fours at deploying intervals, is employed in marching
across country and also under artillery fire. Only the regiment
carries a color, the battalion a guidon (_fanion_).

(_colonne de bataillon_).

The companies in line of platoons in column of fours (_ligne de sections par quatre_).]

(_colonne double_).]

(_colonne de bataillon_).]

(_ligne de colonnes_).]

(_colonne double_).

The companies in line of platoons in column of fours (_ligne de sections par quatre_).]

=England.= Columns are formed, in view of the (8) weak companies in
a battalion, with company or half-company front at full or reduced
distances (_quarter column_). In actions with savages echelon
formations and the square are also employed.

=Switzerland.= The company is divided into four platoons. The line is
used as an assembly formation and for purposes of parade. The company
column, corresponding to the German formation of the same name, is
used for movements on the battlefield. In both line and company
column the platoons are posted abreast, at intervals of three paces.
Finally the route column is used. This is formed either by wheeling
by squads, or by platoons executing column right (left). On the
battlefield the platoon may be deployed and formed in several lines.

In the battalion, company columns in line of columns, or route
columns in the battalion column, are posted abreast at intervals of
10 paces. Line and double column are abolished.

Opinions are divided as to the value of the double column. Formerly, when the double column was still the column of attack from which deployment for fire action had to be made, a discussion of its merits was of special importance. While Austria abandoned the double column formation in 1881 and Germany in 1905, Switzerland replaced it by a column having a front of two platoons (_Plotonkolonne_), and Russia readopted it again recently. All other states utilize it as of equal value with the deep column in making movements beyond range of artillery fire and as an assembly formation in addition to the deep column. The change from double column to any company column formation is easier than a like change from the Swiss “Ploton column” (double column of platoons), which has the same front, since in the double column two companies can be deployed at the same time toward both flanks.

The deep column appears to be better adapted for making movements and for advancing under cover, and, on account of its narrow front, a force in this formation is better able to adapt itself to the forms of the ground in hilly or close country than a body of troops in double column of twice the width of front.

The Battalion in Route Column.

(Par. 316 German F. S. R.).

The companies are formed in route column and follow each other at distances of 8 m. Mounted officers, musicians,[81] led horses and vehicles are to be included in actual depths of columns given and not in the distances. A permanent extension of distances for the purpose of restricting checks of the march to a single organization is as little permissible as the permanent elimination or reduction of distances; distances may be dispensed with temporarily only. The reduction of the depth of a column, obtained by eliminating distances between elements entirely, is so small that the rapidity of deployment gained does not, by any means, compensate for the increased exertion of the troops.[82]

[81] A trumpeter marches in rear of the battalion for the purpose
of blowing “Give way,” when necessary to open one side of the road.
At this signal all the troops close in toward the flank of the guide.

[82] The depth of a brigade of six battalions on the march is
about 2500 m. By eliminating distances between elements a space of
only 100 m. is gained, while by marching in a front of six files,
approximately 750 m. is gained. The march of the 10th Infantry
Division from Weiszenburg to Preuschdorf, on August 5th, 1870, proved
exceedingly fatiguing. The distances between organizations had been
eliminated pursuant to orders. “Some of the rearmost elements had to
double time uphill to keep up whenever the head of the column went
down hill. Great fatigue and many cases of overexertion were the
result.” _Geschichte des Regiments Nr. 37_, p. 124.

During the march the company commander goes wherever his presence may be necessary for the proper supervision of his company. Neither are platoon commanders tied to a fixed place; one officer is, however, required to march in rear of the company. The company ammunition wagons follow in rear of their respective companies, or, assembled, in rear of the battalion. In marches in campaign the field train marches separately.

The depth of the battalion on the march, without field train, is 400 m., and the depth of the field train is 100 m.

=Austria.= Column of fours. Depth of a battalion on the march,
including combat train, 670 paces (502 m.). The distance between
companies is nine paces (6.7 m.).

=France.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.5 m.). The
depth of each rank is reckoned at 1.40 m. on the march (in Germany
1.10 m.), and that of every 100 men at 50 m. Depth of a battalion,
including combat train, on the march is 450 m.

=Russia.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.1 m.). The
battalion without combat train has a depth of 350 paces (249 m.). The
combat train follows in rear of the regiment.

A German regiment of four battalions with combat train has a depth of
1,650 m. on the march; a Russian regiment, a depth of 1,725 paces (@
71 cm.)=1,215 m. (elongation on the march not considered).

=Italy.= The distance between companies is 10 paces (7.5 m.). The
battalion has a depth of 422 m. on the march.

8. THE REGIMENT AND THE BRIGADE.

For a discussion of the importance of the regiment and of the brigade see page 37 _supra_. All movements must be executed in an orderly manner by regiment and brigade, in any formation, without breaking up tactical units, and the entity of the whole body must be preserved at the same time by a skillful use of the terrain. If necessary, a base battalion may be designated.

When regiments or brigades are assembled, the formation, disposition, intervals and distances of the tactical units depend upon the terrain and the intentions of the commander. Frequently the tactical units (battalions and regiments) are assembled in separate groups.

When considerations of the enemy and the terrain do not dictate otherwise, the battalions, each, as a rule, in deep column, are posted in one or more lines, at 30-pace intervals and distances, rear battalions covering those in front or the gaps between them. An appropriate formation will frequently be that in which route columns are placed abreast and on the same line.

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Tactics, Volume 1 (of 2). Introduction and Formal Tactics of InfantryChapter III: Part 3

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