Chapter I: Part 1

[In general, italics are shown with _lines_, and boldface with #marks#. The # symbol occurs in its own right in the section on prosody and versification, but there should be no ambiguity. Single letters shown as #A#, #B# were printed in sans-serif type. Spaced-out text, primarily used to mark verb roots, is shown with +marks+. The plus sign occurs in a few sections, but again there should be no ambiguity.

To reduce visual clutter, boldface markings have been omitted in all tables and inset lists (printed with Latin text in bold, translation in italics). Similarly, spaced-out text is only marked when the text is not also bold.

In this e-text, the notation {o|e-} or {-o|e-}, with braces, represents the “variable vowel” described in section 825. In print it was shown as a small raised o (with or without leading hyphen) and a small lowered e-, separated by a vertical line.

The Appendix includes some fairly specialized content, notably under Numerals and Prosody. If you are dissatisfied with your device’s display, you may prefer the PDF file covering these sections.

Typographical errors are shown at end end of each numbered section. Non-trivial errors are listed again at the end of the e-text, along with notes on the first edition.]

A LATIN GRAMMAR

FOR

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

BY

GEORGE M. LANE, Ph.D., LL.D.

PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF LATIN IN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

_REVISED EDITION_

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

Copyright, 1898, 1903, by GARDINER M. LANE and LOUISA VAN RENSSELAER.

_All rights reserved._

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

George Martin Lane died on the thirtieth of June, 1897. His _Latin Grammar_, in the preparation of which he had been engaged, during the intervals of teaching in Harvard University, for nearly thirty years, was at that time approaching completion. The first two hundred and ninety-one pages had been stereotyped; the pages immediately following, on the _Relative Sentence_ and the _Conjunctive Particle Sentence_ through _quod_ and _quia_ (pages 292-302), together with the chapter on the _Infinitive_ (pages 374-386), were ready for stereotyping; of the remainder of the book, pages 303-373 and 387-436 were in the form of a first draught; finally, he had received a few weeks before his death, but had never examined, the manuscript of the chapter on _Versification_ (pages 442-485), written at his invitation by his former pupil, Dr. Herman W. Hayley, now of Wesleyan University.

It was found that my dear and honoured master had left a written request that his work should be completed by me, in consultation with his colleagues, Professors Frederic De Forest Allen and Clement Lawrence Smith. A month had scarcely passed when scholars everywhere had another heavy loss to mourn in the sudden death of Professor Allen. Almost immediately afterwards, Professor Smith left this country, to take charge for a year of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, but not before we had agreed that circumstances required the early publication of the book, notwithstanding his absence. I was thus deprived of two eminent counsellors, whose knowledge and experience would have been of inestimable assistance.

About one hundred and twenty pages (303-373 and 387-436), exclusive of _Versification_, were yet to receive their final form. Professor Lane had determined the order in which the topics contained in these pages should be treated, and no change has been made in that order. Most of the main principles of syntax, too, have been left exactly as they were expressed in his draught. This draught was written some years ago, and, although he had corrected and annotated it from time to time, there is no doubt that in writing it out afresh he would have made many alterations and improvements which are not indicated in his notes. Consequently, he is not to be held responsible for errors and omissions in the pages which had not received his final approval. Yet I conceived it my duty to preserve, so far as possible, the very language of his corrected draught; and this, in the statement of almost all the main principles, I have been able to do. Some modifications and some radical alterations were inevitable; in particular, the treatment of _quamvis_, _quando_, _quin_, the _Supine_, and _Numerals_ seemed to call for much amplification and rearrangement. I have also deemed it necessary to add some seventy sections[1] under various heads, and Dr. Hayley has been good enough to write sections 2458-2510, which precede his chapter on _Versification_. But, in general, my principal function has been: first, to provide additional Latin examples of the principles which Professor Lane had formulated; secondly, to enter, under the various principles, historical statements regarding the usage in the Latin writers, drawn from the best authorities at my disposal.

[Footnote 1: The sections which I have added are as follows: 1866,
1873, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1890, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1909,
1913, 1922, 1927, 1935, 1964, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982,
1983, 1984, 1989, 1990, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2068, 2086,
2088, 2097, 2111, 2122, 2152, 2155, 2255, 2264, 2267, 2271, 2273,
2275, 2276, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2292, 2345, 2357, 2400, 2406, 2407,
2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2412, 2413, 2414, 2740-2745.]

Professor Lane’s own method was far from that of a compiler. He took nothing for granted without thorough investigation, however well established it might seem, and he followed the dictum of no man, however widely accepted as an authority. For example, his many pupils and correspondents will remember how untiring he was in his efforts to arrive at accuracy in even the minutest points of inflection. Thus, for the _List of Verbs_ (§§ 922-1022), he made entirely new collections, and admitted no form among the ‘principal parts’ unless actually found represented in the authors. In the details of syntax, he was equally indefatigable; the sections on the _Locative Proper_ (1331-1341), for instance, contain the result of an immense amount of painful research. He devoted much anxious thought to the definitions and the titles of the various constructions: thus, the distinction between the _Present of Vivid Narration_ (1590) and the _Annalistic Present_ (1591) seems obvious now that it is stated; but to reach it many pages of examples were collected and compared. He held that examples printed in the grammar to illustrate syntactical principles should never be manufactured; they should be accurately quoted from the authors, without other alteration than the omission of words by which the construction under illustration was not affected. He was careful, also, not to use an example in which there was any serious doubt as to the text in that part which covered the principle illustrated by the example. To ‘Hidden Quantity’ he had given much attention, and many of the results of his studies in this subject were published, in 1889, in the _School Dictionary_ by his friend Dr. Lewis. Since that time he had found reason to change his views with regard to some words, and these changes are embodied in the present book, in which he marked every vowel which he believed to be long in quantity.

The order in which the divisions and subdivisions of grammar are here presented will not seem strange to those who are acquainted with the recent grammars published by Germans. It is the scientific order of presentation, whatever order a teacher may think fit to follow in his actual practice. The table of contents has been made so full as to serve as a systematic exposition of the scheme, and to make needless any further words upon it here. In the _Appendix_ Professor Lane would have inserted, out of deference to custom, a chapter on the _Arrangement of Words_; but the draught of it which he left was too fragmentary for publication. Since the proper preparation of the chapter would have greatly delayed the publication of the book, it was thought best to omit it altogether, at least for the present. This topic, in fact, like some others in the _Appendix_, belongs rather to a treatise on Latin Composition than to a Latin Grammar.

For the indexes, and for much valuable help in proof reading, I heartily thank Dr. J. W. Walden, another of Professor Lane’s pupils.

In the course of his work, Professor Lane frequently consulted his colleagues and other distinguished scholars both in this country and in Europe. He gratefully welcomed their advice, and carefully considered and often adopted their suggestions. Had he lived to write a preface, he would doubtless have thanked by name those to whom he considered himself as under particular obligation, whether from direct correspondence or through the use of their published works; but it is obvious that the information in my possession will not allow me to attempt this pleasant duty. Of Professor Lane’s pupils, also, not a few, while in residence as advanced students at the University, were from time to time engaged in the collection of material which he used in the grammar. They, like his other helpers, must now be content with the thought of the courteous acknowledgment which they would have received from him.

MORRIS H. MORGAN.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
CAMBRIDGE, _May, 1898_.

PREFATORY NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

In this Revised Edition many changes and corrections in details have been introduced throughout the book, but no alterations have been made in the treatment of broad general principles, except in the chapter on Sound (§§ 16-179). This has been very largely rewritten and extended from nineteen to thirty-one pages by my friend, Professor Hanns Oertel, of Yale University, who has also been kind enough to make the changes in the chapters on Formation and Inflection rendered necessary by his rewriting of the sections on Sound. In this rewriting Mr. Oertel has proceeded upon the ideas that in a school grammar, even an advanced one, phonology should play a subordinate part; that nothing should be introduced that cannot be illustrated from such Latin and Greek as are available to the student; and that those points should be emphasized which assist in the analyzing of compounds and in the understanding of word-formation and inflection. With these ideas, which necessarily prevent the introduction of some important topics treated in works on phonetics, I am in entire sympathy.

My thanks are due to not a few scholars and reviewers who have pointed out passages in the first edition which in their opinion called for changes. Some of their suggestions I have adopted; with others I have found myself unable to agree.

M. H. M.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
CAMBRIDGE, May, 1903.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

The References Are To Sections.

Parts of Latin Grammar, 1.

PART FIRST: WORDS, 2-1022.

Parts of Speech, 2-15.

(A.) SOUND, 16-179.

Alphabet, 16-30.
Sources of our Pronunciation, 31.
Vowels, 32-46.
Long and Short, 33-36.
Pronunciation, 37-42.
Classification, 43-46.
Diphthongs, 47-50.
Nature and Kinds, 47, 48.
Pronunciation, 49, 50.
Consonants, 51-81.
Pronunciation, 51-72.
Classification, 73-81.
Syllabic and Unsyllabic Function, 82, 83.
Accent, 84-98.
Nature, 84.
Marks of Accent, 85.
The Classical Accent, 86-88.
Earlier Recessive Accent, 89-91.
Proclitics and Enclitics, 92-94.
Change of Sound, 95-174.
_Vowel Change_:
Of Diphthongs, 95-101; 108.
Of Simple Vowels, 102-107.
Loss, 110-113.
Hiatus, 114-116.
Synizesis, 117.
Contraction, 118.
Elision, 119.
Combination into Diphthongs, 120.
Lengthening, 121-123.
Shortening, 124-132.
Transfer of Quantity, 133.
Variation, 134.
Quantitative Vowel Gradation, 135.
Qualitative Vowel Changes, 136-143.
Assimilation, 144.
Qualitative Vowel Gradation, 145.
_Consonant Change_:
Disappearance or Change of Single Consonants, 146-161.
Change in Consonant Groups, 162-179.
Assimilation, 163-166.
Consonantal Glides, 167.
Disappearance, 168-171.
Development of Anaptyctical Vowel, 172.
Dissimilation, 173.
Changes within Compounds, 174.
Syllables, 175-179.
Defined, 175, 176.
Length of Syllables, 177, 178.
Loss, 179.

(B.) FORMATION, 180-396.

Definitions, 180-198.
Roots, 183-189.
Present Stems as Roots, 190-194.
Stems, 195-197.
Primitives and Denominatives, 198.
Formation of the Noun, 199-364.
Without a Formative Suffix, 199.
Formative Suffixes, 200-203.
_Formation of the Substantive_:
Primitives, 204-245.
Denominatives, 246-279.
_Formation of the Adjective_:
Primitives, 280-297.
Denominatives, 298-341.
Comparison, 342-364.
Formation of Denominative Verbs, 365-375.
Composition, 376-396.
Of Nouns, 379-390.
Of Verbs, 391-396.

(C.) INFLECTION, 397-1022.

Definition, 397.

(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN, 398-712.

General Principles, 398-431.
Case Endings, 398.
The Stem, 399-401.
Gender, 402-413.
Number, 414-418.
Case, 419-431.
The Substantive, 432-607.
Stems in #-ā-# (_The First Declension_), 432-445.
Stems in #-o-# (_The Second Declension_), 446-466.
Consonant Stems (_The Third Declension_), 467-512.
Stems in #-i-# (_The Third Declension_), 513-569.
Gender of Consonant Stems and #-i-# Stems, 570-584.
Stems in #-u-# (_The Fourth Declension_), 585-595.
Stems in #-ē-# (_The Fifth Declension_), 596-607.
The Adjective, 608-643.
Stems in #-o-# and #-ā-#, 613-620.
Consonant Stems, 621-626.
Stems in #-i-#, 627-636.
Numeral Adjectives, 637-643.
The Pronoun, 644-695.
Personal and Reflexive, 644-651.
Personal and Reflexive Possessive, 652-655.
Other Pronouns, 656-659.
Demonstrative, 660-670.
Determinative, 671-675.
Pronoun of Identity, 676-678.
Intensive, 679-680.
Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite, 681-694.
Correlative Pronouns, 695.
The Adverb, Conjunction, and Preposition, 696-712.
Nouns as Adverbs, 696-698.
Accusative, 699-702.
Ablative, 703-707.
Locative, 708-709.
Other Endings, 710.
Correlative Adverbs, 711.
Sentences as Adverbs, 712.

(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB, 713-1022.

General Principles, 713-742.
The Stem, 714-720.
The Person Ending, 721-731.
Nouns of the Verb, 732.
Principal Parts, 733-735.
Designation of the Verb, 736-737.
Theme, 738-740.
Classes of Verbs, 741-742.
Primitive Verbs, 743-791.
Root Verbs, 743-744.
Inflection of #sum#, 745-750.
#possum#, 751-753.
#dō#, 754-757.
#bibō#, #serō#, #sistō#, 758.
#inquam#, 759-761.
#eō#, 762-767.
#queō# and #nequeō#, 768.
#edō#, 769-771.
#volō#, #nōlō#, #mālō#, 772-779.
#ferō#, 780-781.
Verbs in #-ere# (_The Third Conjugation_), #regō#, 782-783.
Verbs in #-iō#, #-ere#, 784-791.
#capiō#, 784-785.
#āiō#, 786-787.
#fiō#, 788-790.
Others in #-iō#, #-ere#, 791.
Denominative Verbs, 792-797.
Verbs in #-āre# (_The First Conjugation_), #laudō#, 792-793.
Verbs in #-ēre# (_The Second Conjugation_), #moneō#, 794-795.
Verbs in #-īre# (_The Fourth Conjugation_), #audiō#, 796-797.
Deponent Verbs, 798-801.
Periphrastic Forms, 802-804.
Defective Verbs, 805-817.
Redundant Verbs, 818-823.
Formation of Stems, 824-919.
Variable Vowel, 824-827.
_The Present System_:
Present Indicative Stem, 828-840.
Present Subjunctive, 841-843.
Imperative, 844-846.
Imperfect Indicative, 847-848.
Imperfect Subjunctive, 849-850.
Future, 851-853.
_The Perfect System_:
Perfect Indicative Stem, 854-875.
Perfect Subjunctive, 876-878.
Perfect Imperative, 879.
Pluperfect Indicative, 880.
Pluperfect Subjunctive, 881.
Future Perfect, 882-884.
Short or Old forms of the Perfect System, 885-893.
_Nouns of the Verb_:
The Infinitive, 894-898.
Gerundive and Gerund, 899.
Supine, 900.
Present Participle, 901-903.
Future Participle, 904-905.
Perfect Participle, 906-919.
List of Verbs arranged according to the Principal Parts, 920-1022.

PART SECOND: SENTENCES, 1023-2299.

Definitions, 1023-1061.
The Simple Sentence, 1023-1025.
The Subject, 1026-1034.
The Predicate, 1035-1036.
Enlargements of the Subject, 1038-1047.
Enlargements of the Predicate, 1048-1054.
Combination of Sentences, 1055.
The Compound Sentence, 1056-1057.
The Complex Sentence, 1058-1061.
Agreement, 1062-1098.
Of the Verb, 1062-1076.
Of the Substantive, 1077-1081.
Of the Adjective, 1082-1098.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE, 1099-1635.

(A.) USE OF THE NOUN, 1099-1468.

Number and Gender, 1099-1110.
Case, 1111-1437.
NOMINATIVE, 1113-1123.
Nominative of Title, 1114-1116.
Of Exclamation, 1117.
Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper, 1118-1123.
ACCUSATIVE, 1124-1174.
Of the Object, 1132-1139.
Emphasizing or Defining, 1140-1146.
Of the Part Concerned, 1147.
Of the Thing Put On, 1148.
Of Exclamation, 1149-1150.
Of Space and Time, 1151-1156.
Of the Aim of Motion, 1157-1166.
Two Accusatives Combined, 1167-1174.
DATIVE, 1175-1225.
_I. The Complementary Dative_:
(1.) The Essential Complement:
With Verbs, 1180-1199.
With Adjectives, 1200-1204.
(2.) The Optional Complement:
Of the person or thing interested, 1205-1210.
The Emotional Dative, 1211.
The Dative of the Possessor, 1212-1216.
Of Relation, 1217-1218.
_II. The Predicative Dative_:
Of Tendency or Result, 1219-1222.
Of Purpose or Intention, 1223-1225.
GENITIVE, 1226-1295.
_I. With Substantives_:
In General, 1227-1231.
Of the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner, 1232-1238.
Of Quality, 1239-1240.
Partitive, 1241-1254.
Of Definition, 1255-1259.
Objective, 1260-1262.
_II. With Adjectives_, 1263-1270.
_III. With Verbs_:
Of Valuing, 1271-1275.
With rēfert and interest, 1276-1279.
With Judicial Verbs, 1280-1282.
With Impersonals of Mental Distress, 1283-1286.
With Verbs of Memory, 1287-1291.
Of Participation and Mastery, 1292.
Of Fulness and Want, 1293-1294.
_IV. The Genitive of Exclamation_, 1295.
ABLATIVE, 1296-1400.
_I. The Ablative Proper_:
Of Separation and Want, and of Departure, 1302-1311.
Of Source, Stuff, or Material, 1312-1315.
Of Cause, Influence, or Motive, 1316-1319.
Of Comparison, 1320-1330.
_II. The Locative Ablative_:
The Locative Proper, 1331-1341.
The Ablative used as Locative:
Of Place in, on, or at which, 1342-1349.
Of Time at which or within which, 1350-1355.
_III. The Instrumental Ablative_:
(1.) The Ablative of Attendance:
Of Accompaniment, 1356-1357.
Of Manner, 1358-1361.
Ablative Absolute, 1362-1374.
Ablative of Quality, 1375.
Of the Route Taken, 1376.
(2.) The Instrumental Proper:
Of Instrument or Means, 1377-1384.
Of Specification, 1385.
Of Fulness, 1386-1387.
Of Measure, Exchange, and Price, 1388-1392.
Of the Amount of Difference, 1393-1399.
Two or more Ablatives Combined, 1400.
Use of Cases with Prepositions, 1401-1437.
In General, 1401-1409.
With the Accusative, 1410-1416.
With the Ablative, 1417-1421.
With the Accusative or the Ablative, 1422-1425.
Combination of Substantives by a Preposition, 1426-1428.
Repetition or Omission of a Preposition, 1429-1430.
Two Prepositions with one Substantive, 1431-1432.
Position of Prepositions, 1433-1437.
Use of Adverbs, 1438-1453.
Use of Degrees of Comparison, 1454-1468.

(B.) USE OF THE VERB, 1469-1635.

Voice, 1469-1492.
Active, 1469-1471.
Passive, 1472-1485.
Deponents, 1486-1492.
Mood, 1493-1586.
THE INDICATIVE, 1493-1533.
In Declarations, 1493-1498.
In Questions, 1499-1533.
Yes or No Questions, 1502-1510.
Positive and Negative Answers, 1511-1514.
Alternative Questions, 1515-1525.
Pronoun Questions, 1526-1530.
Some Applications of Questions, 1531-1533.
THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION, 1534-1539.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1540-1570.
The Subjunctive in Declarations:
_I. Of Desire_:
Of Wish, 1540-1546.
Of Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety, 1547-1552.
Of Willingness, Assumption, Concession, 1553.
_II. Of Action Conceivable_, 1554-1562.
The Subjunctive in Questions, 1563-1570.
THE IMPERATIVE, 1571-1586.
Of Command, 1571-1580.
Of Prohibition, 1581-1586.
Tense, 1587-1635.
OF THE INDICATIVE, 1587-1633.
Present, 1587-1593.
Imperfect, 1594-1601.
Perfect, 1602-1613.
Pluperfect, 1614-1618.
Future, 1619-1625.
Future Perfect, 1626-1632.
The Future Active Participle with sum, 1633.
OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1634-1635.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION, 1636-1713.

Without a Connective, 1637-1642.
With a Connective, 1643-1692.
Conjunctions, 1643.
Copulative, 1644-1666.
Disjunctive, 1667-1675.
Adversative, 1676-1686.
Other Words as Connectives, 1687-1692.
The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence, 1693-1713.
The Subordinate Idea unindicated by the Mood, 1695-1704.
The Subordinate Idea indicated by the Subjunctive, 1705-1713.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION, 1714-2299.

Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716.
Primary and Secondary Tenses, 1717.
Virtual Futures, 1718.
Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731.
The Indicative, 1721.
The Subjunctive:
In Indirect Discourse, and in cases of Attraction, 1722-1729.
Of Repeated Action, 1730.
As in the Simple Sentence, 1731.
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772.
Of the Indicative, 1732-1739.
Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772.
Sequence of Tenses, 1745-1772.
Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761.
Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765.
Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769.
Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or to an Infinitive,
1770-1772.
The Indirect Question, 1773-1791.
In General, 1773-1774.
Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777.
Alternative Questions, 1778-1784.
Pronoun Questions, 1785.
Original Subjunctives, 1786.
Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791.
The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837.
Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811.
Moods in the Relative Sentence, 1812-1830.
Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817.
Of Characteristic or Result, 1818-1823.
Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830.
Correlative Sentences, 1831.
Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834.
The Relative introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837.
The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122.
Introduced by #quod#, 1838-1855.
#quia#, 1856-1858.
#quom# or #cum#, 1859-1881.
quoniam#, 1882-1884.
#quotiēns#, #quotiēnscumque#, 1885-1887.
quam#, 1888-1898.
#quamquam#, 1899-1902.
#quamvīs#, 1903-1907.
#tamquam#, 1908-1910.
#antequam#, #priusquam#, 1911-1922.
#postquam#, #ubī̆#, ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#, 1923-1934.
#ut#, 1935-1970.
#ubī̆#, 1971.
quō#, 1972-1976.
#quōminus#, 1977-1979.
#quīn#, 1980-1990.
#dum#, #dōnec#, quoad#, #quamdiū#, 1991-2009.
#quandō#, 2010-2014.
#sī#, 2015-2115.
#etsī#, tametsī#, #etiamsī#, 2116.
#quasi#, #tamquam sī#, #ut# or #velut sī#, 2117-2122.
Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159.
Without a Connective, 2124-2127.
With a Connective, 2128-2158.
Affirmative Coordination, 2159.
Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299.
THE INFINITIVE, 2160-2236.
Definitions, 2160-2163.
The Infinitive of Purpose, 2164-2165.
With Adjectives, 2166.
_The Infinitive as Object_:
The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171.
The Accusative with the Infinitive, 2172-2206.
_The Infinitive as Subject_, 2207-2215.
The Infinitive of Exclamation, 2216.
_Tenses of the Infinitive_, 2218.
Present, 2219-2222.
Perfect, 2223-2231.
Future, 2232-2236.
THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND, 2237-2268.
Definitions, 2237-2242.
Nominative, 2243-2249.
Accusative, 2250-2253.
Dative, 2254-2257.
Genitive, 2258-2264.
Ablative, 2265-2268.
THE SUPINE, 2269-2277.
Definitions, 2269.
Supine in #-um#, 2270-2273.
Supine in #-ū#, 2274-2277.
THE PARTICIPLE, 2278-2299.
Definition, 2278.
Time of the Participle, 2279-2281.
The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286.
The Substantive Participle, 2287-2292.
The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296.
The Predicative Participle, 2297-2299.

APPENDIX, 2300-2745.

Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307.
The Conative Use, 2301-2303.
The Causative Use, 2304.
The Potential Use, 2305.
The Obligatory Use, 2306.
The Permissive Use, 2307.
Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334.
Definitions, 2308-2311.
Mood, 2312-2320.
Tense, 2321-2324.
Pronoun, 2325.
Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334.
Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403.
Personal, 2335.
Reflexive, 2336-2343.
Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun, 2344-2345.
Possessive, 2346.
Demonstrative, 2347-2364.
Determinative, 2365-2370.
Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373.
Intensive, 2374-2384.
Interrogative, 2385-2386.
Relative, 2387.
Indefinite, 2388-2403.
Numerals, 2404-2428.
Classification, 2404.
List of Numerals, 2405.
Notation, 2406-2411.
Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418.
Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422 Other Numerals, 2423.
Fractions, 2424-2428.
Prosody, 2429-2739.
RULES OF QUANTITY, 2429-2472.
In Classical Latin, 2429-2457.
Position, 2458.
Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463.
Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin, 2464-2469.
Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472.
FIGURES OF PROSODY, 2473-2510.
Hiatus, 2473-2480.
Elision, 2481-2492.
Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496.
Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497.
Synaloepha, 2498.
Synizesis, 2499.
Synaeresis, 2500.
Dialysis, 2501.
Diaeresis, 2502.
Hardening, 2503.
Softening, 2504.
Diastolé, 2505-2506.
Systolé, 2507.
Syncopé, 2508.
Tmesis, 2509.
Synapheia, 2510.
VERSIFICATION, 2511-2739.
Definitions, 2511-2548.
Numeri Italici, 2549.
The Saturnian, 2550-2554.
Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580.
Iambic Rhythms, 2581-2627.
Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649.
Logaoedic Rhythms, 2650-2074.
Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681.
Anapaestic Rhythms, 2682-2690.
Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697.
Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706.
Choriambic Rhythms, 2707.
Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717.
Lyric Metres of Horace, 2718-2737.
Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738.
Index of Horatian Odes and their metres, 2739.
Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745.

Index of Subjects.

Index of Latin Words.

LATIN GRAMMAR

1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences.

PART FIRST [decoration] WORDS

PARTS OF SPEECH.

2. The principal kinds of words or PARTS OF SPEECH are _Nouns_, _Verbs_, and _Conjunctions_.

3. I. NOUNS are _Substantive_ or _Adjective_.

4. (A.) NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, otherwise called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, into _Concrete_ and _Abstract_.

5. (1.) CONCRETE SUBSTANTIVES denote persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided into _Proper Names_, which denote individual persons or things: as, #Cicerō#, _Cicero_; #Rōma#, _Rome_; and _Common Names_, otherwise called _Appellatives_, which denote one or more of a class: as, #homo#, _man_; #taurus#, _bull_.

6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called _Collectives_: as, #turba#, _crowd_; #exercitus#, _army_. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called _Material Substantives_: as, #vīnum#, _wine_; #ferrum#, _iron_; #faba#, _horsebeans_.

7. (2.) ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES denote qualities, states, conditions: as, #rubor#, _redness_; #aequitās#, _fairness_; #sōlitūdō#, _loneliness_.

8. (B.) NOUNS ADJECTIVE, otherwise called Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, #ruber#, _red_; #aequus#, _fair_; #sōlus#, _alone_.

9. PRONOUNS are words of universal application which serve as substitutes for nouns.

Thus, #taurus#, _bull_, names, and #ruber#, _red_, describes, particular things; but #ego#, _I_, is universally applicable to any speaker, and #meus#, _mine_, to anything belonging to any speaker.

10. ADVERBS are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place, time or degree: as, #subitō#, _suddenly_; #forās#, _out of doors_; #diū#, _long_; #valdē#, _mightily_, _very_.

11. PREPOSITIONS are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases: as, #vocō#, _I call_, #ēvocō#, _I call out_; #ex urbe#, _from town_.

12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including existence or condition: as, #regit#, _he guides_; #est#, _he is_; #latet#, _he is hid_.

13. III. CONJUNCTIONS connect sentences, nouns, or verbs: as, #et#, _and_; #sed#, _but_.

14. INTERJECTIONS are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as, #ā#, _ah_; #heu#, _alas_.

15. There is no ARTICLE in Latin: thus, #mēnsa# may denote _table_, _a table_, or _the table_.

[Erratum:
2 ... _Nouns_, _Verbs_, and _Conjunctions_.
_Nouns_ _Verbs_,]

A. SOUND.

ALPHABET.

16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (_DN._ 2, 93).

Character Name pronounced
#A# a _ah_
#B# be _bay_
#C# ce _kay_
#D# de _day_
#E# e _eh_
#F# ef _ef_
#G# ge _gay_
#H# ha _hah_
#I# i _ee_
#K# ka _kah_
#L# el _el_
#M# em _em_
#N# en _en_
#O# o _o_
#P# pe _pay_
#Q# qu _koo_
#R# er _air_
#S# es _ess_
#T# te _tay_
#V# u _oo_
#X# ix _eex_

The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians. The sound indicated by _-ay_ is only approximate; the true sound is that of the French _ê_ in _fête_; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their gender, see 412.

17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at the end of the alphabet; they are #Y#, named _ü_ (42), and #Z#, named #zēta# (71).

18. ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. The Latin alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy.

19. SPELLING. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented θ by #t#, φ by #p#, and χ by #c#: as, #tūs#, _incense_, for θύος; #Poenī#, _Punians_, for Φοίνικες; #calx#, _chalk_, for χάλιξ. Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled: as, #struppus#, _strap_, for στρόφος. Later, about the middle of the second century B.C., #th#, #ph#, and #ch# begin to be used: as, #cothurnus#, _boot_, for κόθορνος; #amphora#, _jar_, for ἀμφόρα; #Achaea# for Ἀχαιά. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as, #chommodus#, _affable_, for #commodus#, an affectation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (1, 5, 20). But #pulcher#, _pretty_, is the usual spelling for #pulcer# (formed by the suffix #-cro-# from the stem of the verb #poliō#, _I polish_). Even Cicero (_O._ 160) aspirated the #c# in this word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the #t# in #Cethēgus#, #Karthāgō#, and the #p# in #triumphus#, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper names #Orcīvius#, _name of a ‘gens,’_ #Matō#, #Otō#, #Caepiō#, and in #sepulcrum#, _tomb_; #corōna#, _crown_; and #lacrima#, _tear_. In a similar manner Greek ρ was at first transcribed by #r#: as, #rumpia#, _a kind of weapon_, for ῥομφαία; but later by #rh#: as, #rhētor#, _rhetorician_, for ῥητωρ.

20. The letters #C# (first written #<#) and #K# were at an early period used promiscuously, and #C# stood for both unvoiced #k# and voiced #g#: as, VIRCO, #virgō#, _virgin_. Afterwards #K# dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations #K.# or #Kal.# for #kalendae#, _first of the month_, and #K.# for the proper name #Kaesō# (Quint. 1, 7, 10). About 300 B.C. the sign #<# or #C# was used for the unvoiced _k_ alone, while a separate sign, which became #G#, was set apart for the voiced _g_. But #C# continued to be used for _g_ in the abbreviations #C# for #Gāius#, #Ↄ# for #Gāia#, and #Cn.# for #Gnaeus#. Occasionally #q# is written for #c#, almost always before the vowels #o# and #u#: as, #qum# for #cum#, _with_; #qolunt# for #colunt#, _they cultivate_; #peqūnia#, _money_. But ordinarily #q# is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) #u# (#v#) only (22).

21. Before the introduction of #Y# and #Z# (17), #u# was used for the Greek υ: as, #Burrus#, later #Pyrrhus# (Cic. _O._ 160); and #s#, or, as a medial, #ss#, for ζ: as, #sōna#, _belt_, later #zōna#; #massa#, _lump_, for μᾶζα; #malacissō#, _I soften_, for μαλακίζω. By a blunder, #y# was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as, #lacryma#, _tear_, for #lacrima#, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek δάκρυ.

22. The characters #I# and #V# represent not only the two vowels #i# and #u#, but also their cognate semivowels (52) #i̭# and #ṷ# (83), called commonly _consonant_ #i# and #u#, but with less ambiguity _unsyllabic_ #i# and #u# (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English _y_ and _w_ respectively.

23. In words like #maior#, simple #i# was commonly written for the sound of #i̭i̭# (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote #ii#: as, #aiiō#, _I say_, #Maiia#, #Troiia# (Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelled #Graiiugenārum#, _of Greek-born men_, and EIIVS, _of him_, CVIIVS, _whose_, occur in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter, ‘_i longa_,’ especially in the imperial age: as, MAIOR, _greater_. There are also cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double #i# being written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, EIIVS or EIIVS, _of him_.

24. The tall #i#, #I longa#, was used not only to represent unsyllabic #i# (22), but, beginning with Sulla’s time, also for long vowel #i# (29, 2, _b_): as, SIGNA, _signs_; QVINQVE, _five_. It also represents sometimes double #i#: as, VIS for VIĪS, _in the roads_. At the beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long #i#, and, by mistake, #I# is elsewhere found for short #i#.

25. The emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic #u# (22), restricting the sign #v# to the vowel #u# (Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current.

26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel #u# is printed #U#, #u#, and the consonant #V#, #v#. A character, #J#, #j#, was introduced in the 17th century, to indicate the consonant #i#. But this character is no longer usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks.

27. The distinction between #u# and #v# is not always made very consistently: #q# has regularly, and #g# and #s# have sometimes, an aftersound of _w_, best represented by #v#; but the usual practice is to write #u#, as in the following disyllables: #quōrum#, _of whom_; #anguis#, _snake_; #suāvis#, _sweet_. #qu# is always counted as a single sound (177). See also 2504.

28. For the intermediate sound (103) between #i# and #u#, as in the first syllable of #lubet#, #libet#, _it pleases_, and in the second syllable of #optimus#, #optumus#, _best_ (Quint. 1, 4, 8; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for #ps#.

29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in inscriptions thus:

(1.) Long #a#, #e#, or #u# was sometimes doubled: as, AARA, _altar_; PAASTORES, _shepherds_; LEEGE, _by law_; IVVS, _right_. This doubling, which was never frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 B.C., but sporadically much later: as, CONVENTVVS, _of the assembly_; ARBITRATVV, _by the decree_; and in other stems in #-u-# (593).

(2.) Long #i# was often denoted (_a._) By the spelling #ei# (after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed to #ī#, 98): as, DAREI, _be given_; REDIEIT, _hath come back_; INTERIEISTI, _hast died_. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spelling for every long #i#; others tried to regulate the use of #ei# for #ī# by special rules. At the end of the republic, the spelling EI had given way to uniform I. (_b._) Since the time of Sulla, by a taller letter (‘_i longa_’): as, FIXA, _fastened_ (23, 24).

(3.) A mark called an _apex_ () was often put over a long vowel: as, FE͆CIT, _made_; HORTE͆NSIVS; DVV͆MVIRATVS, _duumvirate_. The apex was written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes. Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous: as, MÁLVS (#mālus#), _mast_, to distinguish it from MALVS (#malus#), _bad_.

30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, #āra#, _altar_; #mēnsis#, _month_; #ōrdō#, _series_. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, #pĕr#, _through_; #dŭx#, _leader_; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the _ee_ of _been_ is pronounced long by some (_bean_), short by others (_bin_). Thus (2446) #mihi#, #ibi# were sometimes pyrrhics (⏑, 2522), sometimes iambi (⏑ -, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed _common_ and marked ⏓ or ⏒: as #mihī̆#, _to me_ (2514).

PRONUNCIATION.

31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (_a_) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (_b_) from variations in spelling; (_c_) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (_d_) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (_e_) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin.

VOWELS.

32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose.

33. The simple vowels, #a#, #e#, #i#, #o#, #u# (#y#), are either _long_ or _short_. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short.

34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515). In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g., _sea_, _seize_ (long), _cease_ (half-long).

QUANTITY OF VOWELS.

The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given in 35 and 36. Except in the case of _Hidden Quantity_ (2459), the quantity of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (#clausulae#, Cic. _O._ 191-226).

(A.) SHORT VOWELS.

35. A vowel is short:

(1.) Before another vowel or #h# (124): as, #eōs#, #ēvehō#; compare #taceō# with #tacēre#. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in early Latin see 126.

(2.) Before #nt# and #nd# (128) if not the result of contraction: as, #calendae#, #centum#; compare #amant#, #amandus#, with #amāre#.

(3.) Before final #t# and #m#, and, in words of more than one syllable, before final #r# and #l# (132): compare #amat#, #amem#, with #amās# and #amēs#.

(B.) LONG VOWELS.

36. All vowels are long which are:

(1) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101; 108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as, #concīdō# from #caedō#; #cōgō# from #co-agō#.

(2) Lengthened by compensation (121): as, #quīnī# for #*quincnī#.

(3) Before #nf#, #ns#, often before #nc# followed by a consonant, and, in some cases, before #gn# (122).

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels:

38. LONG VOWELS. #ā# had the sound of _a_ in _father_; #ē# that of _a_ in _fate_ (but see 39); #ī# that of _i_ in _machine_; #ō# that of _o_ in _tone_; #ū# that of _u_ in _rule_.

39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save _a_ as in _father_, are more or less diphthongal, that is, they become gradually closer (46); _a_ in _fate_ ends in a vanishing sound of _ee_ (not heard in the _ê_ of French _fête_), and _o_ in _no_ ends in the sound of _oo_. Similarly the long _e_ sound in _he_ becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the _y_ in _year_. In Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound.

40. SHORT VOWELS. #a# sounded approximately like the English _a_ in the first syllable of _aha_; #e#, #i#, #o#, and #u# sounded like _e_ in _step_, _i_ in _pit_, _o_ in _obey_, and _u_ in _pull_ respectively.

41. Latin short #a# did not differ, except in quantity, from long #ā#; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of English _a_ in _pat_. In the case of the other vowels, #i#, #e#, #o#, and #u#, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which the English shows in _keen_ (long and close) and _kin_ (short and open); _pool_ (long and close) and _pull_ (short and open). For this reason, open #i# is sometimes represented by #e# in inscriptions: as, ANEMA for #anima#, _soul_; and #vea# was the rustic pronunciation for #via#, _road_ (Varro, _R. R._ 1, 2, 14).

42. #Y#, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German _ü_. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for _i_ (in _kin_) and the lips rounded as for _oo_ (in _moon_).

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS.

43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin #i# and #e# are called _front vowels_, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for #i# than for #e#. Latin #o# and #u# are called _back vowels_, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for #u# than for #o#. Latin #a# holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed.

44. In the formation of #i# and #e#, the tongue approaches the hard palate; hence these two vowels are also called _palatal vowels_. Similarly, #o# and #u# are called _velar_ or _guttural vowels_, because in their formation the tongue approaches the soft palate (#vēlum palātī#).

45. #o# and #u# require a rounding of the lips (#labia#); hence they are called _labial vowels_. The same is true for #y#.

46. Comparing the vowels in English _keen_ and _kin_, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The _ee_ in _keen_ is therefore said to be a _narrow_ or _close_ vowel, while the _i_ in _kin_ is _wide_ or _open_. See 41.

DIPHTHONGS.

47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a _Diphthong_. All diphthongs are long.

In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is constantly changing.

48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (_a._) primitive diphthongs: as in #foedus#, _treaty_; #aurum#, _gold_; or (_b._) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120.

49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are #au#, #ae#, #oe#, and the rare #ui# and #eu#.

#au# sounded like _ou_ in _house_. #ae# had the sound of short Latin #a# rapidly combined with the sound of _e_ in English _men_. But it is the common practice now to give to #ae# the sound of _ay_ or _ai_ in _ay_, _aisle_, although the difference between Latin #ae# and the earlier #ai# from which it descended is thus obliterated. #oe# had the sound of short Latin #o# rapidly followed by the sound of _e_ in English _men_. But it is now customary not to distinguish between Latin #oe# and #oi#, and to give to both the sound of _oi_ in _boil_. #ui# is pronounced by combining Latin short #u# and #i# (40, 41) with the stress on the #i# like French _oui_; #eu# by combining Latin short #e# and #u# with stress on the #u#.

50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions: #ai# pronounced as _ai_ in _aisle_; #ei# as _ei_ in _eight_; #oi# as _oi_ in _boil_; and #ou# which sounded very much like the final _o_ in _no_, _go_, which is really a diphthong (see 39).

CONSONANTS.

51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture.

52. SEMIVOWELS. There is no sharp line of demarcation between consonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic function (82, 83) notably #i# (_i̭_) and #u# (_ṷ_) (corresponding to English _y_ and _w_), though usually classed as consonants, are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquids #l# and #r#. Contact of the semivowels #i# and #u# with their corresponding vowels #i# and #u# is avoided in classical times. See for #-vu-# 107, _c_; for #-quu-# 157; and for #-i̭i-# 104, _c_ (on #obi̭iciō#); 458 (#Bōī# for #*Bōi̭ī#). See 153, 3.

[Erratum:
52 ... See for #-vu-# 107, _c_
107 _c_]

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS.

53. Most of the consonants are pronounced as in English. The following points must be noticed:

54. #b# before #a# surd, as #s# or #t#, has the sound of #p#. The spelling #b# is here simply etymological: as, #abs#, pronounced _aps_ (the #b# retained in spelling because of #ab#); #urbs#, pronounced _urps_ (the #b# retained because of the oblique cases #urbis#, #urbī#, etc.); #obterō#, pronounced _opterō_ (Quint. 1, 7, 7), where the spelling of the preposition #ob# was kept (164).

55. #c# has always the sound of English _k_.

56. #d# before the surd #s# is pronounced #t#; the spelling #d# is preserved for etymological reasons only: as, #adsum#, pronounced _atsum_.

57. #g# always has the sound of English _g_ in _go_, never that of _g_ in _gentle_. #gu#, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is pronounced like English _gw_: as, #sanguine# like _sanguine_.

58. #h# has a weak sound as _h_ in British English (Southern), and by some was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same uncertainty existed as to initial #h#. The omission of initial #h# is recognized in classical Latin for #ānser# (originally #*hānser#). Elsewhere the omission of initial #h# in spelling, as #ostia# for #hostia#, is rare until the third century A.D.

Very rarely #h# is written between two vowels to denote that each should be pronounced separately (like our diaeresis in _coëxtensive_): as, #ahēneus#, _bronze_, with #aē# separate (116 _a_); but #aes#, _bronze_, with diphthongal #ae#.

59. Unsyllabic (22) or consonant #i# has the sound of English _y_ in _year_.

60. There were two varieties of #l#. One was like the English _l_, guttural in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade (front part) of the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the rear part of the tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The other #l# was purely dental, and formed without such back elevation. This second variety appeared in the combination #ll#, or whenever #l# was followed by the front vowels (43) #e# or #i#, or when it was final. Elsewhere #l# was guttural.

61. From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is often omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an initial vowel or consonant: as, POCOLO for #pōcolom#; OINO for #oinom# (#ūnum#), and the grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed to write only half an #M# for final #m# before a vowel. In prosody, therefore, final #m# did not prevent elision (2493). The same is seen in prose in cases like #animadvertō#, _I pay heed to_, from #anim^{um} advertō#, _I turn my mind toward_ (395); #vēnīre#, _to be sold_ for #vēn^{um} īre#, _to go to sale_ (1165). But in monosyllables where #m# closes the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494, 2495), and this difference in the treatment of final #m# is reflected in the Romance languages.

62. #n# stands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, as _n_ in English _now_. But before the gutturals #k#, #c#, #g#, #q#, and the compound #x (= cs)#, it represents the guttural nasal which is written _ng_ in English _sing_, _wrong_. This second n is sometimes called #n adulterīnum# or ‘spurious #n#,’ thus: #nc# (in #avunculus#) as in _uncle_; #ng# (in #angulus#) as in _angle_; #ngu# (in #sanguine#) as in _sanguine_; #nqu# (in #inquit#) as _inkw_ in _inkwiper_; #nx# (in #pīnxit#) as in _lynx_.

63. Dental #n# before #s# had a reduced sound, and is therefore sometimes omitted in writing: as, CESOR for #cēnsor#; COSOL for #cōnsul#, in older inscriptions; and #fōrmōsus# by the side of #fōrmōnsus#; #vīcēsimus# by the side of #vīcēnsimus#, Cicero omitted the #n# in the adjective suffix #-ēnsis#: as, #forēsia#, _of the forum_; #hortēsia#, _garden plants_.

64. #q#, in classical Latin, appears only in the combination #qu#, sounded like English _qu_ or _kw_ (27). #r# was trilled.

65. #s#, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd, 75) like English _s_ in _so_, _sin_, never voiced (sonant, 75) as English _s_ in _ease_. #su#, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is like _sw_ in _sweet_ (27).

66. In old Latin, final #s# after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular #-us#, and in the pre-Ciceronian poets final #s# often does not make position (2468). But such omission was considered vulgar in Cicero’s time (Cic. _O._ 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38).

67. In the archaic period Latin #s# stood also for the voiced sibilant (English _s_ in _ease_, _z_ in _zeal_), as in ASA, _altar_ (154).

68. #t# is always sounded as in _time_, never as in _nation_. The pronunciation of #ci# and #ti# with the #c# and #t# as sibilants (as in English _cinder_, _nation_) is very late.

69. #v# is like the English _w_.

70. #x# is a compound consonant, standing for #cs#, and so sounded, never as English _gs_ or _gz_.

71. _z_, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek pronunciation. This differed in the different dialects; in the Attic of the fourth century B.C. it was approximately that of English _z_ in _zeal_, while its earlier value was _zd_. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this sound (Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus expressly states that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound (_zd_).

72. About 100 B.C. the combinations #ch#, #ph#, and #th# were introduced in Greek words to represent χ, φ, and θ; as #Philippus#, for the older PILIPVS. Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin words (19). #ch# is thought to have been pronounced like _kh_ in _blockhead_, #ph# as in _uphill_, and #th# as in _hothouse_. But in practice #ch# is usually sounded as in the German _machen_ or _ich_, #ph# as in _graphic_, and #th# as in _pathos_.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS.

73. EXPLOSIVES. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called _explosives_. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are: #c#, #k#, #q#, #g#; #t#, #d#; #p#, #b#. These are often called _mutes_.

74. CONTINUANTS. Consonants which may be prolonged in sound are called _continuants_. They are: unsyllabic (83) #i# (59) and #u# (66); #l# (60), #r#; #l#, #s#, #f#; #n# (62), #m#.

75. VOICED and UNVOICED. If during the emission of breath the vocal chords vibrate (32), the consonant is said to be _voiced_ or _sonant_: #g#; #d#; #b#; #n# (62), #m#; #l# (60), #r#; unsyllabic (83) #i# (59) and #u# (69); otherwise it is said to be _unvoiced_ or _surd_: #c#, #k#, #q#; #t#; #p#; #h#, #s#, #f#.

76. NASALS. In the majority of consonants, the breath escapes through the cavity of the mouth, and the cavity of the nose is closed in the rear by means of the raised soft palate. Those consonants in which the breath escapes through the nose, while the oral cavity is closed, are called _nasals_: as, #n#, #m#, #n adulterīnum# (see 62).

77. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF FORMATION. Consonants are further divided according to the place where the breath is stopped or squeezed. (1.) If the breath is stopped by the lips, as in #p#, #b#, #m#, or squeezed through the lips, as in #v# (English _w_), we speak of _labials_. (2.) If the breath is forced through an opening between the upper teeth and the lower lip, as in #f#, we speak of a _labiodental_. (3.) Sounds which are produced by the point of the tongue touching the upper gums and teeth, as #t#, #d#, #n#, #r#, or by the formation of a narrow median channel in the same place, like #s#, or of a lateral channel, like #l# (60), are called _dentals_. (4.) _Palatals_ are formed by an elevation of the front part of the tongue against the forward section of the palate, like #i# consonant (English _y_). (5.) If the back of the tongue touches or approaches the rear part of the palate as in #k#, #q#, #c#, #g#, #n adulterīnum# (English _ng_ in _sing_), and #l# (60), we speak of _gutturals_ (_velars_); see 44.

78. SPIRANTS. Sounds which are produced by friction of the breath are called _spirants_: as, #s#, #f#, and #h#.

79. SIBILANTS. On account of its hissing sound, #s# is called a sibilant. English _s_, _z_, _th_ are sibilants.

80. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. In English, double consonants as the _tt_, _nn_, _pp_, _mm_ in _motto_, _Anna_, _tapping_, _grammar_, are sounded exactly like the corresponding single consonants in _cot_, _pan_, _tap_, _ram_. In Latin, on the other hand, double consonants (#geminātae#) were pronounced as they are in modern Italian. In the case of explosives (73), as in #mitto#, after the tongue had come in contact with the roof of the mouth (= first #t#) a short pause ensued before the explosion took place (= second #t#). In the case of continuants (74), as in #summus#, #Apollo#, the #mm# or #ll# was sounded appreciably longer than a single #m# or #l#, and at the beginning of the second half of the long continuant there was a slight increase of force.

81. Consonants were not doubled in writing till after 200 B.C.: as, FVISE for #fuisse#, _to have been_, and for more than a century afterward the usage is variable: as, in the same inscription, ESSENT, _they might be_, by the side of SVPERASES, _thou mayest have conquered_; but it must not be inferred that they were pronounced as single consonants.

[Errata:
77. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF FORMATION.
final . invisible
77 ... (5.) If the back of the tongue
. invisible]

SYLLABIC AND UNSYLLABIC FUNCTION.

82. Whenever two or more sounds are combined in a syllable, one of them excels in acoustic prominence: as, _a_ in English _pat_; _n_ in the group _pnd_ in _opnd_ (_opened_); _l_ in the group _tld_ in _bottld_ (_bottled_); and _s_ in the group _pst_. This sound is said to have _syllabic function_ or to be _syllabic_; in the examples given, _a_, _n_, _l_, and _s_ are respectively syllabic. All the other members of each group are termed _unsyllabic_.

83. Vowels are almost always used in syllabic function. When, in rare cases, they are unsyllabic, this fact is usually indicated in phonetic works by an inverted half-circle, ̭, placed under the vowel; so in the case of diphthongs to indicate the subordinate member: as #ai̭#, #oḙ#, #ṷi# (49). Latin #omnia# and English _glorious_, when pronounced as words of two syllables, would be written #omni̭a# (2503), _glori̭ous_. When sounds other than vowels have, in rare cases, syllabic function, this fact is noted in phonetic works by a point, . , or circle, ˳ , under the letter: as, Latin #*agṛs#, #*agr̥s# (111, _b_), English _opṇd_, _opn̥d_.

ACCENT.

84. The relative force with which the different syllables of a word are uttered varies. Such variation in emphasis is called _stress accentuation_.

The degrees of stress are really infinite, but for practical purposes it is sufficient to distinguish between (1.) the strongest stress (chief accent); (2.) a weaker stress (secondary accent); and (3.) absence of stress (atonic syllable). In the English _contradict_, the last syllable has the chief accent, a secondary accent falls on the first, and the second syllable is unstressed.

85. It is not customary to indicate the place of accents in Latin by special signs. When, for special reasons, signs are used, ´ denotes the chief accent, ` the secondary accent, while the unstressed syllables are left unmarked.

THE CLASSICAL ACCENT.

86. In classical Latin the place of the chief accent may be determined by the following rules.

(1.) Words of two syllables have the accent on the penult (175): as,

#hómo#; #ā́cer#.

(2.) Words of more than two syllables have the accent on the penult when that syllable is long (177); otherwise on the antepenult: as,

#palū́ster#, #onústus# (177); #mulíebris#, #génetrīx# (178); #árborēs#, #árbutus#, #gladíolus#.

87. A short penult retains the accent in the genitive and vocative with a single #ī# from stems in #-io-# (456, 459): as, genitive, #cōnsílī#; #impérī#; genitive or vocative, #Vergílī#; #Valérī#; #Mercúrī#. For #calefácis#, &c., see 394.