Chapter III: Part 3

164. PARTIAL ASSIMILATION. (1.) A voiced mute before an unvoiced consonant became unvoiced: as, #rēx#, _king_, for #*rēgs# (cf. #rēgis#); #rēxī#, _I guided_, for #*rēgsī# (cf. #regō#); #rēctus#, _guided_, for #*rēgtus#; #scrīpsī#, _I wrote_, for #*scrībsī# (cf. #scribō#); #scrīptus#, _written_, for #*scribtus#; #trāxī#, _I dragged_, for #*trāghsī#; #tractus#, _dragged_, for #*traghtus# (152). The spelling did not always conform to this pronunciation: as, #urbs#, _city_, pronounced #urps# (54) but spelled with #b# by analogy to the oblique cases #urbis#, #urbem#, etc.; #obtineō#, _I get_, pronounced #optineō#.

(2.) An unvoiced mute before a voiced consonant became voiced. The prepositions #ob#, #ab#, #sub#, for #*op#, #*ap#, #*sup#, owe their final #b# to their frequent position before voiced mutes: as, #obdūcō#, #abdīcō#, #sub dīvō#. The forms #*op# (still preserved in #op-eriō#, _I close_, 1019) #*ap# (preserved in #ap-erio#, _I open_, 1019; cf. Greek ἀπό) and #*sup# (preserved in the adjective #supīnus#, _supine_) were then crowded out by #ob#, #ab#, and #sub#.

(3.) Nasals changed their place of articulation to that of the following consonant. Thus, dental #n# before the labials #p# and #b# became labial #m#: as, #imbibō#, _I drink in_, #impendeō#, _I hang over_. Labial #m# before the gutturals #c# and #g# became guttural #n# (62): as, #prīnceps#, _leader_, #singulī#, _severally_ (the original labials appear in #prīmus#, #semel# (138)); #hunc# for #*homce# (662). Labial #m# before the dentals #t#, #d#, #s# became dental #n#: as, #cōnsecrō#, _I consecrate_, from #com# (#cum#) and #sacrō#; #tantus#, _so great_, from #tam#; #quondam#, _once_, from #quom#; #tandem#, _at length_, from #tam#. But sometimes the etymological spelling was retained: as, #quamdiū#, _as long as_. But #m# does not change to #n# before #t# or #s# in the inflection of verbs and nouns, where #mt#, #ms# develop into #mpt#, #mps# (167): as, #sūmptus#, #sūmpsī#, from #sūmō#.

(4.) #p# and #b# before #n# changed to #m#: as, #somnus#, _sleep_, for #*sop-nus# (cf. #sopor#); #omnis#, _all_, for #*op-nis# (cf. #opēs#); #Samnium#, for #*Sabnium# (cf. #Sabīnī#).

(5.) #m# before unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) became #n#: as, #quoniam# (with vocalic #i#; 153, 4), _since_, for #*quoni̭am# from #quom iam# (1882); #coniungō#, _I join together_, for #*comiungō#.

(6.) #c# between #n# and #l#, and before #m#, changed to #g#: as, #angulus#, _corner_, with anaptyctical (172) vowel #u# for #*anglus#, from #*anclus# (cf. #ancus#); #segmentum#, _section_, from the stem #sec-# in #secāre#.

165. It appears that at a very early period the neighbourhood of a nasal changed an unvoiced mute into a voiced one: as, #ē-mungō#, _I clean out_, by the side of #mūcus#; #pangō#, _I fix_, by the side of #pāc-# in #pāx#, _peace_ (gen. #pāc-is#).

166. ENTIRE ASSIMILATION. (1.) One mute is assimilated to another: thus #p# or #b# to #c#: as, #suc-currō#, _I assist_; #t# or #d# to #c#: as, #sic-cus#, _dry_ (cf. #sit-is#, _thirst_), #accipiō#, _I accept_; #d# to #g#: as, #agglūtinō#, _I glue on_; #t# or #d# to #qu#: as, #quicquam#, _anything_; #t# or #d# to #p#: as, #appellō#, _I call_; #quippe#, _why?_ (1690).

(2.) A mute is assimilated to a spirant: thus, #p# to #f# in #officīna#, _workshop_, for #*opficīna#, syncopated form of #*opificīna#; #d# to #f#: as, #afferō#, _I bring hither_; when #t# is thus assimilated to #s# the result is #ss# after a short vowel, and #s# after a long vowel (170, 7) or when final (171); as, in the #-s-# perfects, #concussī#, _I shook_, for #*concutsī# (#concutiō#, 961); #messuī#, _I mowed_, for #*metsuī# (#metō#, 835); #suāsī#, _I advised_, for #*suātsī# (#suādeō#, 1000); #clausī#, _I shut_, for #*clautsī# (#claudō#, 958); #haesī#, _I stuck_, for #haes-sī# (868) from #haerēre#, stem #haes-# (154); in the same way #possum#, _I can_, for #*potsum# (cf. #pot-est#, 752); #prōsum#, _I am of advantage_, for #*prōtsum# (cf. #prōd-esse#); #legēns#, _reading_, for #*legents# (from the stem #legent-#, cf. genitive #legent-is#). An #s# is never assimilated to a following #t#: as, #haustus#, _drained_ (1014), from the stem #haus-#, present #hauriō# (154). Forms like the rare #hausūrus# (Verg.) are made after the analogy of dental stems.

(3.) One spirant, #s#, is assimilated to another, #f#: as, #difficilis#, _difficult_, #differō#, _I am unlike_, from #dis# and #facilis#, #ferō#.

(4.) A mute is assimilated to a nasal: thus #d# to #m# in #mamma#, _woman’s breast_, from the stem #mad-# (cf. #madeō#, 1006); #rāmus#, _branch_, #rāmentum#, _splinter_, from the stem #rād-# (cf. #rādō#, 958) with simplification of the double #m# after the long vowel. #d# to #n# in #mercēnārius#, _hireling_, from the stem #mercēd-#, _reward_, (for #mercennarius#, see 133, 1); #p# to #m# in #summus#, _highest_, from the stem #sup-# (cf. #super#). A progressive assimilation of #nd# to #nn# belongs to the Oscan dialect, and occurs only very rarely in Latin: as, #tennitur# (Ter.), #distennite# (Plaut.). See 924; 950.

(5.) One nasal, #n#, is assimilated to another, #m#: as #immōtus#, _unmoved_. But an #m# before #n# is never assimilated: as, #amnis#, _river_.

(6.) Mutes or nasals are assimilated to liquids; thus #n# to #l#: as, #homullus#, _manikin_, for #*homon-lus# (cf. #homun-culus#); #ūllus# (274); #d# to #l#: as, #sella#, _seat_, for #*sed-la# from the stem #sed-# (cf. #sedeō#); #caelum#, _chisel_, from the stem #caed-# (cf. #caedō#) with simplification of the double #l# after the diphthong (170, 7); #n# to #r#: as, #irruō#, _I rush in_; and with progressive assimilation #n# to a preceding #l#: as, #tollō#, _I lift_, for #*tolnō# (833); #fallō#, _I cheat_ (932); #pellō#, _I push_ (932). But no assimilation is to be assumed for #parricīda#, which does not stand for #patricīda# (133, 1).

(7.) One liquid, #r#, is assimilated to another, #l#: as, #pelliciō#, _I lead astray_ (956), for #*per-liciō#; #agellus#, _small field_, for #*agerlos#; #pūllus#, _clean_, from #*pūrlos# (cf. #pūrus#, _clean_).

(8.) A spirant, #s#, is assimilated to a preceding liquid in #velle#, _wish_, for #*velse#, #ferre#, _carry_, for #*ferse# (the infinitive ending #-se# appears in #es-se#, 895); #facillimus#, _easiest_, for #*facilsimus# (345); #sacerrimus#, _holiest_, for #*sacersimus# (344). But where #ls# and #rs# are not original but the result of lightening (170, 3; 10) they remain unchanged: as, #arsī#, _I burnt_, for #*artsī# from the stem #ard-# (cf. #ardeō#, 1000); #alsī#, _I felt cold_, for #*alcsī# from the stem #alg-# (cf. #algeō#, 1000).

(9.) #g# and #d# were assimilated to a following unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) the result being (153, 2) #ii# (#i̭i̭#); thus #peiior#, _worse_, for #*ped-i̭or#, from the stem #ped-# (532), whence also the superlative #pessimus# for #*petsimus# (166, 2); #maiior#, _greater_, for #*mag-i̭or# (the stem #mag-# appears in #magis#); #aiiō#, _I say_, for #*ag-i̭ō# (the stem #ag-# appears in #ad-ag-ium#, #prōd-ig-ium#, 219). These forms were pronounced by Cicero with doubled #i̭# (23), and traces of the spelling with double #ii# are still found (23), though in common practice only one #i# is written (153, 2). On the confusion of syllabic quantity with vowel quantity in these words, see 133, 2.

[Errata:
164 ... #scrīptus#, _written_, for #*scribtus#;
writtén
#trāxī#, _I dragged_, for #*trāghsī#;
#*trāghsī#,
166(4) ... #distennite# (Plaut.).
last . invisible]
(6.) Mutes or nasals
(6).]

CONSONANTAL GLIDES.

167. Pronunciation of two successive consonants is sometimes facilitated by the insertion of a consonant which serves as a glide. Such insertion is not frequent.

In inflection a #p# was thus developed between #m# and #s#, between #m# and #l#, and between #m# and #t# (elsewhere #mt# changed to #nt#, see 164, 3): as, #sūmpsī#, _I took_, #sūmptus#, _taken_, from #sūmere# for #*sūmsī#, #*sūmtus#; and in the corresponding forms of #cōmō#, #dēmō#, #prōmō# (953); #exemplum#, _pattern_, for #*exemlum# from the stem #em-#, _take_ (cf. #eximere#, 103, #a#).

DISAPPEARANCE.

168. A word may be lightened by the disappearance of an initial, a medial, or a final consonant.

Disappearance of an initial consonant is sometimes called _Aphaeresis_, of a medial, _Syncope_, of a final, _Apocope_.

169. INITIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) Initial #tl# changed to #l#: as, #lātus#, _borne_, for #*tlātus# from #tollō# (187, 917).

(2.) Initial #gn# changed to #n#: as, #nātus#, _born_, for earlier GNATVS from the stem #gen-#, #gnā# (187); #nōscō#, _I find out_, for #gnōscō#, GNOSCIER (897); #nārus#, _knowing_, for the more frequent #gnārus#, #nāvus#, _active_, for #gnāvus#. Cf. the compounds #cō-gnātus#, #cō-gnōscō#, #ī-gnārus#, #ī-gnāvus# (170, 6) which preserve the #g#. But #Gnaeus# retained its #G#.

(3.) Initial #d# when followed by consonant #i# (_i̭_), disappeared: as, #Iovis#, #Iūpiter#, for #*Di̭ovis#, #*Di̭ūpiter#. Where the #i# was vocalic, #d# was retained: as, #dīus#.

(4.) Initial #stl-# first changed to #sl# and then to #l#: as, Old Latin #stlocus#, _place_, #stlīs#, _law-suit_ (Quint. 1, 4, 16), STLOC, SLIS, classical #locus#, #līs#; also #lātus#, _wide_, for #*stlātus#. That a form #*slocus# existed is proved by #īlicō# (698, 703) from #*in-slocō#, _on the spot_ (170, 2).

170. MEDIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) #c#, #g#, #p#, and #b# disappear before #s# followed by an unvoiced consonant: as, #sescentī#, _six hundred_, for #*sexcentī# from #sex#; #illūstris#, _resplendent_, for #*illūcstris# from #lūceō#; #discō#, _I learn_, from #*dicscō# for #*di-tc-scō# (834), a reduplicated present from the root #dec-# (cf. #decet#) like #gignō# (from the root #gen-#), and #sīdō# (for #*si-sd-ō#, 170, 2, from the root #sed-#, 829). Sometimes prepositions follow this rule: as, #asportō#, _I carry off_, for #*absportō#, #suscipiō#, _I undertake_, for #*subscipiō# (#subs# formed from #sub# like #abs# from #ab#; #sub-cipiō# gives #succipiō#); occasionally also #ecferō#, for #exferō#, _I carry out_. But more frequently prepositional compounds remain unchanged: as, #obscūrus#, _dark_; #abscēdō#, _I withdraw_. In some words the lost consonant has been restored by analogy: as, #sextus#, _sixth_, for #*sestus# (cf. #Sēstius#) after #sex#; #textor#, _weaver_, for #*testor# after #texō#.

(2.) #s# before voiced consonants was voiced (75) and is dropped. If a consonant precedes the #s# this is dropped also. In either case the preceding vowel is lengthened. Voiced #s# alone is dropped: as, #prīmus#, _first_, for #*prīs-mus# (cf. #prīs-cus#); #cānus#, _gray_, for #*casnus# (cf. #cas-cus#); adverb #pōne#, _behind_, for #*posne# (cf. #pos#, 1410); #dīlābī#, _glide apart_, for #*dislābi#; #īdem#, _the same_, for ISDEM (678); #iūdex#, _judge_, for #iūsdex#; #trēdecim#, _thirteen_, for #*trēsdecim#. And with subsequent shortening of the final syllable (130, 3) #abin#, _goest thou?_ for #abisn(e)#; #viden#, _seest thou?_ for #vidēsn(e)#. Voiced #s# with the preceding consonant is dropped: as, #trādūcō#, _I lead across_, #trānō#, _I swim across_, for #trānsdūcō#, #trānsnō#; but in these prepositional compounds the #-ns# was often retained: as, #trānsmittō#, _I send across_; #sēnī#, _six each_, for #*secsnī#; #sēmēnstris#, _every six months_, for #secsmēnstris#; #sēvirī#, _the Board of Six_, for #secsvirī#; #āla#, _wing_, for #*acsla# (cf. #ax-illa#, Cic. _O._ 153); #māvolō# (779) for #magsvolō# from #magisvolō#, 396; #tōles# (plural), _goiter_, for #*tōnsles# (cf. #tōnsillae#, _tonsils_); #pīlum#, _pestle_, for #*pīnslum# from #pīnsere#, _crush_; two consonants and voiced #s# are dropped in #scāla#, _stair_, for #*scand-sla# (cf. #scandō#).

(3.) #c# falls away when it stands between a liquid and #t#, #s#, #m#, or #n#: as, #ultus#, _avenged_, for #*ulctus# from #ulc-iscor# (980); #mulsī# for #*mulcsī# from both #mulgeō#, _I milk_, and #mulceō#, _I stroke_; similarly other stems in #-c# and #-g# (1000, 1014); #quernus#, _oaken_, for #*quercnus# from #quercus#; #tortus#, _turned_, for #*torctus# from #torqueō# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158); for #fortis#, _brave_, #forctis# is found in old Latin.

(4.) #c# drops out when it stands between #n# and #t#: as, #quīntus#, _fifth_, for older #quīnctus# (2412), from #quīnque# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158; for the long #ī# in #quīnque#, see 122, _b_). But verbs having stems in #-nc# or #-ng# retain the #c# in their past participles: as, #vīnctus#, _bound_, from #vincīre# (1014); #iūnctus#, _joined_, from #iungere# (954). In #pāstus# (965) #c# has dropped out between #s# and #t#.

(5.) The group #-ncn-# was simplified to simple #-n-#, and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #quīnī#, _five each_, for #*quīnc-nī# (317); #cō-nīveō#, _wink and blink_, for #con-cnīveō#.

(6.) #n# before #gn# was dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened: as, #ī-gnōscō#, _I forgive_, for #*in-gnōscō#, #cō-gnōscō#, _I know_, for #*con-gnōscō#. In this manner (170, 5; 6) arises a form #cō-# by the side of #con-# (122, _e_): as, #cō-nectō#, #cō-nubium#, #cō-ligātus# (Gell. 2, 17, 8).

(7.) In the imperial age, #ss# after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed to #s#: as, #clausī#, _I closed_; #ūsus#, _used_ (166, 2); but always #ēsse#, _to eat_ (769); #ll# changed to #l# after diphthongs: as, #caelum#, _chisel_ (166, 6); also when preceded by #ī# and followed by #i#: as, #vīlla#, _country-place_, but #vīlicus# (adject.); #mille#, _thousand_, but #mīlia# (642). Elsewhere #ll# was retained after long vowels: as, #pūllus# (166, 7), _clean_; #rāllum#, _ploughshare_, from #rādō# with suffix #-lo-# (209). In Cicero’s time (Quint. 1, 7, 20) the spelling was still #caussa# (155, _b_), _matter_; #cāssus# (930), _fallen_; #divīssiō# (cf. 912), _division_. Vergil also, according to Quintilian, retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus frequently show #ll# and #ss# for later #l# and #s#, as do inscriptions: as, PROMEISSERIT, _he might have promised_ (49 B.C.); ACCVSSASSE, _to have accused_.

(8.) After a long vowel #d# was dropped before consonant #u# (#v#): as, #svāvis#, _sweet_, for #*svādvis# from #svād-# (cf. #svādeō#).

(9.) #r# before #st# was dropped: as, #tostus#, _roasted_ (1004) for #*torstus# from the stem #tors-# (cf. #torreo# with assimilated #-rs-#, 166, 8).

(10.) #-rts-# changed to #-rs#: as, #arsī#, _I burnt_, for #*artsī# (1000). #-rcsc-# changed to #-sc-#: as, #poscō#, _I demand_, for #*porcscō# (834).

(11.) In #ipse#, _self_, for #*is-pse#, an #s# has disappeared before #-ps-#

(12.) #d# (#t#) disappears between #r# and #c#: as, #cor-culum# for #cord(i)-culum# (275).

171. FINAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, #es# for #*es-s#, _thou art_, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: #ter# for #*terr# from #*ters# (cf. #terr-uncius#, _a quarter of an_ #ās#, _a farthing_, 1272, for #*ters-uncius#, 166, 8); #fār#, _spelt_, for #*farr#, from #*fars# (489); #fel#, _gall_, for #*fell#, from #*fels# (482); in #mīles#, _soldier_, for #*mīless# from #*mīlets# (cf. Gen. #mīlitis#, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. #hoc#, _this_, for #*hocc# from #*hod-c(e)#(the neuter #*hod# from the stem #ho-#, as #istud#, #illud# (107, _c_) from #isto-#, #illo-#) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.

(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final #t# is dropped in #lac#, _milk_ (478); final #d# in #cor#, _heart_ (476).

(3.) When final #s# was preceded by #r# or #l#, it was assimilated to these liquids, and final #rr# and #ll# were then simplified to #r# and #l#. See the examples under (1). Wherever final #-rs# and #-ls# appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #puls#, _pottage_, for #*pults# (533); #pars#, _part_, for #*parts# (533); all with syncope (111) of the vowel #i# in the nominative #sg#.

(4.) Original final #ns# was changed to #s# and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #sanguīs#, _blood_ (2452), for #*sanguins# from the stem #sanguin-# (486). Wherever final #-ns# appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #ferēns#, _carrying_, for #*ferents#, from the stem #ferent-#; #frōns#, _foliage_, for #*fronds#, from the stem #frond-#.

(5.) A dental mute before final #s# is dropped: as, #hērēs#, _heir_, for #*hērēds# (475); #virtūs#, _virtue_, for #*virtūts# (477); #nox#, _night_, for #*nocts# (533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as, #fornāx# (#x# = #cs#), _furnace_, from the stem #fornāc-# (531); #lēx#, _law_, from the stem #leg-# (472); #urbs#, _city_, from the stem #urb-# (480); #ops# from the stem #op-#, _help_ (480).

[Errata:
170.2 ... #iūdex#, _judge_, for #iūsdex#;
#iūsdex#,
#abin#, _goest thou?_ for #abisn(e)#;
#abisn(e)#,]

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.

172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called _Anaptyxis_ (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, _unfold_). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).

(1.) The suffix #-clo-# (242), changed to #-culo-#, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix #-culo-# (267): as, #pōculum#, _cup_, for #pōclum# (Plaut.); #vehiculum#, _carriage_, for #vehiclum# (Plaut.). But #-clo-# is more common in Plautus than #-culo-#, especially after long vowels. The suffixes #-blo-# (245), and #-bli-# (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of the #l# (60): as, #stabulum#, _resting-place_; #stabilis#, _steady_. The group #-ngl-# also changes to #-ngul-#: as, #angulus# (164, 6).

(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as, #mina#, _mina_, for #*mna# (μνᾶ); and in Old Latin #drachuma# (Plaut.) for later #drachma#, _drachma_ (δραχμή); #techina#, _trick_, from Greek τέχνη; #Tecumēssa# for #Tecmēssa# (Τέκμησσα).

(3.) Before syllabic (83) #l# and #r# a vowel is developed (111, _b_): as, #íncertus#, _uncertain_, for #*íncr̥tus#; #fácultās#, _capability_, for #fácl̥tās#. Likewise before syllabic #n# (139).

DISSIMILATION.

173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables #l# is sometimes changed to #r#: as, #caeruleus#, _sky-blue_, for #*caeluleus#, from #caelum#; #Parīlia#, by the side of #Palīlia#, from #Palēs#; the suffix #-clo-# appears as #-cro-# after an #l#: as, #lavācrum#, _bath_, #simulācrum#, _image_ (241); the suffix #-āli-# under like conditions changes to #-āri-#; as, #molāre#, _of a mill_ (313), but #augurāle#, _of an augur_.

(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as, #praestīgiae#, _jugglery_, for #praestrīgiae#. This also applies to the spirant #s# followed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfects #stetī#, for #*stestī#; #spopondī#, for #*spospondī# (859), where the second syllable, and in #quisquiliae#, _sweepings_, for #*squisquiliae#, where the first syllable was lightened.

CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.

174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:

(1.) The final #-ā# of #ā-#stems, by analogy to the more frequent #-o-#stems, usually changed to #-o#, which in atonic syllables became #-i# (105): as, #āli-ger#, _winged_, for #*ālo-ger# from #ālā-#.

(2.) Stems in #-on-# substitute #-o-# for #-on-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #homi-cída#, _murderer_, for #*homo-cīda# (105) from #homon-# (Nom. #homō#).

(3.) Some stems in #-s# substitute #-o-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #foedi-fragus#, _treaty-breaking_, for #*foedo-fragus# from the stem #foedos-# (Nom. #foedus#, Gen. #foederis#; 154).

[In section 174, anomalous forms such as #-o-#stems (without space)
are in the original.]

SYLLABLES.

175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the _Ultima_; the last syllable but one is called the _Penult_; the last syllable but two is called the _Antepenult_.

176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.

LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.

177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by #x# or #z#: as,

#dūcēbās#; #volvunt#. In #dūcēbās# both the vowels and the syllables are long; in #volvunt# the vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be _long by position_. #h# does not count as a consonant (58) and #qu# (or #qv#, 27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, in #adhūc# and #aqua# the first syllable is short.

178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or #f# followed by #l# or #r# is not long: as #tenebrae#. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as #obruit#.

LOSS OF SYLLABLES.

179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called _Haplology_.

Thus, #sēmodius# for #sēmimodius#, _half a bushel_; #calamitōsus# for #*calamitātōsus#, from the stem #calamitāt-# (262) and suffix #-oso-# (336); #voluntārius#, for #voluntātārius# (262, 309); #cōnsuētūdō#, for #cōnsuētitūdō# (264). See also 255; 379.

B. FORMATION.

180. FORMATION is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.

181. A word containing a single stem is called a _Simple_ word: as, #magnus#, _great_, stem #magno-#; #animus#, _soul_, stem #animo-#. A word containing two or more stems is called a _Compound_ word: as, #magnanimus#, _great-souled_, stem #magnanimo-#.

182. Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in #ductōrī#, _for a leader_, the root is #duc-#, _lead_, the stem is #ductōr-#, _leader_, and #-ī# is the inflection ending, meaning _for_.

ROOTS.

183. A ROOT is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.

184. A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thus #iug-#, _yoke_, does not mean _a yoke_ nor _I yoke_; it merely _suggests_ something about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as, #iug-u-m#, _a yoke_.

185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.

186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.

187. A root sometimes has two or more forms: as, #fīd-# (for #feid-#), #foed-#, #fid-#, _trust_; #gen-#, #gn-#, _sire_; #tol#, #tl#, _bear_; see 135, 145.

Thus, #fīd-# is found in #fīd-us#, _trusty_, #fīd-ūcia#, _confidence_, #fīd-ūciō#, _I pledge_, #fīd-ūciārius#, _in trust_, #fīd-ere#, _put trust in_, #fīd-ēns#, _courageous_, #fīd-entia#, _courage_; #foed-# in #foed-us#, _pledge of faith_, #foed-erātus#, _bound by a pledge of faith_; #fid-# in #fid-ēs#, _faith_, #fid-ēlis#, _faithful_, #fid-ēliter#, _faithfully_, #fid-ēlitās#, _faithfulness_, #per-fid-us#, _faithless_, #per-fid-ia#, _faithlessness_, #per-fid-iōsus#, _full of faithlessness_, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly. #gen-# in #gen-itor#, _sire_, #gn-# in #gi-gn-ere#, _beget_, #gn-ā-# in #gnā-tus#, _son_.

188. A root ending in a vowel is called a _Vowel Root_: as, #da-#, _give_; a root ending in a consonant is called a _Consonant Root_: as, #rup-#, _break_. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √#teg-#, to be read ‘root #teg-#.’

189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called _Reduplication_: as, #mur-mur#, _murmur_; #tur-tur#, _turtle-dove_; #po-pul-us#, _people_; #ul-ul-āre#, _yell_.

PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.

190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in #-āre# and #-īre#.

Thus, from #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_, are formed #ōrā-tor#, _speaker_, and #ōrā-tiō#, _speech_; from #audī-#, stem of #audīre#, _hear_, are formed #audī-tor#, _hearer_, and #audī-tiō#, _hearing_.

191. Verbs in #-ēre#, and those in #-āre# and #-īre# in which the #ā# or #ī# is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#doc-tor#, _teacher_, #doc-umentum#, _lesson_, #doc-ilis#, _teachable_ (√#doc-#, #docēre#); #sec-tor#, _cutter_ (√#sec-#, #secāre#); #dom-itor#, _tamer_, #dom-inus#, _master_, #dom-itus#, _tamed_ (√#dom-#, #domāre#); #sarc-ina#, _package_ (√#sarc-#, #sarcīre#).

192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ēre#: as, #monē-ta#, _mint_ (#monēre#); #acē-tum#, _vinegar_ (#acēre#); #virē-tum#, _a green_ (#virēre#); #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādēre#); #habē-na#, _rein_ (#habēre#); #egē-nus#, _needy_ (#egēre#); #verē-cundus#, _shamefast_ (#verērī#); #valē-tūdō#, _health_ (#valēre#).

193. Verbs in #-ere#, and particularly such as have a present in #-nō#, #-scō#, #-tō# or #-iō# (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#vic-tor#, _conqueror_ (√#vic-#, #vincere#); #incrē-mentum#, _growth_ (√#crē-#, #crēscere#); #pul-sus#, _a push_ (√#pol-#, #pellere#).

194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, #lecti-stern-ium#, _a couch-spreading_ (#sternere#, √#ster-#, #strā-#); #vinc-ibilis#, _conquerable_ (#vincere#, √#vīc-#); #pāsc-uum#, _pasture_ (#pāscere#, √#pā-#); #pect-en#, _comb_ (#pectere#, √#pec-#); #fall-āx#, _deceitful_ (#fallere#, √#fal-#).

STEMS.

195. A STEM is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a _Formative Suffix_.

Thus, in the word #ducis#, _leader’s_, the stem, which is identical with the root #duc-#, means _leader_; a root thus serving as a stem is called a _Root Stem_; in #ductōris#, _leader’s_, the stem is formed by the formative suffix #-tōr-#, denoting the agent, attached to the √#duc-#.

196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, from #ōrātōr-#, _speaker_, is formed by the addition of the suffix #-io-#, a new stem #ōrātōr-io-#, N. #ōrātōrius#, _speaker’s_.

197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.

PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.

198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a _Primitive_. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a _Denominative_.

(_a._) Primitives: from √#rēg-#, #reg-#, _guide_: #rēx#, stem #rēg-#, _king_; #rēgnum#, stem #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_; #rēctus#, stem #rēc-to-#, _guided_; #regere#, stem #reg-e-#, _guide_. From #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_: #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-#, _speaker_; #ōrātiō#, stem #ōrā-tiōn-#, _speech_.

(_b._) Denominatives: from noun stem #rēg-#, _king_: #rēgīna#, stem #rēg-īnā#, _queen_; #rēgius#, stem #rēg-io-#, #rēgālis#, stem #rēg-āli-#, _royal_. From #ōrātiōn-#, _speech_: #ōrātiūncula#, stem #ōrātiūn-culā-#, _little speech_. From #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_: #rēgnāre#, stem #rēgnā-#, _to rule_. From #iūs#, _law_: #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā# (154).

[Errata:
198a ... #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-#
#ōrā tōr-# with invisible hyphen
198b ... #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā#
_stem_ #iūrā# in italics]

(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.

WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, #duc-#, N. #dux#, _leader_ (√#duc-#, _lead_); #rēg-#, N. #rēx#, _king_ (√#rēg-#, _guide_); particularly at the end of a compound: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#, _yoke-fellow_, _spouse_ (#com-#, √#jug-#, _yoke_); #tubi-cin-#, N. #tubicen#, _trumpeter_ (#tubā-#, √#can-#, _play_).

WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

200. SIMPLE formative suffixes are vowels: as, #-ā-#, #-o-#, #-i-#, #-u-#; also #-io-#, #-uo-#, (#-vo-#); or such little syllables as #-mo-#, #-min-#; #-ro-#, #-lo-#; #-ōn-#; #-no-#, #-ni-#, #-nu-#; #-to-#, #-ti-#, #-tu-#; #-ter-#, #-tōr-#; #-unt-# (#-nt-#); #-es-# (#-er-#), #-ōr-#; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. COMPOUND suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, #-tōr-io-#, #-ti-mo-#, &c., &c.

201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

fug-ā- fuga, _flight_ +fug-+, _fly_
fīd-o- fīdus, _trusty_ +fīd-+, _trust_
ac-u- acus, _pin_ +ac-+, _point_
od-io- odium, _hate_ +od-+, _hate_
pluv-iā- pluvia, _rain_ +plov-+, _wet_
ar-vo- arvom, _tilth_ +ar-+, _till_
al-vo- alvos, _belly_ +al-+, _nurture_
sal-vo- salvos, _safe_ +sal-+, _safe_
fā-mā- fāma, _tale_ +fā-+, _tell_
teg-min- tegmen, _cover_ +teg-+, _cover_
sel-lā- sella, _seat_ +sed-+, _sit_
err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ +errā-+, _stroll_
som-no- somnus, _sleep_ +sop-+, _sleep_
plē-no- plēnus, _full_ +plē-+, _fill_
rēg-no- rēgnum, _realm_ +rēg-+, _guide_
da-to- datus, _given_ +da-+, _give_
lec-to- lectus, _bed_ +leg-+, _lie_
gen-ti- gēns, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_
sta-tu- status, _stand_ +sta-+, _stand_
rēc-tōr- rēctor, _ruler_ +rēg-+, _guide_
e-unt-, iēns, _going_ +i-+, _go_
rege-nt- regēns, _guiding_ +rege-+, _guide_
gen-er- genus, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_
fur-ōr- furor, _madness_ +fur-+, _rave_

202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.

Thus, #-lo-#: #fīlio-lo-#, N. #fīlio-lu-s#, _little son_ (#fīlio-#); #hortu-lu-s#, _little garden_ (#horto-#, 105, _h_); but #-ulo-#: #rēg-ulu-s#, _petty king_ (#rēg-#); #ger-ulu-s#, _porter_ (√#ges-#, _bear_), #-ci-#: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, _full of fight_ (#pugnā-re#); but #-āci-#: #fer-āx#, _productive_ (√#fer-#, _bear_), #-to-#: #laudā-to-#, N. #laudā-tu-s#, _praised_ (#laudā-re#); but #-āto-#: #dent-ātus#, _toothed_ (#denti-#). #-tu-#: #equitā-tu-#, N. #equitā-tu-s#, _cavalry_ (#equitā-re#); but #-ātu-#: #sen-ātu-s#, _senate_ (#sen-#). #-lā-#: #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādē-re#, 192); but #-ēlā-#: #loqu-ēla#, _talk_ (√#loqu-#, _speak_). #-tāt-#: #cīvi-tāt-#, N. #cīvi-tā-s#, _citizenship_ (#cīvi-#); but #-itāt-#: #auctōr-itā-s#, _authority_ (#auctōr-#). #-cio-#: #aedīli-cio-#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, _of an aedile_ (#aedīli-#); but #-icio-#: #patr-iciu-s#, _patrician_ (#patr-#). #-timo-#: #fīni-timo-#, N. #fīni-timu-s#, _bordering_ (#fīni-#); but #-itimo-#: #lēg-itimu-s#, _of the law_ (#lēg-#).

203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix #-io-# (304) will be found #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#, #-tōr-io-#, and #-ār-io-#. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.

[Errata:
201 (table) ... fā-mā-
final - missing or invisible
e-unt-,
_anomalous comma may be intentional (this and following word
are both participles)_]

I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

I. THE AGENT.

204. The suffixes #-tōr-#, #-o-#, #-ā-#, #-lo-#, and #-ōn-#, are used to denote the _Agent_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

lēc-tōr- lēctor, _reader_ √+lēg-+, _read_
scrīb-ā- scrība, _writer_ √+scrīb-+, _write_
fig-ulo- figulus, _potter_ √+fig-+, _mould_
err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ errā-re, _stroll_

(1.) #-tōr-# (N. #-tor#).

205. #-tōr-#, N. #-tor#, or #-sōr-#, N. #-sor# (159, 202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is #-trī-ci-#, N. #-trī-x#. #-tōr-# is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.

206. (_a._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.

#ōrā-tōr-#, N. #ōrā-tor#, _spokesman_, _speaker_ (#ōrā-re#); #lēc-tor#, _reader_ (√#leg-#, _read_). Workmen and tradesmen: #arā-tor#, _ploughman_, #pās-tor#, _shepherd_, #pīc-tor#, _painter_, #sū-tor#, _shoemaker_. Semi-professional: #captā-tor#, _legacy-hunter_, #dēlā-tor#, _professional informer_. Government officials: #cēn-sor#, _appraiser_, _censor_, #imperā-tor#, _commander_, #prae-tor#, (_leader_), _praetor_, #dictā-tor#, #līc-tor#. Of the law: #āc-tor#, _manager_, #accūsā-tor#, _accuser_, #spōn-sor#, _bondsman_, #tū-tor#, _guardian_. From presumed verb stems (202): #sen-ātor#, _senator_ (#sen-#); #viā-tor#, _wayfarer_ (#viā-#); #fundi-tor#, _slinger_ (#fundā-#). #-tro-#, N. #-ter#, has the meaning of #-tōr-#: as, #aus-tro-#, N. #aus-ter# (_scorcher_), _south-wester_ (√#aus-#, _burn_).

207. In the present sense #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, #bellā-tor#, _a man of war_, _warlike_; #dēlīberā-tor#, _a man of caution_; #cessā-tor#, _a loiterer_; #dērī-sor#, _a mocker_, _ironical_; #cōnsūmp-tor#, _apt to destroy_, _destructive_; #aedificā-tor#, _building-mad_.

208. (_b._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,

#castīgā-tor meus#, _my mentor_, or _the man who has upbraided me_; #olīvae inven-tor#, _the deviser of the olive_ (Aristaeus); #reper-tor vītis#, _the author of the vine_ (Bacchus); #patriae līberā-tōrēs#, _the emancipators of the nation_.

(2.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-ōn-# (N. #-ō#).

209. #-o-# and #-ā-# stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #coqu-o-#, N. #coqu-o-s# or #coc-u-s#, _cook_ (√#coqu-#, _cook_); #causidic-u-s#, _pleader_ (#causā-#, √#dic-#, _speak_). #-ā-#, N. #-a#: #scrīb-ā-#, N. #scrīb-a#, _clerk_ (√#scrīb-#, _write_); #agricol-a#, _husbandman_ (#agro-#, √#col-#, _till_).

210. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202): #ger-ulo-#, N. #ger-ulu-s#, _bearer_ (√#ges-#, _bear_); #fig-ulu-s#, _potter_ (√#fig-#, _shape_, _mould_).

211. #-ōn-#, N. #-ō-#: #err-ōn-#, N. #err-ō#, _stroller_ (#errā-re#); especially in compounds: #praed-ō#, _robber_ (#praedā-rī#); #praec-ō# for #*praevocō#, _herald_ (#prae-vocā-re#); #combib-ō#, _fellow-drinker_ (#com-#, √#bib-#, _drink_).

II. THE ACTION.

212. The suffixes #-ā-#, #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-min-#; #-i-ōn-#, #-ti-ōn-#; #-lā-#; #-mā-#, #-nā-#; #-tā-#, #-tu-#; #-er-#, #-or-#, #-ōr-#, are used to denote the _Action_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
od-io- odium, _hate_ √+od-+, _hate_
āc-tiōn- āctiō, _action_ √+āg-+, _do_
ques-tu- questus, _complaint_ √+ques-+, _complain_
fur-ōr- furor, _rage_ √+fur-+, _rave_

213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.

(1.) #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#); #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iē-s#).

214. #-ā-#, N. #-a#, is rare in words of action: #fug-ā-#, N. #fug-a#, _flight_ (√#fug-#, _fly_); most words are concrete: #mol-a#, _mill_ (√#mol-#, _grind_); #tog-a#, _covering_ (√#teg-#, _cover_).

215. #-ūr-ā-#, N. #-ūr-a#, is rare: #fig-ūrā-#, N. #fig-ūra#, _shape_ (√#fig-#, _shape_).

216. #-tūr-ā-#, N. #-tūr-a#, or #-sūr-ā-#, N. #-sūr-a# (159, 202), akin to the agent in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#): #armā-tūrā-#, N. #armā-tūra#, _equipment_ (#armā-re#); #pīc-tūra#, _painting_, i.e., _act of painting_ or _picture_ (√#pig-#, _paint_). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office: #cēn-sūra#, _taxing_, _censor’s office_ (cf. #cēnsōr-#); #prae-tūra#, _praetorship_ (cf. #praetōr-#).

217. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in #-io-# (many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in #-io-# (249).

218. (_a._) #-io-# is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems: #od-io-#, N. #od-iu-m#, _hate_, _hateful thing_, _hateful conduct_ (√#od-#, _hate_); some words become concrete: #lab-iu-m#, _lip_ (√#lab-#, _lick_).

219. (_b._) Most primitives in #-io-# are compounds: as, #adag-iu-m#, _proverb_ (#ad#, √#ag-#, _speak_); #ingen-iu-m#, _disposition_ (in, √#gen-#, _beget_); #dīscid-iu-m#, _separation_, #exscid-iu-m#, _destruction_ (#dī-#, #ex#, √#scid-#, _cleave_); #incend-iu-m#, _conflagration_ (in, √#cand-#, _light_); #obsequ-iu-m#, _compliance_ (#ob-#, √#sequ-#, _follow_); #conloqu-iu-m#, _parley_ (#com-#, √#loqu-#, _talk_); #obsid-iu-m#, _siege_ (#ob#, √#sed-#, _sit_).

220. #-t-io-#, N. #-t-iu-m#: #spa-tio-#, N. #spa-tiu-m#, _stretch_ (√#spa-#, _span_, _stretch_); #sōlsti-tiu-m#, _sun-stand_, _solstice_ (#sōl-#, √#sta-#, _stand_); #ini-tiu-m#, _a beginning_ (#in#, √#i-#, _go_).

221. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#: #fur-iā-#, N. #fur-iae#, plural, _ravings_, _madness_ (√#fur-#, _rave_); #pluvia#, _rain_ (√#pluv-#, _rain_). Most stems in #-iā-# are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning: _dēlic-iae_, _allurements_, _pet_ (#dē#, √#lac-#, _allure_); #excub-iae#, _patrol_ (#ex#, √#cub-#, _lie_).

222. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#, a variation of #-iā-#, usually denotes result (604): #ser-iē-#, N. #ser-iē-s#, _row_ (√#ser-#, _string_); #spec-iē-s#, _sight_, _looks_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #pernic-iē-s#, _destruction_ (#per#, √#nec-#, _murder_).

223. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#: #permi-tiē-#, N. #permi-tiē-s#, _wasting away_ (#per#, √#mi-#, _less_).

(2.) #-min-# (103) (N. #-men#); #-din-#, #-gin-# (105, _g_) (N. #-dō#, #-gō#).

224. #-min-#, N. #-men# (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.

#certā-min-#, N. #certā-men#, _contest_ (#certā-re#); #crī-men#, _charge_ (√#cer-#, #crī-#, _sift_); #spec-imen#, _what is inspected_, _sample_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #lū-men#, _light_ (√#lūc-#, _light_); #flū-men#, _flood_, _stream_ (√#flugṷ-#, _flow_); #ag-men#, _what is led_, _train_ (√#ag-#, _lead_). Words in #-min-# often mean nearly the same as those in #-mento-# (239): as, #levā-men#, #levā-mentu-m#, _lightening_; #teg-umen#, #teg-umentu-m#, _covering_.

225. #ē-din-#, #-ī-din-# (202): #-ē-din-#, N. #-ē-dō#: #grav-ēdin-#, N. #grav-ēdō#, (_heaviness_), _catarrh_ (√#grav-#, _heavy_), #-ī-din-#, N. #-ī-dō#: #cup-īdin-#, N. #cup-īdō#, _desire_ (√#cup-#, _desire_); #lib-idō#, _whim_ (√#lib-#, _yearn_).

226. #-ā-gin-#, #-ī-gin-# (202): #-ā-gin-#, N. #-ā-gō#: #vorā-gin-#, N. #vorā-gō#, _gulf_ (#vorā-re#); #imā-gō#, _representation_ (#*imā-#, cf. #imitārī#). #-ī-gin-#, N. #-ī-gō#: #orī-gin-#, N. #orī-gō#, _source_ (#orī-rī#); #cāl-īgō#, _darkness_ (√#cāl-#, _hide_). A few denominatives have #-ū-gin-#, N. #-ū-gō#: #aer-ūgin-#, N. #aer-ūgō#, _copper rust_ (#aer-#).

(3.) #-i-ōn-# (N. #-i-ō#); #-ti-ōn-# or #-si-ōn-# (N. #-ti-ō# or #-si-ō#).

227. #-i-ōn-#, N. #-i-ō#: #opīn-iōn-#, N. #opīn-iō#, _notion_ (#opīnā-rī#); #condic-iō#, _agreement_ (#com-#, √#dic-#, _say_); #contāg-iō#, _touch_ (#com-#, √#tag-#, _touch_). Some words are concrete: #leg-iō#, _pick_, _legion_ (√#leg-#, _pick_). A few are denominatives: #commūn-iō#, _mutual participation_ (#commūni-#).

228. #-ti-ōn-#, N. #-ti-ō#, or #-si-ōn-#, N. #-si-ō# (159, 202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.

#cōgitā-tiōn-#, N. #cōgitā-tiō#, _a thinking_, _a thought_ (_cōgitā-re_); #exīstimā-tiō#, _judging_, _reputation_ (#exīstimā-re#); #coven-tiō#, commonly #cōn-tiō#, _meeting_, _speech_ (#com-#, √#ven-#, _come_); #dēpul-siō#, _warding off_ (#dē-#, √#pol-#, _push_); #oppugnā-tiō#, _besieging_, _method of besieging_ (#oppugnā-re#); #occultā-tiō#, _hiding_, _chance to hide_, _possibility of hiding_ (#occultā-re#). Some words denote the place where: #sta-tiō#, _a stand_ (√#sta-#, _stand_); some become collectives or concretes: #salūtā-tiō#, _greeting_, _levee_, _guests at a levee_ (#salūtā-re#); #mūnī-tiō#, _fortification_, i.e., _act of fortifying or works_ (#mūnī-re#).

(4.) #-ē-lā-# (N. #-ē-la#), #-tē-lā-# (N. #-tē-la#).

229. #-ē-lā-#, N. #-ē-la# (202): #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādē-rē#): #loqu-ēla#, _talk_ (√#loqu-#, _talk_); #quer-ēla# or #quer-ēlla#, _complaint_ (√#ques-#, _complain_). Some words are concrete: #candē-la#, _candle_ (#candē-re#).

230. #-tē-lā-#, N. #-tē-la-#: #conrup-tēlā-#, N. #conrup-tēla#, _a seduction_ (#com-#, √#rup-#, _spoil_, _ruin_); #tū-tēla#, _protection_ (√#tū-#, _watch_, _protect_).

(5.) #-mā-# (N. #-ma#), #-nā-# (N. #-na#); #-trī-nā-# (N. #-trī-na#).

231. #-mā-# and #-nā-# are rare, and denote result or something concrete. #-mā-#, N. #-ma#: #fā-mā-#, N. #fā-ma#, _tale_ (√#fā-#, _tell_); #-nā#, N. #-na#: #ur-na#, _pitcher_ (√#urc-# in #urc-eus#, _pitcher_, 170, 3); with original suffix #-sna# (170, 2): #lū-na#, _moon_ (√#lūc-#, _light_); #scāla#, _stairs_ (√#scand-#, _mount_).

232. #-inā-#, N. #-ina#: #ang-inā-#, N. #ang-ina#, _choking_ (√#ang-#, _choke_); #pāg-ina#, _page_ (√#pāg-#, _fasten_); #sarc-ina#, _package_ (√#sarc-#, _patch_). #-īnā-#, N. #-īna# (202): #ru-īnā-#, N. #ru-īna#, _downfall_ (√#ru-#, _tumble_); #-īnā-# is very common in denominatives: #pisc-īna#, _fish-pond_ (#pisci-#).

233. #-trī-nā-#, N. #-trī-na#, akin to the agent in #-tōr-#: #doc-trīnā-#, N. #doc-trīna#, _teaching_, either _the act of teaching_ or _what is taught_ (√#doc-#, _teach_); #sū-trīna#, _shoemaking_, _shoemaker’s trade_, _shoemaker’s shop_ (√#sū-#, _sew_).

(6.) #-tā-# or #-sā-# (N. #-ta# or #-sa#); #-tu-# or #-su-# (N. #-tu-s# or #-su-s#).

234. #-tā-#, N. #-ta#, or #-sā-#, N. #-sa# (159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, _mark_ (√#gno-#, _know_); #por-ta# (_passage_), _gate_ (√#por-#, _fare_); #fos-sa#, _ditch_ (√#fod-#, _dig_); #repul-sa#, _repulse_ (#re-#, √#pol-#, _push_); #offēn-sa#, _offence_ (#ob#, √#fend-#, _strike_).

235. #-tu-#, N. #-tu-s#, or #-su-#, N. #-su-s# (159, 202), denotes the action and its results: #ques-tu-#, N. #ques-tu-s#, _complaint_ (√#ques-#, _complain_); #gem-itus#, _groan_ (√#gem-#, _groan_). Stems in #-ā-tu-#, N. #-ā-tu-s#, sometimes denote office or officials: #cōnsul-ātu-#, N. #cōnsul-ātu-s#, _being consul_, _consulship_ (#cōnsul-#); #sen-ātu-s#, _senate_ (#sen-#). #-tu-# is seldom passive: #vī-su-s#, active, _sight_, passive, _looks_ (√#vīd-#, _see_); #apparā-tu-s#, _preparation_, either _a getting ready_, or _what is got ready_ (#apparā-re#). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in #-tu-# (#-su-#). Most words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).

[Erratum:
234 ... as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, _mark_
#no tā-# with invisible hyphen]

(7.) #-er-# for #-es-# (N. #-us#); #-ōr-# (N. #-or#).

236. Neuter stems in #-er-# (for #-es-#), or in #-or-# (for #-os-#), N. #-us#, denote result, or have a concrete meaning: #gen-er-#, N. #gen-us#, _birth_, _race_ (√#gen-#, _beget_); #op-er-#, N. #op-us#, _work_ (√#op-#, _work_); #frīg-or-#, N. #frīg-us#, _cold_ (√#frīg-#, _cold_). #-ēs# with lengthened #ē# is sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as, #nūb-ēs#, _cloud_ (√#nūb-#, _veil_); #sēd-ēs#, _seat_ (√#sēd-#); #vāt-ēs#, _bard_. #-n-er-#, #-n-or-#, N. #-n-us#: #vol-ner-#, N. #vol-nus#, _wound_ (√#vol-#, _tear_); #fac-inor-#, N. #fac-inus#, _deed_ (√#fac-#, _do_, 202).

237. #-ōr-# (for an older form #-ōs-#, 154), N. #-ōs#, commonly #-or#, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in #-ōr-# have a parallel verb, usually in #-ēre# (368), and an adjective in #-ido-# (287).

#od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, _smell_ (√#od-#, _smell_, cf. #olē-re#); #pall-or#, _paleness_ (cf. #pallē-re#); #cal-or#, _warmth_ (cf. #calē-re#); #ūm-or#, _moisture_ (cf. #ūmē-re#); #am-or#, _love_ (cf. #amā-re#); #ang-or#, _choking_, _anguish_ (√#ang-#, _choke_).

[Erratum:
237 ... #od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, _smell_
#od-ōr-# N.]

III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.

238. The suffixes #-men-to-#, #-tro-#, #-cro-# or #-culo-#, #-lo-#, #-bro-# or #-bulo-#, are used to denote the _Instrument_ or _Means_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

ōrnā-mento- ōrnāmentum, _embellishment_ ōrnā-re, _embellish_
arā-tro- arātrum, _plough_ arā-re, _plough_
pō-culo- pōculum, _drinking-cup_ √+pō-+, _drink_
pā-bulo- pābulum, _fodder_ √+pā-+, _feed_

239. #-men-to-#, N. #-men-tu-m# (202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.

#pig-mento-#, N. #pig-mentu-m#, _paint_ (√#pīg-#, _paint_); #experī-mentu-m#, _test_ (#experī-rī#); #ōrnā-mentu-m#, _ornament_ (#ōrnā-re#); #frag-mentu-m#, _fragment_ (√#frag-#, _break_); #cae-mentu-m#, _quarried stone_ (√#caed-#, _cut_); #incrē-mentu-m#, _growth_ (#in#, √#crē-#, _grow_); #al-imentu-m#, _nourishment_ (√#al-#, _nurture_); #doc-umentu-m#, _lesson_ (√#doc-#, _teach_). See also #-min-# (224). #-men-tā-#, N. #-men-ta#, F., is rare: #ful-menta#, _prop_ (√#fulc-#, _prop_); #rā-menta#, _scraping_ (√#rād-#, _scrape_).

240. #-tro-#, N. #-tru-m# (202): #arā-tro-#, N. #arā-tru-m#, _plough_ (#arā-re#); #fer-etru-m#, _bier_ (√#fer-#, _bear_); #rōs-tru-m#, _beak_ (√#rōd-#, _peck_). Sometimes #-stro-#: #mōn-stru-m#, _warning_ (√#mon-#, _mind_); #lu-stra#, plural, _fen_, _jungle_ (√#lu-#, _wash_); #lū-stru-m#, _purification_ (√#lou-#, _wash_). #-trā-#, N. #-tra#, F.: #mulc-trā-#, N. #mulc-tra# (also #mulc-tru-m#, Ne.), _milking-pail_ (√#mulg-#, _milk_). #-es-trā-#: #fen-estra#, _window_.

241. #-cro-#, N. #-cru-m#, used when an #l# precedes: #ful-cro-#, N. #ful-cru-m#, _couch-leg_ (√#fulc-#, _prop_). #-cro-# sometimes denotes the place where: #ambulā-cru-m#, _promenade_ (#ambulā-re#); sometimes the effect: #simulā-cru-m#, _likeness_ (#simulā-re#).

242. #-culo-#, N. #-culu-m# (202): #pō-culo-#, N. #pō-culu-m#, _cup_ (√#pō-#, _drink_); #fer-culu-m#, _tray_ (√#fer-#, _bear_). #-culo-# sometimes denotes the place where: #cub-iculu-m#, _sleeping-room_ (√#cub-#, _lie_); #cēnā-culu-m#, originally _dining-room_, usually _garret_ (#cēnā-re#).

243. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-m-# (202): chiefly after #c# or #g#: #vinc-ulo-#, N. #vinc-ulu-m#, _bond_ (√#vinc-#, _bind_); #cing-ulu-m#, _girdle_ (√#cing-#, _gird_). #-u-lā-#, N. #-u-la#, F., #rēg-ula#, _rule_ (√#rēg-#, _guide_).

244. #-bro-#, N. #-bru-m# (202): #crī-bro-#, N. #crī-bru-m#, _sieve_ (√#cer-#, #crī-#, _sift_); #lā-bru-m#, _wash-basin_ (√#lav-#, _wash_). #-brā-#, N. #-bra#, F.: #dolā-bra#, _chisel_, _mattock_ (#dolā-re#); #late-bra#, _hiding-place_ (√#lat-#, _hide_).

245. #-bulo-#, N. #-bulu-m# (202): #pā-bulo-#, N. #pā-bulu-m#, _fodder_ (√#pā-#, _keep_); #vēnā-bulu-m#, _hunting-spear_ (#vēnā-rī#); #pat-ibulu-m#, _pillory_ (√#pat-#, _stretch_). #-bulo-# sometimes denotes the place where: #sta-bulu-m#, _standing-place_, _stall_ (√#sta-#, _stand_). #-bulā-#, N. #-bula#, F., rare: #sū-bula#, _awl_ (√#su-#, _sew_); #ta-bula#, _board_ (√#ta-#, _stretch_); #fā-bula#, _talk_ (√#fā-#, _talk_).

(B.) DENOMINATIVES.

I. THE QUALITY.

246. The suffixes #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-tā-#, #-tāt-#, #-tūt-#, #-tū-din-#, are used to denote the _Quality_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

conlēg-io- conlēgium, _colleagueship_ conlēgā-, N. conlēga,
_colleague_
audāc-iā- audācia, _boldness_ audāci-, N. audāx, _bold_
cīvi-tāt- cīvitās, _citizenship_ cīvi-, N. cīvis, _citizen_
magni-tūdin- magnitūdō, _greatness_ magno-, N. magnus, _great_

247. These abstracts are feminine, and come chiefly from adjectives or participles, except those in #-io-#, which are neuters, and come mostly from substantives. Sometimes the same stem takes two or more of these suffixes: as, #clāri-tāt-# or #clāri-tūdin-#, _brightness_ (#clāro-#); #iuven-tūt-#, in poetry #iuven-tāt-# or #iuven-tā-#, _youth_ (#iuven-#).

(1.) #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#), #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iēs#).

248. #-iē-# sometimes occurs as collateral form to #-iā-# (604); #-io-# or #-iā-# is sometimes attached to other suffixes: thus, #-t-io-#, #-t-iā-# (#-t-iē-#); #-mōn-io-#, #-mōn-iā-#; #-cin-io-#.

249. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, chiefly used in compounds, denotes _belonging to_, with a very wide range of meaning; many of these words are clearly neuter adjectives in #-io-# (305). Suffixed to personal names #-io-# often denotes the condition, action, or employment, which gives rise to the name; this meaning sometimes passes over to that of result, relation of persons, collection of persons, or place.

250. (_a._) From simple noun stems: #sen-io-#, N. #sen-iu-m#, _feeble old age_ (#sen-#); #somn-iu-m#, _dream_ (#somno-#); #sāv-iu-m#, _love-kiss_ (#suāvi-#); #silent-iu-m#, _silence_ (#silenti-#); #crepund-ia#, plural, _rattle_ (#*crepundo-#); #mendāc-iu-m#, _lie_ (#mendāci-#); #sōlāc-iu-m#, _comfort_ (#*sōlāci-#, _comforting_).

251. (_b._) Direct compounds (377): #aequinoct-iu-m#, _equinox_ (#aequo-#, #nocti-#); #contubern-iu-m#, _companionship_ (#com-#, #tabernā-#); #prīvilēg-iu-m#, _special enactment_ (#prīvo-#, #lēg-#).

252. (_c._) Indirect compounds (377), chiefly from personal names: #cōnsil-iu-m#, _deliberating together_, _faculty of deliberation_, _conclusion_, _advice_, _deliberative body_ (#cōnsul-#); #auspic-iu-m#, _taking auspices_, _auspices taken_ (#auspic-#); #rēmig-iu-m#, _rowing_, _oars_, _oarsmen_ (#rēmig-#); #conlēg-iu-m#, _colleagueship_, _corporation_ (#conlēgā-#); #aedific-iu-m#, _building_ (#*aedific-#, _builder_); #perfug-iu-m#, _asylum_ (#perfugā-#).

253. #-t-io-# N. #-t-iu-m#, rare: #servi-tio-#, N. #servi-tiu-m#, _slavery_, _slaves_ (#servo-#); #calvi-tiu-m#, _baldness_ (#calvo-#).

254. #-mōn-io-#, N. #-mōn-iu-m# (202): #testi-mōnio-#, N. #testi-mōniu-m#, _evidence_ (#testi-#); #mātr-imōniu-m#, _marriage_ (#mātr-#); #patr-imōniu-m#, _patrimony_ (#patr-#).

255. #-cin-io-#, N. #-cin-iu-m#, rare: #latrō-cinio-#, N. #latrō-ciniu-m#, _robbery_ (#latrōn-#); #patrō-ciniu-m#, _protection_ (#patrōno-#).

256. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#, is very common indeed, forming abstracts from nouns, mostly adjectives or present participles.

#audāc-iā-#, N. #audāc-ia#, _boldness_ (#audāci-#); #miser-ia#, _wretchedness_ (#misero-#); #abundant-ia#, _plenty_ (#abundanti-#); #scient-ia#, _knowledge_ (#scienti-#); #mīlit-ia#, _warfare_ (#mīlit-#); #victōr-ia#, _victory_ (#victōr-#); #māter-ia#, _timber_ (#māter-#); #custōd-ia#, _guard_ (#custōd-#).

257. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#: #pauper-iē-#, N. #pauper-iē-s#, _moderate means_ (#pauper-#). Most stems in #-iē-# are primitive (222).

258. #-t-iā-#, N. #-t-ia#, is suffixed to a few adjective stems, chiefly in #-o-#: #iūsti-tiā-#, N. #iūsti-tia#, _justice_ (#iūsto-#); #mali-tia#, _wickedness_ (#malo-#); #pudīci-tia#, _shamefastness_ (#pudīco-#); #trīsti-tia#, _sadness_ (#trīsti-#).

259. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#, particularly as a collateral form of #-t-iā-# in the N., Ac., and Ab. singular (604): #molli-tiē-#, N. #molli-tiē-s#, _softness_ (#molli-#).

260. #-mōn-iā-#, N. #-mōn-ia# (202): #ācri-mōniā-#, N. #ācri-mōnia#, _sharpness_ (#ācri-#); #parsi-mōnia#, _economy_ (#parso-#). Analogously from roots, #quer-imōnia#, _complaint_ (√#ques-#, _complain_); #al-imōnia#, _nurture_ (√#al-#, _nurture_).

(2.) #-tā-# (N. #-ta#), #-tāt-# (N. #-tā-s#), #-tūt-# (N. #-tū-s#), #-tū-din-# (N. #-tū-dō#).

261. #-tā-#, N. #-ta#: chiefly poetic: #iuven-tā-#, N. #iuven-ta#, _youth_ (#iuven-#); #senec-ta#, _age_ (#sen-ec-#).

262. #-tāt-#, N. #-tā-s# (202), is one of the very commonest suffixes.

#pie-tāt-#, N. #pie-tā-s#, _dutifulness_ (#pio-#, 105); #fēlīci-tā-s#, _happiness_ (#fēlīci-#); #cīvi-tā-s#, _citizenship_, _the community_ (#cīvi-#); #facili-tā-s#, _easiness_, #facul-tā-s#, _ability_ (#facili-#); #cāri-tā-s#, _dearness_ (#cāro-#); #auctōr-itā-s#, _authority_ (#auctōr-#); #līber-tā-s#, _freedom_ (#lībro-#, 111, _b_); #maies-tā-s#, _grandeur_ (#maiōs-#); #volun-tā-s#, _wish_ (#*volunti-#, 179); #venus-tā-s#, _grace_ (#venusto-#, 179); #ae-tā-s#, _age_ (#aevo-#, 111, _a_); #tempes-tā-s#, _kind of time_, _weather_ (#tempes-#).

263. #-tūt-#, N. #-tū-s#, only in #iuven-tūt-#, N. #iuven-tū-s#, _youth_ (#iuven-#), #senec-tū-s#, _age_ (#senec-#), #servi-tū-s#, _slavery_ (#servo-#), and #vir-tū-s#, _manhood_ (#viro-#, 111).

264. #-tū-din-#, N. #-tū-dō#, suffixed to adjective stems: #magni-tūdin-#, N. #magni-tūdō#, _greatness_ (#magno-#); #forti-túdō#, _courage_ (#forti-#); and to a few participles: #cōnsuē-tūdō#, _custom_ (#cōnsuēto-#, 179); #sollici-tūdō#, _anxiety_ (#sollicito-#); analogously #valē-tūdō#, _health_ (#*valēto-#, #valēre#).

II. THE PERSON CONCERNED.

265. The suffixes #-ārio-#, #-ōn-#, #-iōn-#, #-li-#, #-no-#, and some others, are used to denote the _Person concerned_ or _occupied_ with a thing: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

sīc-ārio- sīcārius, _assassin_ sīcā-, N. sīca, _dagger_
āle-ōn- āleō, _gambler_ āleā-, N. ālea, _die_
lūd-iōn- lūdiō, _player_ lūdo-, N. lūdus, _play_
aedī-li- aedīlis, _aedile_ aedi-, N. aedis, _house_
tribū-no- tribūnus, _tribune_ tribu-, N tribus, _tribe_

III. THE PLACE.

266. Neuters with the suffixes #-tōrio-#, #-ārio-#, #-īli-#, #-to-#, or #-ēto-# are often used to denote the _Place_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

audī-tōrio- audī-tōrium, _lecture-room_ audītōr-, N. audītor,
_hearer_
aer-ārio- aerārium, _treasury_ aer-, N. aes, _money_
ov-īli- ovīle, _sheepfold_ ovi-, N. ovis, _sheep_
murt-ēto- murtēta, _myrtlegroves_ murto-, N. murtus, _myrtle_

IV. DIMINUTIVES.

267. The suffixes #-lo-#, #-lā-#, or #-cu-lo-#, #-cu-lā-#, are used to form substantives with a _Diminutive_ meaning. Diminutives may denote:

268. (1.) Actual smallness: as, #secūricula#, _a little hatchet_; #ventulus#, _a bit of wind_; #spēcula#, _a ray of hope_.

269. (2.) Imputed smallness: implying, (_a._) admiration, affection, or compassion; (_b._) contempt or irony. This diminutive, which usually serves to add point to sentences themselves of a playful, patronizing, or slurring character, is very hard to translate; _little_ and _small_ are often inadequate; _old_ or _poor_ will sometimes do; but usually recourse must be had to free translations adapted to the particular context: as,

#ōrātiuncula#, _a gem of a speech_, _an attempt at a speech_; #mātercula#, _an anxious mother_, _poor mamma_, _dear mamma_; #lectulus#, _one’s own little bed_; #ānellus aureolus#, _a gay gold ring_; #Graeculī#, _our Greek cousins_, _the good people in Greece_; #Graeculus#, _a regular Greek_, _your gentleman from Greece_; #muliercula#, _a pretty girl_, _a lady gay_, _one of the gentler sex_, _a mere woman_, _an unprotected female_, _a maiden all forlorn_; #lacrimula#, _a wee tear_, _a crocodile tear_; #volpēcula#, _Master Reynard_, _dan Russel_; #tōnstrīcula#, _a common barber girl_; #popellus#, _rabble_; #nummulī#, _filthy lucre_; #mercēdula#, _an apology for pay_; #ratiuncula#, _a first rate reason_; #caupōnula#, _a low tavern_.

270. Some diminutives have entirely lost the diminutive meaning: as, #puella#, _girl_, not necessarily _little girl_; others have changed their original meaning: as, #avunculus#, _uncle_, originally _grandpapa_; #anguīlla#, _eel_, originally _little snake_. Some words are only found in the diminutive form: as, #stēlla#, _star_ (#*ster-#). Diminutives usually have the gender of their primitives; exceptions are rare: as, #rāna#, _frog_, #F.#, #rānunculus#, _tadpole_, #M.#

[Erratum:
270 ... #F.# ... #M.#
anomalous boldface in original]

(1.) #-lo-# (N., M. #-lu-s#, Ne. #-lu-m#), #-lā-# (N. #-la#).

271. Stems in #-o-#, #-ā-#, or a mute (#-g-#, #-c-#, #-d-#, or #-t-#), take #-lo-# or #-lā-#, which is usually preceded by #-u-# (202).

#hortu-lo-#, N. #hortu-lu-s#, _little garden_ (#horto-#); #oppidu-lu-m#, _hamlet_ (#oppido-#); #serru-lā-#, N. #serru-la#, _little saw_ (#serrā-#); #rēg-ulu-s#, _chieftain_ (#rēg-#); #vōc-ula#, _a bit of a voice_ (#vōc-#); #calc-ulu-s#, _pebble_ (#calci-#); #nepōt-ulu-s#, _a grandson dear_ (#nepōt-#); #aetāt-ula#, _tender age_ (#aetāt-#).

272. Stems in #-eo-#, #-io-#, or #-vo-#, retain #-o-# before #-lo-#; stems in #-eā-#, #-iā-#, or #-vā-#, also have #-o-# before #-lā-#.

#alveo-lo-#, N. #alveo-lu-s#, _little tray_ (#alveo-#); #gladio-lu-s#, _little sword_ (#gladio-#); #servo-lu-s#, _little slave_ (#servo-#); #nauseo-lā-#, N. #nauseo-la#, _a slight squeamishness_ (#nauseā-#); #bēstio-la#, _little animal_ (#bēstiā-#); #fīlio-la#, _little daughter_ (#fīliā-#).

273. Stems in #-lo-#, #-ro-#, #-no-#, and #-lā-#, #-rā-#, #-nā-#, commonly drop the stem vowel and assimilate #-r-# or #-n-# to #-l-#: thus: #-el-lo-#, #-el-lā-# (111, _b_; 166, 6, 7).

#catel-lo-#, for #*catululo-#, N. #catel-lu-s#, _puppy_ (#catulo-#); #agel-lu-s#, _little field_ (#agro-#); #asel-lu-s#, _donkey_ (#asino-#); #fābel-lā-#, N. #fābel-la#, _short story_ (#fābulā-#); #umbel-la#, _sunshade_ (#umbrā-#); #pāgel-la#, _short page_ (#pāginā-#). A few words are not thus changed: #pueru-lo-#, N. #pueru-lu-s#, _poor boy_ (#puero-#), as well as #puel-lu-s#.

274. Another vowel than #e# (172, 3) appears in: #Hispāl-lu-s# (#Hispāno-#), #Messāl-la# (#Messānā-#), proper names; #corōl-la#, _chaplet_ (#corōnā-#); #ūl-lu-s#, _the least one_, _any at all_ (#ūno-#); #Sūl-la# (#Sūrā-#), proper name; #lapil-lu-s#, for #*lapid-lu-s#, _pebble_ (#lapid-#). Also #homul-lu-s#, _son of the dust_ (#homon-#).

[Erratum:
273 ... #-el-lo-#, #-el-lā-# (111, _b_; 166, 6, 7).
111; _b_;]

(2.) #-cu-lo-# (N., M. #-cu-lu-s#, Ne. #-cu-lu-m#), #-cu-lā-# (N. #-cu-la#).

275. Stems in a continuous sound (#-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#), or in #-i-#, #-u-#, or #-ē-#, usually take #-cu-lo-# or #-cu-lā-#.

#sermūn-culo-#, N. #sermūn-culu-s#, _small-talk_ (#sermōn-#); #virgun-culā-#, N. #virgun-cula#, _little maid_ (#virgon-#); #homun-culu-s#, _son of earth_ (#homon-#); #arbus-cula#, _tiny tree_ (#arbos-#); #cor-culu-m#, _heart of hearts_ (#cord-#, 170, 12); #igni-culu-s#, _spark_ (#igni-#); #ani-cula#, _grandam_ (#anu-#); #diē-cula#, _brief day_ (#diē-#); analogously, #volpē-cula# (_vixen_), _little fox_ (#*volpē-#). Rarely with #ī#: #canī-cula#, _little dog_ (#can-#).

276. #-un-culo-#, N. #-un-culu-s#: #av-unculo-#, N. #av-unculu-s#, _uncle_ (#avo-#); #rān-unculu-s#, _tadpole_ (#rānā-#). #-un-culā-#, N. #-un-cula#: #dom-unculā-#, N. #dom-uncula#, _little house_ (#domo-#).

277. Diminutives are sometimes formed from other diminutives: #cistel-lu-la#, _casket_ (#cistel-la#, #cistu-la#, #cistā-#).

278. A few other suffixes have a diminutive meaning: as, #-ciōn-#, #-leo-#, #-astro-#, #-ttā-#: #homun-ciō#, _manikin_, _child of dust_ (#homon-#); #acu-leu-s#, _sting_ (#acu-#); #Antōni-aster#, _regular little Antony_; #pīn-aster#, _bastard pine_; #Iūli-tta#, _Juliet_ (#Iūliā-#); #Pōlli-tta#, _little Polla_ (#Pōllā-#).

V. PATRONYMICS.

279. Patronymics, or proper names which denote descent from a father or ancestor, have stems in #-dā-# (N. #-dē-s#), F. #-d-# (N. #-s#). These are chiefly Greek names used in poetry.

#Prīami-dā-#, N. #Prīami-dē-s#, _scion of Priam’s house_; #Tantali-d-#, N. #Tantali-s#, _daughter of Tantalus_. #Pēlī-dē-s# (#Pēleu-s#); #Aenea-dē-s# (#Aenēā-#); #Thestia-dē-s# (#Thestio-#); #Lāertia-dē-s# (#Lāertā-#); #Scīpia-dā-s# (#Scīpiōn-#). #F.# sometimes #-īnē# or #-ōnē#: #Neptūnīnē# (#Neptūno-#); #Acrisiōnē# (#Acrisio-#).

II. THE ADJECTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

280. Primitive adjectives may usually be divided into active and passive; but the same suffix often has either an active or a passive meaning. Under primitive adjectives belong the participles; but these will be mentioned in connection with the verb.

I. WITH AN ACTIVE MEANING.

281. The suffixes #-o-#, #-uo-#, #-ci-#, #-lo-#, and #-do-#, are used to form adjectives with an _Active_ meaning: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

vag-o- vagus, _wandering_ √+vag-+, _wander_
contig-uo- contiguus, _touching_ com-, √+tag-+, _touch_
minā-ci- mināx, _threatening_ minā-rī, _threaten_
cali-do- calidus, _warm_ √+cal-+, _warm_

(1.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#); #-uo-# (N. #-uu-s#).

282. #-o-# (N. #-u-s#): such words express nature or capacity: #vag-o-#, N. #vag-u-s#, _roaming_ (√#vag-#, _roam_); #vīv-u-s#, _living_ (√#vīv-#, _live_); many are compounds: as, #male-dic-u-s#, _abusive_ (#male#, √#dic-#, _say_); #pro-fug-u-s#, _flying on_ (#prō-#, √#fug-#, _fly_). Passive: #fīd-u-s#, _trustworthy_ (√#fīd-#, _trust_).

283. #-uo-#, N. #-uu-s#: #adsid-uo-#, N. #adsid-uu-s#, _unremitting_ (#ad#, √#sed-#, _sit_); #contig-uu-s#, _touching_ (#com-#, √#tag-#, _touch_); #perpet-uu-s#, _uninterrupted_ (#per#, √#pet-#, _go_). Some words are passive: as, #sal-vu-s#, _safe_ (√#sal-#, _save_); #vac-uu-s#, _empty_ (√#vac-#, _empty_); #relic-uo-s#, _left behind_ (#re-#, √#liqu-#, _leave_), later #reliquos#, #relicus#, #reliquus# (157).

(2.) #-ci-# (N. #-x#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-do-# (N. #-du-s#).

284. #-ā-ci-#, N. #-ā-x# (202), denotes capacity, habit, or inclination, often implying censure: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, _full of fight_ (#pugnā-re#); #minā-x#, _threatening_ (#minā-ri#); #fer-āx#, _productive_ (√#fer-#, _bear_); #dic-āx#, _full of mother-wit_, _quick at a joke_ (√#dic-#, _say_); #rap-āx#, _apt to snatch_ (√#rap-#, _snatch_).

285. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202), denotes simple action: as, #pat-ulo-#, N. #pat-ulu-s#, _spreading_ (√#pat-#, _spread_); or inclination: as, #bib-ulu-s#, _apt to drink_ (√#bib-#, _drink_).

286. The suffixes #-undo-# (#-endo-#), #-bundo-#, and #-cundo-# form a group and are possibly related to the suffix in #-do-#.

287. #-do-#, N. #-du-s# (202), denotes a state, and usually has a parallel verb in #-ēre# (368): #cali-do-#, N. #cali-du-s# _warm_ (cf. #calē-re#); #calli-du-s#, _knowing_ (cf. #callē-re#); #niti-du-s#, _shining_ (cf. #nitē-re#); rarely in #-ere#: #cup-idu-s#, _desirous_ (cf. #cupe-re#); #flui-du-s#, _liquid_ (cf. #flue-re#); #rapi-du-s#, _hurried_ (cf. #rape-re#). #-i-do-# becomes #-i-di-# in #viri-di-s#, _green_ (cf. #virē-re#). #-do-# sometimes occurs in denominatives: #herbi-du-s#, _grassy_ (#herbā-#).

288. #-undo-# (#-endo-#), N. #-undu-s#, (#-endu-s#) is the suffix of the gerundive, which was originally neither active nor passive (2238). In a few words from reflexives, which have become adjectives, it has a reflexive or active meaning: #lāb-undo-#, N. #lāb-undu-s#, _gliding_, _slipping_ (#lābī#); #ori-undu-s#, _arising_ (#orīrī#); #sec-undu-s#, _following_ (#sequī#); #volv-endu-s#, _rolling_ (_volvī_). See 899.

289. #-bundo-#, N. #-bundu-s# (202), has the meaning of an exaggerated present participle: #freme-bundo-#, N. #freme-bundu-s#, _muttering away_ (√#frem-#, _roar_); #treme-bundu-s#, _all in a flutter_ (√#trem-#, _quiver_); #fur-ibundu-s#, _hot with rage_ (√#fur-#, _rave_); #cōntiōnā-bundu-s#, _speaking a speech_ (#cōntiōnā-rī#); #minitā-bundu-s#, _breathing out threatenings_ (#minitā-rī#); #vītā-bundu-s#, _forever dodging_ (#vītā-re#).

290. #-cundo-#, N. #-cundu-s#, denotes permanent quality: #fā-cundo-#, N. #fā-cundu-s#, _eloquent_ (√#fā-#, _speak_); #īrā-cundu-s#, _choleric_ (#īrā-scī#); #iū-cundu-s#, _pleasant_, _interesting_ (√#iuv-#, _help_).

II. WITH A PASSIVE MEANING.

291. The suffixes #-li-#, #-ti-li-#, #-bili-#, #-tīvo-#, #-no-#, and #-mino-#, are used to form adjectives with a _Passive_ meaning: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

fac-ili- facilis, _easy to do_ √+fac-+, _do_
duc-tili- ductilis, _ductile_ √+duc-+, _draw_
amā-bili- amābilis, _lovable_ amā-re, _love_
mag-no- magnus, _great_ √+mag-+, _increase_

(1.) #-li-#, (N. #-li-s#); #-ti-li-#, #-bili-# (N. #-ti-li-s#, #-bili-s#).

292. #-i-li-#, N. #-i-li-s# (202), denotes passive capability: #fac-ili-#, N. #fac-ili-s#, _easy to do_ (√#fac-#, _do_); #frag-ili-s#, _breakable_, _frail_ (√#frag-#, _break_); #hab-ili-s#, _manageable_, _handy_ (√#hab-#, _hold_); #nūb-ili-s#, _marriageable_ (√#nūb-#, _veil_).

293. #-ti-li-#, N. #-ti-li-s#, or #-si-li-#, N. #-si-li-s# (159), denotes capability or quality: as, #duc-tili#, N. #duc-tili-s#, _capable of being drawn out_, _ductile_ (√#duc-#, _draw_); #fis-sili-s#, _cleavable_ (√#fid-#, _split_); #rā-sili-s#, _scraped_ (√#rād-#, _scrape_). Rarely active: as, #fer-tili-s#, _productive_ (√#fer-#, _bear_).

294. #-bili-#, N. #-bili-s# (202), denotes passive capability like #-i-li-#, but is far more common: #horr-ibili-s#, _exciting a shudder_ (cf. #horrē-re#); #amā-bili-s#, _lovable_ (#amā-re#); #flē-bili-s#, _lamentable_ (√#flē-#, _weep_). Rarely active: as, #sta-bili-s#, _that can stand_ (√#sta-#, _stand_); #penetrā-bili-s#, _piercing_ (#penetrā-re#). #-ti-bili-# (159), passive, rare: #flexibili-s#, _flexible_ (√#flec-#, _bend_, 960).

295. #-tīvo-#, N. #-tīvu-s#, denotes the way a thing originated: as, #cap-tīvu-s#, _captive_ (√#cap-#, _take_); #sta-tīvu-s#, _set_ (√#sta-#, _set_).

(2.) #-no-# (N. #-nu-s#); #-mino-# (N. #-minu-s#).

296. #-no-#, N. #-nu-s#, an old passive participle suffix, denotes result: #mag-nu-s# (_enlarged_), _great_ (√#mag-#, _great_); #plē-nus#, _full_ (√#plē-#, _fill_). Neuter as substantive: #dō-nu-m#, _gift_ (√#dō-#, _give_). Sometimes active: #egē-nu-s#, _needy_ (#egē-re#, 192).