Chapter XIII: Part 13

1373. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is occasionally used in agreement with a sentence or an infinitive: as, #cōgnitō vīvere Ptolomaeum#, L. 33, 41, 5, _it being known that Ptolomy was alive_. This construction is not used in old Latin, and is rare in classical Latin, but common in Livy and Tacitus. So adjectives also: as, #incertō quid vītārent#, L. 28, 36, 12, _it not being obvious what they were to steer clear of_.

1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus, by an explanatory word, such as #etsī#, #tamen#, #nisi#, #quasi#, #quamquam#, or #quamvīs#: as, #etsī aliquō acceptō dētrīmentō, tamen summā exercitūs salvā#, Caes. _C._ 1, 67, 5, _though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a whole_.

THE ABLATIVE OF QUALITY.

1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively or attributively: as,

(_a._) Predicatively: #capillō sunt prōmissō#, 5, 14, 3, _they have long hair_, or _let their hair grow long_. #singulārī fuit industriā#, N. 24, 3, 1, _he had unparalleled activity_. #animō bonō’s#, Pl. _Aul._ 732, _be of good cheer_. #ad flūmen Genusum, quod rīpīs erat impedītīs#, Caes. _C._ 3, 75, 4, _to the river Genusus, which had impracticable banks_. (_b._) Attributively: #difficilī trānsitū flūmen rīpīsque praeruptīs#, 6, 7, 5, _a river hard to cross and with steep banks_. #interfectus est C. Gracchus, clārissimō patre, avō, maiōribus#, _C._ 1, 4, _Gracchus was done to death, a man with an illustrious father, grandfather, and ancestors in general_ (1044). #bōs cervī figūrā#, 6, 26, 1, _an ox with the shape of a stag_. Compare the genitive of quality (1239).

THE ABLATIVE OF THE ROUTE TAKEN.

1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to denote the route taken: as,

#Aurēliā viā profectus est#, _C._ 2, 6, _he has gone off by the Aurelia Road_. #omnibus viīs sēmitīsque essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat#, 5, 19, 2, _he kept sending his chariot men out by all possible highways and byways_. #hīs pontibus pābulātum mittēbat#, Caes. _C._ 1, 40, 1, _by these bridges he sent foraging_. #frūmentum Tiberī vēnit#, L. 2, 34, 5, _some grain came by the Tiber_. #lupus Ēsquilīna portā ingressus per portam Capēnam prope intāctus ēvāserat#, L. 33, 26, 9, _a wolf that came in town by the Esquiline gate had got out through the Capene gate, almost unscathed_. This construction gives rise to some adverbs: see 707. The ablative of the route is sometimes used with a substantive of action (1301): as, #nāvigātiō īnferō#, _Att._ 9, 5, 1, _the cruise by the lower sea_. #eōdem flūmine invectiō#, _Fin._ 5, 70, _entrance by the same river_.

(B.) THE INSTRUMENTAL PROPER.

THE ABLATIVE OF INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.

1377. The ablative is used to denote the instrument or means: as,

#pugnābant armīs#, H. _S._ 1, 3, 103, _they fought with arms_. #clārē oculīs videō, sum pernīx pedibus, manibus mōbilis#, Pl. _MG._ 630, _I can see distinctly with my eyes, I’m nimble with my legs, and active with my arms_. #iuvābō aut rē tē aut operā aut cōnsiliō bonō#, Pl. _Ps._ 19, _I’ll help thee either with my purse or hand or good advice_. #lacte et carne vīvunt, pellibusque sunt vestītī#, 5, 14, 2, _they live on milk and meat, and they are clad in skins_. #contentus paucīs lēctōribus#, H. _S._ 1, 10, 74, _content with readers few_. #centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat#, V. 10, 207, _and with an hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites_. Rarely with substantives denoting action (1301): as, #gestōrēs linguīs, audītōrēs auribus#, Pl. _Ps._ 429, _reporters with their tongues and listeners with their ears_. #tenerīs labellīs mollēs morsiunculae#, Pl. _Ps._ 67^a, _caressing bites with velvet lips_.

1378. When the instrument is a person, the accusative with #per# is used: as, #haec quoque per explōrātōrēs ad hostēs dēferuntur#, 6, 7, 9, _this too is reported to the enemy through the medium of scouts_. Or a circumlocution, such as #virtūte#, #beneficiō#, #benignitāte#, or especially #operā#, with a genitive or possessive; as, #deūm virtūte multa bona bene parta habēmus#, Pl. _Tri._ 346, _thanks to the gods, we’ve many a pretty penny prettily put by_. #meā operā Tarentum recēpistī#, _CM._ 11, _It was through me you got Tarentum back_. Rarely the ablative of a person, the person being then regarded as a thing: as, #iacent suīs testibus#, _Mil._ 47, _they are cast by their own witnesses_.

1379. The instrumental ablative is used with the five deponents #fruor#, #fungor#, #potior#, #ūtor#, #vēscor#, and several of their compounds, and with #ūsus est# and #opus est#: as,

#pāce numquam fruēmur#, _Ph._ 7, 19, _we never shall enjoy ourselves with peace_, i.e. _we never shall enjoy peace_. #fungar vice cōtis#, H. _AP._ 304, _I’ll play the whetstone’s part_. #castrīs nostrī potītī sunt#, 1, 26, 4, _our people made themselves masters of the camp_. #vestrā operā ūtar#, L. 3, 46, 8, _I will avail myself of your services_. #carne vēscor#, _TD._ 5, 90, _I live on meat_. #opust chlamyde#, Pl. _Ps._ 734, _there is a job with a cloak_, i.e. _we need a cloak_.

1380. Instead of the instrumental ablative, some of the above verbs take the accusative occasionally in old and post-Augustan Latin: thus, in Plautus, Terence, Cato, always #abūtor#, also #fungor#, except once in Terence; #fruor# in Cato and Terence, and #perfungor# in Lucretius, once each; #potior# twice in Plautus and three times in Terence, often also the genitive (1292). The gerundive of these verbs is commonly used personally in the passive, as if the verbs were regularly used transitively (2244).

1381. #ūtor# often has a second predicative ablative: as, #administrīs druidibus ūtuntur#, 6, 16, 2, _they use the druids as assistants_. #facilī mē ūtētur patre#, T. _Hau._ 217, _an easy-going father he will find in me_.

1382. #ūsus est# and #opus est# sometimes take a neuter participle, especially in old Latin: as, #vīsō opust cautōst opus#, Pl. _Cap._ 225, _there’s need of sight, there’s need of care_. Sometimes the ablative with a predicate participle: as, #celeriter mī eō homine conventōst opus#, Pl. _Cur._ 302, _I needs must see that man at once_.

1383. With #opus est#, the thing wanted is often made the subject nominative or subject accusative, with #opus# in the predicate: as, #dux nōbīs et auctor opus est#, _Fam._ 2, 6, 4, _we need a leader and adviser_. Usually so when the thing needed is a neuter adjective or neuter pronoun: as, #multa sibī̆ opus esse#, _V._ 1, 126, _that he needed much_. A genitive dependent on #opus# is found once or twice in late Latin (1227).

1384. #ūsus est# is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero, Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative: #ūsust hominem astūtum#, Pl. _Ps._ 385, _there’s need of a sharp man_.

THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION.

1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken: as,

#temporibus errāstī#, _Ph._ 2, 23, _you have slipped up in your chronology_. #excellēbat āctiōne#, _Br._ 215, _his forte lay in delivery_. #Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt#, 1, 1, 4, _the Helvetians outdo the rest of the Kelts in bravery_. #hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt#, 1, 1, 2, _these people all differ from each other in language, usages, and laws_. #sunt quīdam hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine#, _Off._ 1, 105, _some people are human beings not in reality but in name_. #ūna Suēba nātiōne, altera Nōrica#, 1, 53, 4, _one woman a Suebe by birth, the other Noric_. #vīcistis cochleam tarditūdine#, Pl. _Poen._ 532, _you’ve beaten snail in slowness_. #dēmēns iūdiciō volgī#, H. _S._ 1, 6, 97, _mad in the judgement of the world_. #sapiunt me͡ā sententiā#, T. _Ph._ 335, _in my opinion they are wise_. #meā quidem sententiā#, _CM._ 56, _in my humble opinion_. #quis iūre perītior commemorārī potest?# _Clu._ 107, _who can be named that is better versed in the law?_

THE ABLATIVE OF FULNESS.

1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abounding, filling, and furnishing: as,

#vīlla abundat porcō, haedō, āgnō#, _CM._ 56, _the country place is running over with swine, kid, and lamb_. #tōtum montem hominibus complērī iussit#, 1, 24, 3, _he gave orders for the whole mountain to be covered over with men_. #Māgōnem poenā adfēcērunt#, N. 23, 8, 2, _they visited Mago with punishment_. #legiōnēs nimis pulcrīs armīs praeditās#, Pl. _Am._ 218, _brigades in goodliest arms arrayed_. #cōnsulārī imperiō praeditus#, _Pis._ 55, _vested with the authority of consul_. For the genitive with #compleō# and #impleō#, see 1293.

1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with #plēnus#: as, #maxima quaeque domus servīs est plēna superbīs#, J. 5, 66, _a grand establishment is always full of stuck-up slaves_. #et ille quidem plēnus annīs abiīt, plēnus honōribus#, Plin. _Ep._ 2, 1, 7, _well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years and full of honours_. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with #dīves# in poetry, and, from Livy on, in prose. With #refertus#, the ablative of things is common, while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With #onustus#, the ablative is generally used, rarely the genitive.

THE ABLATIVE OF MEASURE, EXCHANGE, AND PRICE.

1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of measuring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price: as,

(_a._) #quod magnōs hominēs virtūte mētīmur#, N. 18, 1, 1, _because we gauge great men by their merit_. (_b._) #nēmō nisi vīctor pāce bellum mūtāvit#, S. _C._ 58, 15, _nobody except a conqueror has ever exchanged war for peace_. (_c._) #haec sīgna sēstertiūm sex mīllibus quīngentīs esse vēndita#, _V._ 4, 12, _that these statues were sold for sixty-five hundred sesterces_. #aestimāvit dēnāriīs III#, _V._ 3, 214, _he valued it at three denars_. #trīgintā mīllibus dīxistis eum habitāre#, _Cael._ 17, _you have said he pays thirty thousand rent_. #quod nōn opus est, āsse cārum est#, Cato in Sen. _Ep._ 94, 28, _what you don’t need, at a penny is dear_. #hem, istūc verbum, mea voluptās, vīlest vīgintī minīs#, Pl. _Most._ 297, _bless me, that compliment, my charmer, were at twenty minas cheap_.

1389. With #mūtō# and #commūtō#, the ablative usually denotes the thing received. But sometimes in Plautus, and especially in Horace, Livy, and late prose, it denotes the thing parted with: as, #cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs?# H. 3, 1, 47, _why change my Sabine dale for wealth that brings more care?_ Similarly with #cum# in the prose of Cicero’s age: as, #mortem cum vītā commūtāre#, Sulp. in _Fam._ 4, 5, 3, _to exchange life for death_.

1390. The ablative of price or value is thus used chiefly with verbs or verbal expressions of bargaining, buying or selling, hiring or letting, costing, being cheap or dear. Also with #aestimō#, of a definite price, and sometimes #magnō#, #permagnō# (1273).

1391. The ablatives thus used, are (_a._) those of general substantives of value and price, such as #pretium#, (_b._) numerical designations of money, or (_c._) neuter adjectives of quantity, #magnō#, #permagnō#, #quam plūrimō#, #parvō#, #minimō#, #nihilō#, #nōnnihilō#: as, #magnō decumās vēndidī#, _V._ 3, 40, _I sold the tithes at a high figure_. For #tantī# and #quantī#, #plūris# and #minōris#, see 1274.

1392. The ablative is also used with #dignus# and #indignus#: as,

#dignī maiōrum locō#, _Agr._ 2, 1, _well worthy of the high standing of their ancestors_. #nūlla vōx est audīta populī Rōmānī maiestāte indigna#, 7, 17, 3, _not a word was heard out of keeping with the grandeur of Rome_. See also #dignor# in the dictionary. Similarly in Plautus with #condignē#, #decōrus#, #decet#, #aequē#, #aequos#. For the genitive with #dignus#, see 1269; for the accusative with #dignus# and a form of #sum#, 1144.

[Erratum:
1389 ... #cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs?#
operōsiōres]

THE ABLATIVE OF THE AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE.

1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote the amount of difference.

This ablative is used with any words whatever of comparative or of superlative meaning: as, #ūnō diē longiōrem mēnsem faciunt aut bīduō#, _V._ 2, 129, _they make the month longer by a day, or even by two days_. #ubī̆ adbibit plūs paulō#, T. _Hau._ 220, _when he has drunk a drop too much_. #nummō dīvitior#, Pl. _Ps._ 1323, _a penny richer_. #bīduō post#, 1, 47, 1, _two days after_. #multīs ante diēbus#, 7, 9, 4, _many days before_. #paucīs ante diēbus#, _C._ 3, 3, _a few days ago_. #nimiō praestat#, Pl. _B._ 396, _‘t is ever so much better_. #multō mālim#, _Br._ 184, _I would much rather_. #multō maxima pars#, _C._ 4, 17, _the largest part by far_.

1394. In expressions of time, the accusative is sometimes used with #post#, less frequently with #ante#, as prepositions, instead of the ablative of difference: as, #post paucōs diēs#, L. 21, 51, 2, #post diēs paucōs#, L. 37, 13, 6, #paucōs post diēs#, L. 33, 39, 2, _after a few days_. #paucōs ante diēs#, L. 39, 28, 4, #diēs ante paucōs#, L. 31, 24, 5, _a few days before_. With this prepositional construction, ordinals are common: as, #post diem tertium#, 4, 9, 1, _after the third day_, according to the Roman way of reckoning, i.e. the next day but one.

1395. (1.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a substantive, the substantive is put in the accusative with #ante# or #post#: as,

#paulō ante tertiam vigiliam#, 7, 24, 2, _a little before the third watch_. #bīduō ante vīctōriam#, _Fam._ 10, 14, 1, _the day but one before the victory_. #paucīs diēbus post mortem Āfricānī#, _L._ 3, _a few days after the death of Africanus_.

1396. Sometimes in late writers, as Tacitus, Pliny the younger, and Suetonius, a genitive is loosely used: as, #sextum post clādis annum#, Ta. 1, 62, i.e. #sextō post clādem annō#, _six years after the humiliating defeat_. #post decimum mortis annum#, Plin. _Ep._ 6, 10, 3, _ten years after his death_. Similarly #intrā sextum adoptiōnis diem#, Suet. _Galb._ 17, _not longer than six days after the adoption-day_.

1397. (2.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a sentence, the sentence may be introduced:

(_a._) By #quam#: as, #post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat#, _Mil._ 44, _it took place two days after he said it_. With #quam#, #post# is sometimes omitted. Or (_b._) less frequently by #cum#: as, #quem trīduō, cum hās dabam litterās, exspectābam#, Planc. in _Fam._ 10, 23, 3, _I am looking for him three days after this writing_ (1601). For a relative pronoun sentence, see 1354.

1398. Verbs of surpassing sometimes have an accusative of extent (1151): as, #mīrāmur hunc hominem tantum excellere cēterīs?# _IP._ 39, _are we surprised that this man so far outshines everybody else?_ With comparatives, the accusative is rare: as, #aliquantum inīquior#, T. _Hau._ 201, _somewhat too hard_. Similarly #permultum ante#, _Fam._ 3, 11, 1, _long long before_.

1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words #intervāllum# and #spatium# are regularly put in the ablative: as, #rēx VI mīlium passuum intervāllō ā Saburrā cōnsēderat#, Caes. _C._ 2, 38, 3, _the king had pitched six miles away from Saburra_. So sometimes #mīlle#: as, #mīlibus passuum VI a Caesaris castrīs sub monte cōnsēdit#, 1, 48, 1. See 1152.

[Errata:
1393 ... #multīs ante diēbus#, 7, 9, 4
diēbus.
1395 ... #bīduō ante vīctōriam#
vĭctōriam]

TWO OR MORE ABLATIVES COMBINED.

1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are often combined in the same sentence: as,

#Menippus, meō iūdiciō (1385) tōtā Asiā (1346) illīs temporibus (1350) disertissimus#, _Br._ 315, _Menippus, in my opinion the most gifted speaker of that day in all Asia_. #hāc habitā ōrātiōne (1362) mīlitibus studiō (1316) pugnae ardentibus (1370) tubā (1377) sīgnum dedit#, Caes. _C._ 3, 90, 4, _seeing that his soldiers were hot for battle after this speech, he gave the signal by trumpet_.

USE OF CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are used with prepositions.

1402. Prepositions were originally adverbs which served to define more exactly the meaning of a verb.

Thus, #endo#, _in_, _on_, the older form of #in#, is an adverb, in an injunction occurring in a law of the Twelve Tables, 451 B.C., #manum endo iacitō#, _let him lay hand on_. Similarly, #trāns#, _over_, in #trānsque datō#, _and he must hand over_, i.e. #trāditōque#.

1403. In the course of time such adverbs became verbal prefixes; the verbs compounded with them may take the case, accusative or ablative, required by the meaning of the compound. Thus, #amīcōs adeō#, _I go to my friends_ (1137); #urbe exeō#, _I go out of town_ (1302).

1404. For distinctness or emphasis, the prefix of the verb may be repeated before the case: as, #ad amīcōs adeō#; #ex urbe exeō#. And when it is thus separately expressed before the case, it may be dropped from the verb: as, #ad amīcōs eō#; #ex urbe eō#.

1405. The preposition thus detached from the verb becomes an attendant on a substantive, and serves to show the relation of the substantive in a sentence more distinctly than the case alone could.

1406. A great many adverbs which are never used in composition with a verb likewise become prepositions: as, #apud#, #circiter#, #īnfrā#, #iūxtā#, #pōne#, #propter#, &c., &c. The inflected forms of substantives, #prīdiē#, #postrīdiē# (1413), #tenus# (1420), and #fīnī# (1419), are also sometimes used as prepositions. And #vicem# (1145), #causā#, #grātiā#, #nōmine#, #ergō# (1257), resemble prepositions closely in meaning.

1407. A trace of the original adverbial use of prepositions is sometimes retained, chiefly in poetry, when the prefix is separated from its word by what is called _Tmesis_: as, #īre inque gredī#, i.e. #ingredīque#, Lucr. 4, 887, _to walk and to step off_. #per mihī̆ mīrum vīsum est#, _DO._ 1, 214, _passing strange it seemed to me_.

1408. Even such words as are used almost exclusively as prepositions sometimes retain their original adverbial meaning also: as, #adque adque#, E. in Gell. 10, 29, 2, _and up and up_, _and on and on_, or _and nearer still and still more near_. #occīsīs ad hominum mīlibus quattuor#, 2, 33, 5, _about four thousand men being killed_. #susque dēque#, _Att._ 14, 6, 1, _up and down_, _topsy turvy_, _no matter how_.

1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate prepositions with a substantive. These are called _Inseparable Prepositions_; they are: #amb-#, _round_, #an-#, _up_, #dis-#, _in two_, #por-#, _towards_, #rē̆d-#, _back_. Usually also #sēd-#, _apart_ (1417).

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE.

1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

#ad#, _to_, #adversus# or #adversum#, _towards_, _against_, #ante#, in composition also #antid-#, _before_, #apud#, _near_, _at_, #circā#, #circum#, #circiter#, _round_, _about_, #cis#, #citrā#, _this side of_, #contrā#, _opposite to_, #ergā#, _towards_, #extrā#, _outside_, #īnfrā#, _below_, #inter#, _between_, #intrā#, _within_, #iūxtā#, _near_, #ob#, _against_, #penes#, _in the possession of_, #per#, _through_, #pōne#, #post#, in Plautus #postid#, #poste#, #pos#, _behind_, #praeter#, _past_, #prope# (#propius#, #proximē#), #propter#, _near_, #secundum#, _after_, #subter#, _under_, #suprā#, _above_, #trāns#, _across_, #uls#, #ultrā#, _beyond_. For the various shades of meaning and applications of these prepositions, see the dictionary.

1411. Prepositions which accompany the accusative may be easily remembered in this order:

ante, apud, ad, adversum,
circum, cis, ob, trāns, secundum,
penes, pōne, prope, per,
post, and all in -ā and -ter.

1412. Of the above named words some are not used as prepositions till a relatively late period.

Thus, #īnfrā# is first used as a preposition by Terence and once only; #circā# somewhat before and #citrā# about Cicero’s time; #ultrā# first by Cato; #iūxtā# by Varro. In Cicero #iūxtā# is still used only as an adverb, in Caesar and Nepos as a preposition.

1413. The substantive forms #prīdiē#, _the day before_, and #postrīdiē#, _the day after_, are sometimes used with an accusative like prepositions, mostly in Cicero, to denote dates: as, #prīdiē nōnās Māiās#, _Att._ 2, 11, 2, _the day before the nones of May_, i.e. _6 May_. #postrīdiē lūdōs Apollinārīs#, _Att._ 16, 4, 1, _the day after the games of Apollo_, i.e. _6 July_. For the genitive with these words, see 1232.

1414. The adverb #vorsus# or #versus#, _wards_, occurs as a post positive (1434) preposition rarely: once in Sallust, #Aegyptum vorsus#, J. 19, 3, _Egyptwards_, in Cicero a few times, twice in Pliny the elder. #usque#, _even to_, occurs with names of towns in Terence (once), Cicero, and later; with appellatives in Cato (once) and late writers.

1415. #clam#, _secretly_, is ordinarily an adverb. But in old Latin it is used often as a preposition, _unknown to_, with an accusative of a person. Terence has once the diminutive form #clanculum#, _Ad._ 52. With the ablative only in the MSS. of Caesar, once, #clam vōbīs#, _C._ 2, 32, 8, _without your knowledge_, and in _Bell. Afr._ 11, 4.

1416. #subter#, _under_, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil, with the locative ablative: as, #Rhoetēō subter lītore#, Cat. 65, 7, _beneath Rhoeteum’s strand_.

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ABLATIVE.

1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

#abs#, #ab#, or #ā#, _from_, #cōram#, _face to face_, #dē#, _down from_, _from_, _of_, #ex# or #ē#, _out of_, #prae#, _at the fore_, _in front of_, #prō#, _before_, #quom# or #cum#, _with_, #sine#, _without_. In official or legal language, also #sēd# or #sē#, _without_. For the different classes of ablatives with these prepositions, see 1297-1300; for the various shades of meanings and applications, see the dictionary.

1418. Prepositions which accompany the ablative may be easily remembered in this order:

abs (ab, ā), cum, cōram, dē,
prae, prō, sine, ex (or ē).

1419. The ablative #fīnī#, _as far as_, is used in old Latin as a preposition with the ablative: as, #osse fīnī#, Pl. _Men._ 859, _down to the bone_. #operītō terrā rādīcibus fīnī#, Cato, _RR._ 28, 2, _cover with loam the length of the roots_. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive (1255): as, #ānsārum īnfimārum fīnī#, Cato, _RR._ 113, 2, _up to the bottom of the handles_. Rarely #fīne#, and before the genitive: as, #fīne genūs#, O. 10, 537, _as far as the knee_.

1420. #tenus#, _the length_, was originally a substantive accusative (1151). From Cicero on, it is used as a preposition with the ablative, and standing after its case: as, #Taurō tenus#, _D._ 36, _not further than Taurus_. #pectoribus tenus#, L. 21, 54, 9, _quite up to the breast_. #hāctenus#, _thus far_, _only thus far_. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive, usually a plural, mostly in verse (1232): as, #labrōrum tenus#, Lucr. 1, 940, _the length of the lips_, _up to the lips_. #Cūmārum tenus#, Cael. in _Fam._ 8, 1, 2, _as far as Cumae_.

1421. The adverbs #palam#, _in presence of_, #procul#, _apart from_, either _near_ or _far_, #simul#, _with_, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the ablative. #coram# occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero’s time. #absque# with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian; in Plautus and Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE OR THE ABLATIVE.

1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by the prepositions in, older #endo#, #indu#, _into_, _in_, #sub#, _under_, and #super#, _over_, _on_.

1423. (1.) #in# and #sub# accompany the accusative of the end of motion, the locative ablative of rest: as,

(_a._) #in cūriam vēnimus#, _V._ 4, 138, _we went to the senate-house_. #in vincla coniectus est#, _V._ 5, 17, _he was put in irons_. #hīc pāgus eius exercitum sub iugum mīserat#, 1, 12, 5, _this canton had sent his army under the yoke_. (_b._) #erimus in castrīs#, _Ph._ 12, 28, _we shall be in camp_. #viridī membra sub arbutō strātus#, H. 1, 1, 21, _stretched out--his limbs--all under an arbute green_.

1424. Verbs of rest sometimes have #in# with the accusative, because of an implied idea of motion. And, conversely, verbs of motion sometimes have #in# with the ablative, because of an implied idea of rest: as,

(_a._) #mihi in mentem fuit#, Pl. _Am._ 180, _it popped into my head_, i.e. came in and is in (compare #venit hoc mī in mentem#, Pl. _Aul._ 226. #in eius potestātem venīre nōlēbant#, _V._ 1, 150. #in eōrum potestātem portum futūrum intellegēbant#, _V._ 5, 98, _they knew full well the haven would get under the control of these people_). (_b._) #Caesar exercitum in hībernīs conlocāvit#, 3, 29, 3, _Caesar put the army away in winter quarters_, i.e. put them into and left them in. #eam in lectō conlocārunt#, T. _Eu._ 593, _they laid the lady on her couch_. So commonly with #locō#, #conlocō#, #statuō#, #cōnstituō#, #pōnō#, and its compounds. For #expōnō# and #impōnō#, see the dictionary.

1425. (2.) #super# accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of #dē#, _about_, _in reference to_: as, #hāc super rē scrībam ad tē Rēgiō#, _Att._ 16, 6, 1, _I’ll write you about this from Regium_. In other senses, the accusative, but sometimes in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of _on_: as, #ligna super focō largē repōnēns#, H. 1, 9, 5, _piling on hearth the faggots high_. #nocte super mediā#, V. 9, 61, _at dead of night_. #paulum silvae super hīs#, H. _S._ 2, 6, 3, _a bit of wood to crown the whole_.

[Errata:
1424a ... compare #venit hoc mī in mentem#
text unchanged: expected form vēnit
So commonly with #locō#, #conlocō#
#locō#. #conlocō#]

COMBINATION OF SUBSTANTIVES BY A PREPOSITION.

1426. (1.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition, to indicate certain attributive relations (1043); such are particularly:

(_a._) Place: as, #illam pugnam nāvālem ad Tenedum#, _Mur._ 33, _the sea-fight off Tenedus_. #excessum ē vītā#, _Fin._ 3, 60, _the departure from life_. (_b._) Source, origin, material: as, #ex Aethiopiā ancillulam#, T. _Eu._ 165, _a lady’s maid from Aethiopia_. #pōcula ex aurō#, _V._ 4, 62, _bowls of gold_ (1314). (_c._) Direction of action, connection, separation: as, #amor in patriam#, _Fl._ 103, _love of country_. #vestra ergā mē voluntās#, _C._ 4, 1, _your good will towards me_. #proelium cum Tūscīs ad Iāniculum#, L. 2, 52, 7, _the battle with the Tuscans at Janiculum_. #vir sine metū#, _TD._ 5, 48, _a man devoid of fear_ (1043).

1427. (2.) Very commonly, however, other constructions are used, even to indicate the relations above: as,

#bellum Venetōrum#, 3, 16, 1, _war with the Venetans_ (1231). #bellō Cassiānō#, 1, 13, 2, _in the war with Cassius_ (1233). #in aureīs pōculīs#, _V._ 4, 54, _in golden bowls_ (1233). #scūtīs ex cortice factīs#, 2, 33, 2, _with long shields made out of bark_ (1314). #post vīctōriam eius bellī, quod cum Persīs fuit#, _Off._ 3, 49, _after the victory in the war with the Persians_.

1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively: as, #sunt omnēs sine maculā#, _Pl._ 6, 14, _they are all without spot or blemish_. And sometimes they are equivalent to adjectives: as, #contrā nātūram#, _TD._ 4, 11, _unnatural_, #suprā hominem#, _DN._ 2, 34, _superhuman_. Or to substantives: as, #sine pondere#, O. 1, 20, _things without weight_. Or to adverbs: as, #sine labōre#, Pl. _R._ 461, _easily_.

[Erratum:
1426a ... L. 2, 52, 7
L 2,]

REPETITION OR OMISSION OF A PREPOSITION WITH SEVERAL SUBSTANTIVES.

1429. (1.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or more substantives: as,

#in labōre atque in dolōre#, Pl. _Ps._ 685, _in toil and in trouble_. Particularly so with #et . . . et#, #aut . . . aut#, #nōn sōlum . . . sed etiam#, #nōn minus ... quam#, &c., &c.: as, #et ex urbe et ex agrīs#, _C._ 2, 21, _from Rome and from the country too_.

1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substantives: as, #in labōre ac dolōre#, _TD._ 5, 41, _in toil and trouble_. #incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus#, N. 5, 3, 1, _he fell under the selfsame ban as his father_. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, #cum duōbus ducibus, Pyrrhō et Hannibale#, _L._ 28, _with two commanders, Pyrrhus and Hannibal_.

[Erratum:
1429 ... #nōn minus ... quam#, &c., &c.
final . missing]

TWO PREPOSITIONS WITH ONE SUBSTANTIVE.

1431. (1.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substantive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun: as,

#contrā lēgem prōque lēge#, L. 34, 8, 1, _against the law and for the law_. #partim contrā Avītum, partim prō hōc#, _Clu._ 88, _partly against Avitus, partly for him_. If, however, the two prepositions accompany the same case, the substantive need not be repeated: as, #intrā extrāque mūnītiōnēs#, Caes. _C._ 3, 72, 2, _inside and outside the works_.

1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substantive: as, #et in corpore et extrā#, _Fin._ 2, 68, _both in the body and outside_.

POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS.

1433. In general a preposition precedes its case: see 178.

1434. Disyllabic prepositions sometimes follow their substantives. Thus, in Cicero, #contrā#, #ultrā#, and #sine#, sometimes stand after a relative; so likewise #inter# in Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust; occasionally also #penes# and #propter#. For #versus#, see 1414; for #fīnī#, 1419; for #tenus#, 1420.

1435. Of monosyllables, #ad# and #dē# often follow a relative. Also #cum# often in Cicero and Sallust, and regularly in Caesar. With a personal or a reflexive pronoun, #cum# regularly follows, as #mēcum#, #nōbīscum#, #sēcum#.

1436. In poetry and late prose, prepositions are freely put after their cases.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, #per# is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, #per tē de͡ōs ōrō#, T. _Andr._ 538, _I beg thee by the gods_, _in the gods’ name_.

USE OF ADVERBS.

1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

(_a._) With verbs, all sorts of adverbs are used: as, of Place: #quis istīc habet?# Pl. _B._ 114, _who lives in there?_ Time: #tum dentēs mihi cadēbant prīmulum#, Pl. _Men._ 1116, _my teeth were just beginning then to go_. Number: #bis cōnsul fuerat P. Āfricānus#, _Mur._ 58, _Africanus had twice been consul_. Degree, Amount: #Ubiī magnopere ōrābant#, 4, 16, 5, _the Ubians earnestly entreated_. #Dumnorīx plūrimum poterat#, 1, 9, 3, _Dumnorix was all-powerful_. Manner: #bene quiēvit, libenter cibum sūmpsit#, Plin. _Ep._ 3, 16, 4, _he has slept beautifully, he has relished his food_. (_b._) With adjectives and adverbs, oftenest adverbs of degree or amount only, or their equivalents, such as #bene#, #ēgregiē#, &c.: as, #valdē dīligēns#, _Ac._ 2, 98, _very particular_. #ēgregiē fortis#, _DO._ 2, 268, _exceptionally brave_. Adverbs of manner, however, are also used, especially in poetry: as, #turpiter hīrtum#, H. _E._ 1, 3, 22, _disreputably rough_, i.e. disreputable and rough.

1439. An adverb is sometimes used with the meaning of an adjective: as,

#reliquīs deincēps diēbus#, 3, 29, 1, _the remaining successive days_. #dē suīs prīvātim rēbus#, 5, 3, 5, _in relation to their personal interests_. #undique silvae#, Plin. _Ep._ 1, 6, 2, _the surrounding woods_. Particularly when the substantive expresses character, like an adjective: as, #vērē Metellus#, _Sest._ 130, _a trueblooded Metellus_. #rūsticānus vir, sed plānē vir#, _TD._ 2, 53, _a country man, but every inch a man_.

1440. Perfect participles used as substantives are commonly qualified by an adverb, and not by an adjective. Particularly so #dictum#, #factum#, #inventum#, #respōnsum#, with #bene# and #male#, and their synonymes: as, #rēctē ac turpiter factum#, 7, 80, 5, _heroism and cowardice_. #bene facta male locāta male facta arbitror#, E. in _Off._ 2, 62, _good deeds ill put, bad deeds I count_. In superlative qualifications, however, the adjective is preferred.

1441. Other substantives also may be qualified by an adverb, when a verb construction or a participle is implied: as, #C. Flāminius cōnsul iterum#, _Div._ 1, 77, _Flaminius in his second consulship_. #ō totiēns servos#, H. _S._ 2, 7, 70, _time and again a slave_. #ictū comminus#, _Caecin._ 43, _by a hand-to-hand blow_. #pūblicē testem#, _V._ 2, 156, _a government witness_. #populum lātē rēgem#, V. 1, 21, _a nation regnant wide_. #lātē tyrannus#, H. 3, 17, 9, _lord paramount far and near_.

1442. An adverb sometimes takes the place of a substantive: as, #cum amīcī partim dēseruerint mē, partim etiam prōdiderint#, _QFr._ 1, 3, 5, _since my friends have some of them abandoned me, and others again have actually betrayed me_, i.e. #aliī . . . aliī#. #postquam satis tūta circā vidēbantur#, L. 1, 58, 2, _finding every thing round about looked pretty safe_, i.e. #quae circā erant#. #palam laudārēs, sēcrēta male audiēbant#, Ta. _H._ 1, 10, _his outward walk you would have admired; his private life was in bad odour_, i.e. #quae palam fīēbant#.

NEGATIVE ADVERBS.

1443. (1.) The negative oftenest used in declaration or interrogation is #nōn#, _not_: as,

#nōn metuō mihi#, Pl. _B._ 225, _I fear not for myself_. #nōn semper imbrēs nūbibus hīspidōs mānant in agrōs#, H. 2, 9, 1, _not always from the clouds do showers on stubbly fields come dripping dropping down_. #nōn dīcēs hodiē?# H. _S._ 2, 7, 21, _will you not say without delay?_

1444. #nōn# is a modification of #noenum# or #noenu#, compounded of #ne#, _no_, and the accusative #oinom# or #oenum#, the older form of #ūnum#, _one thing_. #noenum# occurs in Plautus twice, in Ennius, Lucilius, Afranius, and Varro, once each, and #noenu# occurs twice in Lucretius (99).

1445. Negation is often expressed by other compounds of #ne#. In such cases the Latin idiom frequently differs from the English, and a transfer of the negative is required in translation.

Such compounds are: (_a._) Verbs, such as #negō#, #nequeō#, #nesciō#, #nōlō#: as, #negat vērum esse#, _Mur._ 74, _he maintains it is not true_. (_b._) Nouns, such as #nēmō#, #neuter#, #nūllus#, #nihil#: as, #nēminī meus adventus labōrī fuit#, _V._ 1, 16, _my visit did not trouble anybody_. (_c._) Adverbs, such as #numquam#, #nusquam#. (_d._) Similarly, the conjunction #neque# is used for _and not_, _but not_, unless a single word is to be emphasized or contrasted: as, #nec frūstrā#, 8, 5, 3, _and not in vain_.

1446. A form #nec# is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of #nōn#: as, #tū dīs nec rēctē dīcis#, Pl. _B._ 119, _thou dost abuse the gods_, i.e. #nōn rēctē# or #male dīcis#. After Plautus’s time, #nec# for #nōn# occurs in a few set combinations, such as #nec opīnāns#, _not expecting_, and, from Livy on, #necdum#, _not yet_, i.e. #nōndum#.

1447. The form #nē# usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be explained further on. But #nē# is also used in the combination #nē . . . quidem#, _not even_, _not . . . either_, with the emphatic word between #nē# and #quidem#: as, #nē tum quidem#, 1, 50, 2, _not even then_. #nē Vorēnus quidem sēsē vāllō continet#, 5, 44, 6, _Vorenus did not keep inside the palisade either_.

1448. The adjective #nūllus# is sometimes used, chiefly in colloquial language, for #nōn# or #nē# (1051): as, #Philotīmus nūllus vēnit#, _Att._ 11, 24, 4, _no Philotimus has shown himself_. #nūllus crēduās#, Pl. _Tri._ 606, _you needn’t believe it at all_.

1449. (2.) The negative #haut# or #haud#, _not_, is used principally with adjectives and adverbs, less frequently with verbs: as,

(_a._) #haud mediocris vir#, _RP._ 2, 55, _no ordinary man_. #rem haud sānē difficilem#, _CM._ 4, _a thing not particularly hard_. #haud procul#, _CM._ 15, _not far_. In all periods of the language often combined with #quisquam#, #ūllus#, #umquam#, #usquam#. (_b._) In old Latin #haud# is freely used with all sorts of verbs, especially with #possum#. In Cicero, it occurs here and there with a few verbs, such as #adsentior#, #errō#, #īgnōrō#, #nītor#, #amō#, but is principally confined to #sciō#, in the combination #haud sciō an#, _I don’t know but_ (1782). Caesar uses #haud# once only, and then in this combination.

1450. A shorter form, #hau#, occurs often in old Latin, and a few times in the classical period: as, #heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum pulcrai fēminae#, CIL. I, 1007, 2, on the burial site of a woman, _here is the site not sightly of a sightly dame_. In Plautus it is juxtaposed with #sciō#, making #hausciō#, i.e. #nesciō#.

1451. (3.) Negation may also be intimated by such words as #vix#, _hardly_, #parum#, _not . . . enough_, _not quite_, #minus#, _less_, _not_, #minimē#, _least of all_, #male#, &c.

1452. Two negatives in the same sentence are usually equivalent to an affirmative.

Thus, with #nōn# first, an indefinite affirmative: as, #nōn nēmō#, _somebody_, _a certain gentleman_, _one or another_. #nōn nūllus#, _some_. #nōn nihil#, _something_, _somewhat_. #nōn numquam#, _sometimes_. With #nōn# second, a universal affirmative: as, #nēmō nōn#, _everybody_, _every human being_. #nūllus nōn#, _every_. #nihil nōn#, _every thing_. #numquam nōn#, _always_. #nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī#, _Fam._ 9, 14, 1, _I must confess_. #nēmō īgnōrat#, _V._ 2, 111, _everybody knows_.

1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to emphasize the negative idea: as, #lapideō sunt corde multī, quōs nōn miseret nēminis#, E. in Fest. p. 162, _there’s many a man with heart of stone, that feels for nobody_. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.

[Erratum:
1445 ... (_d._)
(_d_)]

USE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

THE POSITIVE.

1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion: as,

#prō multitūdine hominum angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur#, 1, 2, 5, _in view of their large numbers they thought they had a cramped place to live in_. Generally, however, disproportion is expressed as in 1460 or 1461.

THE COMPARATIVE.

1455. When two things only are compared, the comparative is used: as,

#uter igitur melior?# _Div._ 2, 133, _which of the two then is the better?_ #uter est īnsānior hōrum?# H. _S._ 2, 3, 102, _which of these two is crazier?_ #uter erātis, tūn an ille, maior?# Pl. _Men._ 1119, _you were--which of the two the bigger, thou or he?_

1456. The superlative is sometimes loosely used when only two things are meant: as, #Numitōrī, quī stirpis maximus erat, rēgnum lēgat#, L. 1, 3, 10, _to Numitor, who was the eldest of the family, he bequeaths the crown_, of two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. #id me͡ā minumē rēfert, quī sum nātū maxumus#, T. _Ad._ 881, _that is of small concern to me, who am the eldest son_, says Demea, who has only one brother.

1457. From Cicero on, an adjective or adverb is sometimes compared with another adjective or adverb. In such comparisons #quam# is always used.

In this case: (_a._) Both members may have the positive form, the first with #magis#: as, #Celer disertus magis est quam sapiēns#, _Att._ 10, 1, 4, _Celer is more eloquent than wise_. #magis audācter quam parātē#, _Br._ 241, _with more assurance than preparation_. Or (_b._) Both members may have the comparative suffix: as, #lubentius quam vērius#, _Mil._ 78, _with greater satisfaction than truth_. #pestilentia minācior quam perniciōsior#, L. 4, 52, 3, _a plague more alarming than destructive_.

1458. But sometimes the second member is put in the positive, even when the first has the comparative suffix: as, #ācrius quam cōnsīderātē#, Ta. _H._ 1, 83, _with more spirit than deliberation_. And sometimes both members: as, #clārīs maiōribus quam vetustīs#, Ta. 4, 61, _of a house famous rather than ancient_.

1459. The comparative may be modified by ablatives of difference, such as #multō#, _far_, #aliquantō#, _considerably_, #paullō# or #paulō#, _a little_, #nimiō#, _too much_, _ever so much_ (1393). Also by #etiam#, _even_, _still_, and in Catullus, Sallust, Vergil, and later Latin by #longē#, _far_, #adhūc#, _still_.

1460. The comparative of an adjective or adverb often denotes that which is more than usual or more than is right: as,

#solēre aiunt rēgēs Persārum plūrēs uxōrēs habēre#, _V._ 3, 76, _they say the Persian kings generally have several wives_. #senectūs est nātūrā loquācior#, _CM._ 55, _age is naturally rather garrulous_. #stomachābātur senex, sī quid asperius dīxeram#, _DN._ 1, 93, _the old gentleman always got provoked if I said anything a bit rough_.

1461. The comparative of disproportion is often defined by some added expression: as,

#prīvātīs maiōra focīs#, J. 4, 66, _something too great for private hearths_ (1321). #flāgrantior aequō nōn dēbet dolor esse virī#, J. 13, 11, _the indignation of a man must not be over hot_ (1330). In Livy and Tacitus by #quam prō# with the ablative: see the dictionary. Sometimes a new sentence is added: as, #sum avidior, quam satis est, glōriae#, _Fam._ 9, 14, 2, _I am over greedy of glory_. For #quam ut# or #quam quī#, see 1896.

1462. The comparative with a sentence of negative import is often preferred to the superlative with a positive sentence: as,

#elephantō bēluārum nūlla prūdentior#, _DN._ 1, 97, _of the larger beasts not one is more sagacious than the elephant_, or _the elephant is the most sagacious of beasts_. #sequāmur Polybium, quō nēmō fuit dīligentior#, _RP._ 2, 27, _let us follow Polybius, the most scrupulous of men_. For #nēmō# or #quis#, the more emphatic #nihil# or #quid# is often used: as, #Phaedrō nihil ēlegantius, nihil hūmānius#, _DN._ 1, 93, _Phaedrus was the most refined and sympathetic of men_.

1463. In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the addition of #magis#: as, #mollior magis#, Pl. _Aul._ 422, _more tenderer_. And sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by #aequē#, like the positive: as, #homo mē miserior nūllus est aequē#, Pl. _Mer._ 335, _there’s not a man so woebegone as I_, for #miserior# alone, or #aequē miser#.

1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. In such illustrations, the positive with _as_ is commonly used in English: as, #lūce clārius#, _V._ 2, 186, _plain as day_. #ō fōns Bandusiae, splendidior vitrō#, H. 3, 13, 1, _ye waters of Bandusia, as glittering as glass_. #melle dulcior ōrātiō#, E. in _CM._ 31, _words sweet as honey_. #ventīs ōcior#, V. 5, 319, _quick as the winds_. #vacca candidior nivibus#, O. _Am._ 3, 5, 10, _a cow as white as driven snow_. #caelum pice nigrius#, O. _H._ 17, 7, _a sky as black as pitch_. #dūrior ferrō et saxō#, O. 14, 712, _as hard as steel and stone_.

THE SUPERLATIVE.

1465. When more than two things are compared, the superlative is used to represent a quality as belonging in the highest degree to an individual or to a number of a class: as,

#proximī sunt Germānīs#, 1, 1, 3, _they live the nearest to the Germans_. #hōrum omnium fortissimī#, 1, 1, 3, _the bravest of these all_.

1466. The superlative may be strengthened by the addition of such words as #ūnus#, _preeminently_, usually with a genitive, #maximē#, #quam#, with or without a form of #possum#, _as possible_, &c., &c. (1892). In old Latin by #multō#; from Cicero on, by #longē#, _far_, and #vel#, _perhaps_, _even_: as,

#cōnfirmāverim rem ūnam esse omnium difficillimam#, _Br._ 25, _I am not afraid to avouch it is the one hardest thing in the world_. #longē nōbilissimus#, 1, 2, 1, _the man of highest birth by far_. #quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit#, 1, 7, 1, _he pushes into Gaul by the quickest marches he can_. #quam mātūrrimē#, 1, 33, 4, _as early as possible_.

1467. The superlative is also used to denote a very high degree of the quality.

This superlative, called the _Absolute Superlative_, or the _Superlative of Eminence_, may be translated by the positive with some such word as _most_, _very_: as, #homo turpissimus#, _V._ 4, 16, _an utterly unprincipled man_. Often best by the positive alone: as, #vir fortissimus, Pīsō Aquītānus#, 4, 12, 4, _the heroic Piso of Aquitain_ (1044).

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, #stultior stultissumō#, Pl. _Am._ 907, _a greater than the greatest fool_. #ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima#, _Fam._ 14, 3, 1, _I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman_.

(B.) USE OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

THE ACTIVE VOICE.

1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented as performing the action of the verb.

1470. By action is meant the operation of any verb, whether active or passive, and whether used intransitively or transitively.

1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another: thus, #pereō#, _go to destruction_, _die_, serves as the passive of #perdō#, _destroy_, and #vēneō#, _go to sale_, _am sold_, as the passive of #vēndō#, _put for sale_, _sell_. Similarly #fīō#, _become_, _get to be_, _am made_, is used in the present system as the passive of #faciō#, _make_ (788).

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented as acted upon.

1473. The object accusative of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice (1125); and the predicate accusative of the active voice becomes a predicate nominative with the passive voice (1167).

Thus (_a._) in the active construction: #illum laudābunt bonī, hunc etiam ipsī culpābunt malī#, Pl. _B._ 397, _the one the good will praise, the other e’en the bad themselves will blame_. In the passive: #laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs#, H. _S._ 1, 2, 11, _he’s praised by some, by others blamed_. Active: #cīvēs Rōmānōs interficiunt#, 7, 3, 1, _they slay some citizens of Rome_. Passive: #Indutiomarus interficitur#, 5, 58, 6, _Indutiomarus is slain_. (_b._) Active: #mīlitēs certiōrēs facit#, 3, 5, 3, _he informs the soldiers_. Passive: #certior factus est#, 2, 34, _he was informed_.

1474. Verbs which have two accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing in the active voice, generally have the person as subject in the passive, less frequently the thing: see 1171.

1475. An emphasizing or defining accusative, or an accusative of extent or duration, is occasionally made the subject of a passive: as,

#haec illīc est pugnāta pugna#, Pl. _Am._ 253, _this fight was fought off there_ (1140). #tōta mihī dormītur hiems#, Mart. 13, 59, 1, _all winter long by me is slept_, i.e. #tōtam dormiō hiemem# (1151).

1476. The person by whom the action is done is put in the ablative with #ab# or #ā# (1318); the thing by which it is done is put in the instrumental ablative (1377); as,

(_a._) #nōn numquam latrō ā viātōre occīditur#, _Mil._ 55, _once in a while the robber gets killed by the wayfarer_. #respondit, ā cīve sē spoliārī mālle quam ab hoste vēnīre#, Quintil. 12, 1, 43, _he said in reply that he would rather be plundered by a Roman than sold by an enemy_ (1471). (_b._) #ūnīus virī prūdentiā Graecia līberāta est#, N. 2, 5, 3, _Greece was saved from slavery by the sagacity of a single man_, i.e. Themistocles. Very often, however, the person or thing is not expressed, particularly with impersonals.

1477. When the person is represented as a mere instrument, the ablative is used without #ab# (1378); and when collectives, animals, or things without life are personified, the ablative takes #ab# (1318): as,

(_a._) #neque vērō minus Platō dēlectātus est Diōne#, N. 10, 2, 3, _and Plato on his part was just as much bewitched with Dion_. (_b._) #eius ōrātiō ā multitūdine et ā forō dēvorābātur#, _Br._ 283, _his oratory was swallowed whole by the untutored many and by the bar_.

1478. Sometimes the person by whom the action is done is indicated by the dative of the possessor: see 1216. And regularly with the gerund and gerundive construction (2243).

1479. Only verbs of transitive use have ordinarily a complete passive. Verbs of intransitive use have only the impersonal forms of the passive (1034): as,

#diū atque ācriter pugnātum est#, 1, 26, 1, _there was long and sharp fighting_. #tōtīs trepidātur castrīs#, 6, 37, 6, _all through the camp there was tumult and affright_. #mihī̆ quidem persuādērī numquam potuit, animōs ēmorī#, _CM._ 80, _for my part, I never could be convinced that the soul becomes extinct at death_ (1181). Similarly verbs which have a transitive use may also be used impersonally: as, #di͡ēs noctīsque ēstur, bibitur#, Pl. _Most._ 235, _there is eating and drinking all day and all night_ (1133).

1480. The complementary dative of a verb in the active voice is in poetry very rarely made the subject of a passive verb: as, #invideor#, H. _AP._ 56, _I am envied_. #imperor#, H. _E._ 1, 5, 21, _I charge myself_.

1481. The passive had originally a reflexive meaning, which is still to be seen in the passive of many verbs: as,

#exercēbātur plūrimum currendō et lūctandō#, N. 15, 2, 4, _he took a great deal of exercise in running and wrestling_. #dēnsōs fertur in hostīs#, V. 2, 511, _he tries to charge upon the serried foes_. #quod semper movētur, aeternum est#, _TD._ 1, 53, _anything that is always moving, is eternal_.

1482. The present participle of reflexives is sometimes used in a reflexive sense: as, #exercēns#, _exercising oneself_, _exercising_, #ferēns#, _tearing along_, #vehēns#, _riding_, and #invehēns#, _mounted on_, #pāscēns#, _browsing_, #versāns#, _playing_, _being_, #volvēns#, _rolling_. Also the gerund: as, #iūs vehendī#, _the privilege of riding_.

1483. Passive forms of #coepī# and #dēsinō# are commonly used in the perfect system, when a dependent infinitive is passive: as,

#litterīs ōrātiō est coepta mandārī#, _Br._ 26, _oratory began to be put in black and white_. #veterēs ōrātiōnēs legī sunt dēsitae#, _Br._ 123, _the old speeches ceased to be read_. But the active forms are sometimes used by Cornificius, Sallust, and Livy, and regularly by Tacitus. The active forms are used with #fierī# also, which is not passive (789); but even with #fierī#, Livy uses the passive forms.

1484. Similar attractions with a passive infinitive occur in #potestur#, &c., #quītur# and #quitus sum#, #nequītur#, &c., rarely, and mostly in old Latin: as, #fōrma in tenebrīs nōscī nōn quitast#, T. _Hec._ 572, _her shape could hardly be distinguished in the dark_.

1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, #adultus#, _grown up_. See 907, and also in the dictionary #cautus#, #cōnsultus#, #concrētus#, #dēflāgrātus#, #incōnsīderātus#, #occāsus#, #nūpta#.

[Erratum:
1482 ... as, #exercēns#
as.]

DEPONENTS.

1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are called _Deponents_.

1487. In many deponents, a reflexive, passive, or reciprocal action is still clearly to be seen: as,

#nāscor#, _am born_; #moror#, _delay myself_, _get delayed_; #ūtor#, _avail myself_; #amplectimur#, _hug each other_; #fābulāmur#, _talk together_; #partīmur#, _share with one another_.

1488. Some verbs have both active and deponent inflections: as, #adsentiō#, _agree_, more commonly #adsentior#. #mereō#, _earn_, and #mereor#, _deserve_. See also in the dictionary #altercor#, #auguror#, #comitor#, #cōnflīctor#, #fabricor#, #faeneror#, #mūneror#, #ōscitor#, #palpor#, #populor#, #revertor#. The following have active inflections in the present system and deponent inflections in the perfect system: #audeō#, #cōnfīdō# and #diffīdō#, #gaudeō#, #soleō#: see also 801.

1489. In old Latin especially, many verbs which afterwards became fixed as deponents occur with active inflections also: as, #adūlō#, #arbitrō#, #aucupō#, #auspicō#, #lūctō#, #lūdificō#, #morō#, #partiō#, #venerō#, &c., &c.

1490. Verbs which are usually deponent are rarely found with a passive meaning: as, #Sūllānās rēs dēfendere crīminor#, _LAgr._ 3, 13, _I am charged with defending Sulla’s policy_.

1491. When it is desirable to express the passive of a deponent, a synonyme is sometimes used: thus, the passive of #mīror#, _admire_, may sometimes be represented by #laudor#, _am praised_. Or some circumlocution: as, #habet venerātiōnem quidquid excellit#, _DN._ 1, 45, _anything best in its kind is looked on with respect_, as passive of #veneror#. #familia in suspīciōnem est vocāta#, _V._ 5, 10, _the household was suspected_, as passive of #suspicor#.

1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a passive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are: #adeptus#, #commentus#, #complexus#, #cōnfessus#, #ēmentītus#, #expertus#, #meditātus#, #opīnātus#, #pactus#, #partītus#, #testātus#, &c., &c.

MOOD.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

DECLARATIONS.

1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, absolute declarations: as,

#arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1, _arms and the man I sing_. #leve fit quod bene fertur onus#, O. _A._ 4, 2, 10, _light gets the load that’s bravely borne_.

1494. The negative used with the indicative is commonly #nōn#, _not_ (1443). For other negative expressions, see 1445-1451.

1495. Certain verbs and verbal expressions denoting ability, duty, propriety, necessity, and the like, mostly with an infinitive, are regularly put in the indicative, even when the action of the infinitive is not performed.

This applies to declarations, questions, or exclamations: as, (_a._) #possum dē ichneumonum ūtilitāte dīcere, sed nōlō esse longus#, _DN._ 1, 101, _I might expatiate on the usefulness of the ichneumon, but I do not care to be long-winded_. #inter ferās satius est aetātem dēgere quam in hāc tantā immānitāte versārī#, _RA._ 150, _it would be better to pass your days in the midst of howling beasts than to live and move among such brutish men_. (_b._) #stultī erat sperāre#, _Ph._ 2. 23, _it would have been folly to hope_. #quid enim facere poterāmus?# _Pis._ 13, _for what else could we have done?_ (_c._) #licuit uxōrem genere summō dūcere#, Pl. _MG._ 680, _I might have married a wife of high degree_. #nōn potuit pīctor rēctius dēscrībere eius fōrmam#, Pl. _As._ 402, _no painter could have hit his likeness more exactly_. (_d._) #quantō melius fuerat prōmissum patris nōn esse servātum#, _Off._ 3, 94, _how much better it would have been, for the father’s word not to have been kept_.

1496. The principal verbs and verbal expressions thus used are: (_a._) #possum#, #licet#, #dēbeō#, #oportet#, #convenit#, #decet#. (_b._) #aequum#, #aequius#, #iūstum#, #fās#, #necesse est#; #cōnsentāneum#, #satis#, #satius#, #optābile#, #optābilius est#; #ūtilius#, #melius#, #optimum#, #pār#, #rēctum est#; #facile#, #difficile#, #grave#, #īnfīnītum#, #longum#, #magnum est#; #est# with the predicative genitive, or a possessive pronoun (1237). (_c._) Similarly, but without an infinitive, forms of #sum# with a gerund, a gerundive, or a future participle.

1497. The imperfect of most of the above verbs and verbal expressions often relates to action not performed at the present time: as,