Chapter XXIV: Part 24

#arma virumque canō Trōiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs Ītaliam vēnit, multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō#, V. 1, 1, _arms and the man I sing, from Troja’s shore the first to come to Italy, much tossed that man by land and sea_.

2363. (2.) To emphasize the second of two ideas: as,

#nunc dextrā ingemināns ictūs, nunc ille sinistrā#, V. 5, 457, _now with his right redoubling blows, now mighty with his left_. #nōn tamen Euryalī, non ille oblītus amōrum#, V. 5, 334, _still not Euryalus forgetting, no, not he his love!_

2364. (3.) As a provisional subject, to anticipate the real subject, and keep the attention in suspense till the real subject comes with emphasis: as,

#ac velut ille canum morsū dē montibus altīs āctus aper substitit#, V. 10, 707, _and e’en as he, goaded by bite of hounds from mountains high, the boar hath paused_.

THE DETERMINATIVE PRONOUN.

#is.#

2365. #is# refers to something named in the context. When some feeling is to be expressed, such as admiration, or oftener contempt, #homō# is often put for #is#.

(_a._) #petit ā rēge et eum plūribus verbīs rogat ut id ad sē mittat#, _V._ 4, 64, _he solicits the king and begs him at considerable length to send it to him_. #nōndum mātūrus imperiō Ascanius erat, tamen id imperium ĕ̄ī ad pūberem aetātem incolume mānsit#, L. 1, 3, 1, _Ascanius was not yet old enough for the throne, but that throne was kept safe for him till he came of age_. (_b._) #ego hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem. veniō ad hominem, ut dīcerem argentum opus esse#, T. _Ph._ 591, _a shrewder man than Phormio I never saw, not I! I went to him to tell him that I needed money_. #nēquam esse hominem et levem sciēbam#, _Sest._ 22, _I knew the fellow was worthless and frivolous_.

2366. (1.) #is# refers to something named before or after: as,

#eius omnis ōrātiō versāta est in eō, ut scrīptum plūrimum valēre oportēre dēfenderet#, _DO._ 1, 244, _his whole speech turned on the contention that the written word should be paramount_. #Melitēnsis Diodōrus est; is Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat#, _V._ 4, 38, _Diodorus is from Melita; he has lived many years at Lilybaeum_. For other examples of is used to connect sentences, see 2129.

2367. With a connective, #is# denotes an important addition: as,

#vincula et ea sempiterna#, _C._ 4, 7, _imprisonment and that too perpetual_. #annum iam audientem Cratippum idque Athēnīs#, _Off._ 1, 1, _after a year’s study under Cratippus, and that too in Athens_. #erant in eō plūrimae litterae nec eae volgārēs#, _Br._ 265, _he was a man of very deep reading and that of no common sort either_.

2368. (2.) #is# indicates something explained or restricted by a relative or indefinite, #quī#, #quīcumque#, #sī quis#: as,

#haec omnia is fēcī, quī sodālis Dolābellae eram#, _Fam._ 12, 14, 7, _all this I did, I that was Dolabella’s bosom friend_ (1807). #ūnus ex eō numerō quī ad caedem parātī erant#, S. _I._ 35, 6, _one of the number that were ready to do murder_ (1804). #neque is sum quī mortis perīculō terrear#, 5, 30, 2, _but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no, not I_ (1818). #quīcumque is est, ē̆ī mē profiteor inimīcum#, _Fam._ 10, 31, 3, _whoever he may be, I proclaim myself his enemy_ (1814). #cum ipse Aliēnus ex eā facultāte, sī quam habet, aliquantum dētrāctūrus sit#, _Caecil._ 49, _seeing that even Alienus is to suppress some part of that eloquence, if any he may have_. See also 1795, 1798. For #id quod#, see 1811.

2369. For the use of #is# instead of a relative repeated in a different case, see 1833.

2370. #is# sometimes is loosely used for the reflexive #sē# (2341); here the point of view of the writer shows itself.

#Mīlēsiōs nāvem poposcit, quae eum Myndum prōsequerētur#, _V._ 1, 86, _he asked the Milesians for a ship to escort him to Myndus_. #suōs omnēs castrīs continuit ignēsque fierī prohibuit, quō occultior esset eius adventus#, Caes. _C._ 3, 30, 5, _he confined his troops to camp and forbade the kindling of fires, in order to keep his coming a greater secret_.

THE PRONOUN OF IDENTITY.

#īdem.#

2371. #īdem#, _the same_, often connects two different predicates to the same person or thing. In this case, it may be variously rendered by _likewise_, _also_, _all the same_, _on the other hand_, _at once_, _very_, _nevertheless_.

#ūtēbātur eō cibō quī et suāvissimus esset et īdem facillimus ad concoquendum#, _Fin._ 2, 64, _he made use of such food as was both very dainty and likewise very easy to digest_. #ita fīet ut nōn omnēs quī Atticē, eīdem bene dīcant#, _Br._ 291, _so it will be found that not all who speak Attic are also good speakers_. #multī quī ut iūs suum et lībertātem tenērent volnera excēpērunt fortiter et tulērunt, īdem omissā contentiōne dolōrem morbī ferre nōn possunt#, _TD._ 2, 65, _many who have met heroically and endured wounds, to preserve their rights and their freedom, are nevertheless, when no contest is involved, unable to bear the pain of a disease_.

2372. #īdem# is often used with other pronouns, #hīc#, #iste#, #istūc#, #ille#: as,

#haec eadem centuriōnibus mandābant#, 7, 17, 8, _they confided these same sentiments to their centurions_. #multae aliae idem istuc cupiunt#, Pl. _MG._ 1040, _many other ladies want just what you want_.

2373. _The same as_ is expressed by #īdem# followed by #quī#, #atque# or #ac#, #ut#, #quasi#, #cum#, sometimes in poetry by the dative.

#īdem sum quī semper fuī#, Pl. _Am._ 447, _I’m the same man I’ve always been_. #pōmārium sēminārium ad eundem modum atque oleāgineum facitō#, Cato, _RR._ 48, _make your fruit-tree nursery in the same way as your nursery for olive-trees_ (1653). #eīsdem ferē verbīs ut disputātum est#, _TD._ 2, 9, _in pretty much the same words as were used in the actual argument_ (1937). #ut eōdem locō rēs sit quasi ea pecūnia lēgāta nōn esset#, _Leg._ 2, 53, _so that the position is the same as if the money had not been bequeathed_ (2120). #tibī̆ mēcum in eōdem est pistrīnō vīvendum#, _DO._ 2, 144, _you must live in the same mill as I_. #Homērus eādem aliīs sōpītu’ quiētest#, Lucr. 3, 1037, _Homer sleeps the same sleep as others_.

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

#ipse.#

2374. #ipse#, _self_, is used in contrasts.

2375. #ipse# may contrast the chief person with subordinates, or a person with any thing belonging to him.

#Catilīna ipse pertimuit, profūgit; hī quid exspectant?# _C._ 2, 6, _Catiline, their head, has fled in abject terror; his minions here, what wait they for?_ #ē̆ī mūnītiōnī, quam fēcerat, T. Labiēnum lēgātum praefēcit; ipse in Ītaliam magnīs itineribus contendit#, 1, 10, 3, _he put Labienus, his lieutenant, in charge of the fortification he had made; he hurried, himself, to Italy with forced marches_. #tēmētī nihil adlātum intellegō :: at iam adferētur, sī ā forō ipsus redierit#, Pl. _Aul._ 355, _I see there’s no wine brought :: but it soon will be, if the governor comes back from down town_. #‘ipse dīxit;’ “ipse” autem erat Pȳthagorās#, _DN._ 1, 10, _‘the old man said so;’ now “the old man” was Pythagoras_. #nāvis tantum iactūrā factā, incolumēs ipsī ēvāsērunt#, L. 30, 25, 8, _the vessel only was lost, and the sailors escaped in safety_.

2376. #ipse# is often used with personals and reflexives agreeing with the emphatic word. But the nominative is usually preferred, especially when #ipse# stands before the other pronoun, or when it stands after #per mē#, #per sē#. After #mēmet#, #nōbīsmet#, #nōsmet#, &c., it agrees with these words.

(_a._) #neque enim potest exercitum is continēre imperātor, quī sē ipsum nōn continet#, _IP._ 38, _for no commander can keep his army under control who does not keep his own self under control_. #mīles frātrem suum, dein sē ipsum interfēcit#, Ta. _H._ 3, 51, _a soldier slew his own brother, then himself_. (_b._) #ipse sē quisque dīligit#, _L._ 80, _every man loves himself_. #bellum per sē ipse, iniussū populī ac senātūs, fēcit#, L. 1, 49, 7, _he made war on his own responsibility, without orders from the people and senate_. #Iūnius necem sibī̆ ipse cōnscīvit#, _DN._ 2, 7, _Junius killed himself_. #nōn egeō medicīnā, mē ipse cōnsōlor#, _L._ 10, _I need no medicine, I am my own comforter_. (_c._) #ut nōbīsmet ipsīs imperēmus#, _TD._ 2, 47, _that we should govern ourselves_.

2377. #ipse# alone sometimes stands for an emphatic #sē# or #suus#: as,

#pertimuērunt nē ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et cum suīs in grātiam redīret#, N. 7, 5, 1, _they were much afraid that he would abandon them and come into favour with his compatriots again_. #ea molestissimē ferre hominēs dēbent, quae ipsōrum culpā contrācta sunt#, _QFr._ 1, 1, 2, _people should be most vexed at things which are brought about through fault of their own_.

2378. #ipse# is used in many combinations where _self_ is an inadequate translation. It may sometimes be translated by:

2379. (1.) _Actual_, _positive_, _even_.

#habet certōs suī studiōsōs, quōs valētūdō modo bona sit, tenuitās ipsa dēlectat#, _Br._ 64, _he has a clique of admirers, who are charmed by positive scragginess, provided the health be good_. #hōc ipsum ēlegantius pōnī meliusque potuit#, _Fin._ 2, 100, _even this might have been put more logically and better_.

2380. (2.) _Regular_, _proper_, _real_.

#flagrantem invidiā propter interitum C. Gracchī ipse populus Rōmānus perīculō līberāvit#, _Sest._ 140, _though greatly detested in consequence of the death of Gracchus, he was acquitted by the Roman people proper_. #cīvēs Rōmānī permultī in illō oppidō cōniūnctissimō animō cum ipsīs Agrigentīnīs vīvunt#, _V._ 4, 93, _a great many Romans live in that town in most friendly relations with the natives of Agrigentum_.

2381. (3.) _As well_, _likewise_, _too_, for which, from Livy on, #et ipse# is used.

#hoc Rīpheus, hoc ipse Dymās, omnisque iuventūs laeta facit#, V. 2, 394, _this Ripheus doth, this Dymas too, and all the youth alert_. #cōgitātiō Locrōs urbem recipiendī, quae sub dēfectiōnem Ītaliae dēscīverat et ipsa ad Poenōs#, L. 29, 6, 1, _a project for recovering the city of Locri, which, on the revolt of Italy, had likewise gone over to the Carthaginians_.

2382. (4.) _Alone_, _mere_.

#nōn sōlum adventus malī, sed etiam metus ipse adfert calamitātem#, _IP._ 15, _not only the coming of misfortune, but even the mere dread of it brings disaster_.

2383. (5.) _Exactly_, _just_, with numerals and dates, or _right_, of place.

#annīs LXXXVI ipsīs ante mē cōnsulem#, _Br._ 61, _exactly 86 years before my consulship_. #Kalendīs ipsīs Novembribus#, _C._ 1, 8, _on the 1st of November precisely_. #in ipsō vadō dēprehēnsus Indutiomarus interficitur#, 5, 58, 6, _right at the ford Indutiomarus is caught and killed_. #suprā ipsum balneum habitō#, Sen. _Ep._ 56, 1, _I live right over a bath_.

2384. (6.) _Of oneself_, _voluntarily_, _of one’s own motion_.

#valvae subitō sē ipsae aperuērunt#, _Div._ 1, 74, _the temple-door suddenly opened of itself_. #Catilīnam vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus#, _C._ 2, 1, _we have driven Catiline out, or let him out, or, when he was going out of his own motion, wished him godspeed_.

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

#uter# and #quis#.

2385. #uter#, _whether_? _which_? is used in questions about two things; #quis# and #quī#, _who_? _what_? in questions about more than two, though sometimes loosely of two things.

#uter est īnsānior hōrum?# H. _S._ 2, 3, 102, _which of these is the greater crank?_ #praeclārē apud eundem est Platōnem, similiter facere eōs quī inter sē contenderent uter potius rem pūblicam administrāret, ut sī nautae certārent quis eōrum potissimum gubernāret#, _Off._ 1, 87, _in the same Plato is the excellent saying that for people to fall out with one another about which of two men should manage a state, were just as if the crew of a ship should quarrel about which of them should be pilot_. #ut quem velīs, nesciās#, _Att._ 16, 14, 1, _so that you don’t know which to choose, as between Octavian and Antony_.

2386. #quis# and #quid# ask to have a thing named; #quī# and #quod# to have it described. But see 685.

#quis Diōnem Syrācosium doctrīnīs omnibus expolīvit? nōn Platō?# _DO._ 3, 139, _who refined Syracusan Dio with learning of every sort? was it not Plato?_ #quid rīdēs#, H. _S._ 2, 5, 3, _why dost thou laugh?_ (1144). #quis fuit igitur?:: iste Chaerea.:: quī Chaerea?# T. _Eu._ 823, _who was he then?:: your precious Chaerea.:: what Chaerea?_ #quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur?# _Fin._ 3, 37, _with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion?_

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

2387. The relative pronoun has already been treated; see 1792-1837.

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

#quis# or #quī#; #quispiam#.

2388. #quis# or #quī#, a, _some_, _somebody_, always stands after one or more words of the sentence. #quis# or #quī# is used after #sī# (#nisi#, #sīve#), #nē#, #num#, #utrum#, #an#, #quō#, or #quandō#, in preference to #aliquis#, unless emphasis is intended.

#dīxerit quis#, _Off._ 3, 76, _somebody may say_. #malum quod tibī dī dabunt#, Pl. _Am._ 563, _some curse the gods will bring upon thee_. #hī, sī quid erat dūrius, concurrēbant; sī quī equō dēciderat, circumsistēbant#, 1, 48, 6, _if there was ever any sharpish work, these men would rally; if a man fell from his horse, they would close round him_. #praecipit atque interdīcit ūnum omnēs peterent Indutiomarum, neu quis quem vulneret#, 5, 58, 4, _he charges them and forbids them; they were all to assail Indutiomarus alone; and nobody was to wound anybody_ (2402).

2389. #quispiam#, _a_, _some_, _one or another_.

#forsitan quispiam dīxerit#, _Off._ 3, 29, _peradventure somebody may say_. #quispiam dīcet#, _V._ 3, 111, _somebody will say_. #cum quaepiam cohors impetum fēcerat, hostēs vēlōcissimē refugiēbant#, 5, 35, 1, _every time one or another cohort charged, the enemy fled back quick speed_ (2394).

#aliquis.#

2390. #aliquis# or #aliquī# _some one_, _some one or other_, has always some affirmative emphasis, and is opposed to the idea of _all_, _much_, _none_: as,

#nōn enim dēclāmātōrem aliquem dē lūdō, sed perfectissimum quaerimus#, _O._ 47, _for it is not some spouter from school that we aim to find, but the ideal orator_. #omnēs ut aliquam perniciōsam bēstiam fugiēbant#, _Clu._ 41, _everybody avoided him, like some dangerous wild animal or other_. #audē aliquid Gyarīs dīgnum sī vīs esse aliquid#, J. 1, 73, _venture some deed that deserves transportation, if you care to be something grand_. #nōn sine aliquā spē#, _D._ 7, _not without some hope_. #quaerō sitne aliqua āctiō an nūlla#, _Caec._ 33, _I ask whether there is some ground for an action or none_. #num igitur aliquis dolor post mortem est?# _TD._ 1, 82, _is there, then, some sense of pain after death?_ With emphasis after #sī# (2388): #sī aliquid dē summā gravitāte Pompēius, multum de cupiditāte Caesar remīsisset, aliquam rem pūblicam nōbīs habēre licuisset#, _Ph._ 13, 2, _if Pompey had sacrificed really something of his importance, and Caesar a good deal of his ambition, we might have had what would have been to some degree a commonwealth_.

2391. #aliquis# is sometimes equivalent to #aliquis alius#: as,

#cum M. Pīsōne et cum Q. Pompēiō aut cum aliquō#, _Br._ 310, _with Piso or Pompey or some other man_. #ea mihī cottīdiē aut tūre aut vīnō aut aliquī semper supplicat#, Pl. _Aul. prol._ 23, _she always offers me incense or wine or something else every day_.

#quīdam.#

2392. #quīdam#, _a_, _a certain_, denotes a thing which we cannot describe or do not care to.

#nōn inrīdiculē quīdam ex mīlitibus decimae legiōnis dīxit: plūs quam pollicitus esset, Caesarem facere#, 1, 42, 6, _one of the privates of the Tenth said a very dry thing: that ‘Caesar was doing more than he engaged to.’_ #accurrit quīdam nōtus mihi nōmine tantum#, H. _S._ 1, 9, 3, _up trots a man I knew by name alone_. #assimilis quīdam mūgituī sonus#, Suet. _Galb._ 18, _a mysterious sound like the lowing of a cow_. #vidēmus nātūram suō quōdam itinere ad ultimum pervenīre#, _DN._ 2, 35, _nature reaches perfection by a kind of road of her own_. Often in translations from Greek: as, #aliīs librīs ratiōnem quandam per omnem nātūram rērum pertinentem vī dīvīnā esse adfectam putat#, _DN._ 1, 36, _in other works he supposes ‘a kind of Reason pervading all nature and endowed with divine power_, of Zeno’s doctrine.

2393. #quīdam# is often used to soften an exaggeration or a metaphor, sometimes to denote contempt.

#ēloquentissimōs hominēs innumerābilīs quōsdam nōminābat#, _DO._ 1, 91, _great speakers he named, absolutely without number_. #ad omnīs enim meōs impetūs quasi mūrus quīdam bonī nōmen imperātōris oppōnitur#, _V._ 5, 2, _for against all assaults of mine the name of a good commander is set up, like a regular wall_. #sed aliud quoddam fīlum ōrātiōnis tuae#, _L._ 25, _but there is quite a different fibre to your speech_. #nōn est eōrum urbānitāte quādam quasi colōrāta ōrātiō#, _Br._ 170, _their language lacks the tinge of an indefinable metropolitan element_. #Theomnāstus quīdam, homo rīdiculē īnsānus#, _V._ 4, 148, _a person of the name of Theomnastus, an absurd, crack-brained creature_.

[Erratum:
2392 ... he supposes ‘a kind of Reason pervading all nature and
endowed with divine power
mismatched open quote in original; author’s meaning unclear
(work cited does not use explicit quotation marks)]

#quisque.#

2394. #quisque#, _each_, _each in particular_, _each by himself_, applies what is stated of all to each several case, out of a number more than two.

#laudātī prō cōntiōne omnēs sunt, dōnātīque prō meritō quisque#, L. 38, 23, 11, _they were collectively commended in assembly convened, and received presents, each in proportion to his deserts_. #quotiēns quaeque cohors prōcurrerat, magnus numerus hostium cadēbat#, 5, 34, 2, _as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the enemy fell every time_ (2389). #mēns cuiusque, is est quisque, nōn ea figūra quae digitō dēmōnstrārī potest#, _RP._ 6, 26, _the mind of a man is always the man, and not that shape which can be pointed out by the finger_.

2395. #quisque# is sometimes used in a relative and demonstrative sentence both.

#quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat#, _Off._ 1, 21, _let every man keep what he has got_. #id enim est cuiusque proprium, quō quisque fruitur atque ūtitur#, _Fam._ 7, 30, 2, _for that is always a man’s property which he has the enjoyment and use of_.

2396. In a complex sentence, consisting of a main and a relative sentence, #quisque# is usually expressed but once, and then in the unemphatic relative sentence. In English, the equivalent of #quisque# goes with the main sentence.

#nēmō fuit quī nōn surrēxerit, tēlumque quod cuique fors offerēbat, adripuerit#, _V._ 4, 95, _not a man but sprang from his bed, and seized in every instance such a weapon as chance threw in his way_. #theātrum cum commūne sit, rēctē tamen dīcī potest, eius esse eum locum, quem quisque occupārit#, _Fin._ 3, 67, _though the theatre is open to all, still it may be said with perfect propriety, that each spectator is entitled to the seat he has taken_. #Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat#, _V._ 4, 5, _any Roman, who went to Messana, invariably went to see these statues_ (1939). #eōrum ut quisque prīmus vēnerat, sub mūrō cōnsistēbat#, 7, 48, 2, _as they successively arrived, each man of them took his stand under the wall_.

2397. #quisque# is often used with #sē# or #suus#, superlatives, and ordinals, holding an unemphatic place _after_ these words: as,

#ipse sē quisque dīligit#, _L._ 80, _a man always loves his own self_. #suos quoique mōs#, T. _Ph._ 454, _every man his own way_. #huic prō sē quisque nostrūm medērī velle dēbēmus#, _L. Agr._ 1, 26, _this evil we ought to wish to remedy, according to our several abilities_. #optimum quidque rārissimum est#, _Fin._ 2, 81, _ever the fairest is the rarest_. #nam in forō vix decumus quisquest, quī ipsus sēsē nōverit#, Pl. _Ps._ 973, _for in the marketplace there’s scarce one man in every ten that knows himself_. #quīntō quōque annō Sicilia tōta cēnsētur#, _V._ 2, 139, _at the end of every four years all Sicily is assessed_. #quamquam prīmum quidque explicēmus#, _Fam._ 12, 1, 1, _but stay--let me explain things successively_; or, _one thing after another_. #litterās mīsit, ut is ānulus ad sē prīmō quōque tempore adferrētur#, _V._ 4, 58, _he sent a letter directing said ring to be sent to him without delay_.

2398. In old Latin #quisque# is sometimes equivalent to #quīcumque# or #quisquis#, _whoever_: as, #quisque obviam huic occesserit īrātō, vāpulābit#, Pl. _As._ 404, _whoever meets him in his wrath will catch it_. In #cuiusque generis# and #cuiusque modī#, it means _any and every_: as, #tot hominēs cuiusque modī#, _V._ 4, 7, _so many people of every sort_, i.e. #cuicuimodī#. The neuter #quidquid# for #quidque# is not uncommon: as, #cum prōcessit paulum et quātenus quicquid sē attingat perspicere coepit#, _Fin._ 5, 24, _when it has progressed a little and has begun to discover how far each thing affects it_. Masculine #quisquis# for #quisque# is doubtful (see _Fam._ 6, 1, 1).

#uterque.#

2399. #uterque#, _each_, is used of two individuals, and #utrīque# of two sets or parties. But sometimes #utrīque# is used of two individuals.

(_a._) #ut illa nātūra caelestis et terrā vacat et ūmōre, sīc utriusque hārum rērum hūmānus animus est expers#, _TD._ 1, 65, _even as the heavenly nature is free from the earthy and the humid, so the soul of man has no part in either of these qualities_ (1243). #nūtū tremefactus uterque est polus#, O. _F._ 2, 489, _at his nod trembled each pole_ (1243). #Aetōliōrum utraeque manūs Hēraclēam sēsē inclūsērunt#, L. 36, 16, 5, _both bands of the Aetolians shut themselves up in Heraclea_. (_b._) #sex fīliī nōbīs, duae fīliae sunt, utraeque iam nūptae#, L. 42, 34, 4, _we have six sons and two daughters, both already married_.

2400. Reciprocal relations (2344) are sometimes expressed by #uterque# followed by a different case of #alter#; rarely by #uterque# and a different case of the same word.

(_a._) #quōrum uterque contempsit alterum#, _Off._ 1, 4, _each of whom lightly esteemed the other_. (_b._) #abdūcī nōn potest :: quī nōn potest? :: quia uterque utrīquest cordī#, T. _Ph._ 799, _she’s not to be taken from him :: why isn’t she? :: because they’re heart to heart_. This doubling of #uterque# is found only half a dozen times; not in Cicero.

#quīvīs# and #quīlibet#; #utervīs# and #uterlibet#.

2401. #quīvīs# and #quīlibet#, _any you please_, are used either in affirmative or negative sentences. When two are spoken of, #utervīs# or #uterlibet# is used.

(_a._) #ut quīvīs intellegere posset#, _V._ 5, 17, _so that any fool might know_. #faciat quidlubet#, T. _Hau._ 464, _let him do anything he likes_. (_b._) #quī utramvīs rēctē nōvit, ambās nōverit#, T. _Andr. prol._ 10, _who knows either well, knows both_. #utrumlibet ēlige#, _Quinct._ 81, _choose either you like_.

#quisquam# and #ūllus#.

2402. #quisquam# (692), _a single one_, _any one at all_, and #ūllus#, _any_, are used chiefly in negative sentences or in interrogative, conditional, and comparative sentences implying negation, or with #sine#.

#vēnī Athēnās, neque mē quisquam ibī̆ adgnōvit#, _TD._ 5, 104, _I came to Athens and not a person there knew me_ (1659). #interdīcit omnibus, nē quemquam interficiant#, 7, 40, 4, _he warns them collectively against killing any man at all_ (2388). #hunc suā quisquam sententiā ex hāc urbe expellet?# _Mil._ 104, _will anybody at all, by his vote, banish this man from Rome?_ #quis hoc fēcit ūllā in Scythiā tyrannus?# _Pis._ 18, _what tyrant ever did this in any Scythia?_ #sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum#, _Fam._ 6, 14, 1, _if anybody is timid, I am the man_. #quī saepius cum hoste cōnflīxit quam quisquam cum inimīcō concertāvit#, _IP._ 28, _who has measured swords oftener with the enemy than anybody ever wrangled with an opponent in private life_. #sine ūllō metū in ipsum portum penetrāre coepērunt#, _V._ 5, 96, _without a bit of fear they began to make their way right into the harbour_. #nēmō quisquam# and #nihil quicquam# are old and late: as, #lepidiōrem uxōrem nēmō quisquam habet#, Pl. _Cas._ 1008, _nobody has a jollier wife_. #noster malī nīl quicquam prīmō#, T. _Ph._ 80, _our young master didn’t make any trouble at first_.

2403. #nēmō# is generally used for #nōn quisquam#, #nēmō umquam# for #numquam quisquam#, #nihil# for #nōn quicquam#, and #nūllus# for #nōn ūllus#. If only two are spoken of, #neuter# is used. The plural #neutrī# is used of two parties.

#nēmōst miserior mē#, T. _Hau._ 263, _no man’s unhappier than I_. #nēmō igitur vir magnus sine aliquō adflātū dīvīnō umquam fuit#, _DN._ 2, 167, _nobody who is a great man was ever without some divine inspiration_. #ab nūllō ille līberālius quam ā Cluentiō trāctātus est#, _Clu._ 161, _by no man has he been treated more generously than by Cluentius_. #neutrum eōrum contrā alterum iuvāre#, Caes. _C._ 1, 35, 5, _to help neither of them against the other_. #neutrī alterōs prīmō cernēbant#, L. 21, 46, 4, _neither party saw the others at first_.

(D.) NUMERALS.

2404. Numerals are divided into Adjectives: _Cardinal_, #ūnus#, _one_, #duo#, _two_, &c.; _Ordinal_, #prīmus#, _first_, #secundus#, _second_, &c.; _Distributive_, #singulī#, _one each_, #bīnī#, _two each_, &c.; and Numeral Adverbs: #semel#, _once_, #bis#, _twice_, &c.

For the inflection of numerals, see 637-643.

[Transcriber’s Note:
The following section was printed as a single large table, spanning
two facing pages. It has been reformatted for this text.]

2405.

ARABIC.
CARDINALS.
ORDINALS.
DISTRIBUTIVES.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
ROMAN.

1
ūnus, _one_ (638)
prīmus, _first_ (643)
singulī, _one each_ (643)
semel, _once_
I
2
duo, _two_ (639)
secundus, _second_
bīnī, _two each_
bis, _twice_
II
3
trēs, _three_ (639)
tertius, _third_
ternī, trīnī, _three each_
ter, _thrice_
III
4
quattuor, _four_
quārtus, _fourth_
quaternī, _four each_
quater, _four times_
IIII or IV
5
quīnque, _five_
quīntus, _fifth_
quīnī, _five each_
quīnquiēns, _five times_
V
6
sex, _six_
sextus, _sixth_
sēnī, _six each_
sexiēns, _six times_
VI
7
septem, _seven_
septimus, _seventh_
septēnī, _seven each_
septiēns, _seven times_
VII
8
octō, _eight_
octāvus, _eighth_
octōnī, _eight each_
octiēns, _eight times_
VIII
9
novem, _nine_
nōnus, _ninth_
novēnī, _nine each_
noviēns, _nine times_
VIIII or IX
10
decem, _ten_
decimus, _tenth_
dēnī, _ten each_
deciēns, _ten times_
X
11
ūndecim, _eleven_
ūndecimus, _eleventh_
ūndēnī, _eleven each_
ūndeciēns, _eleven times_
XI
12
duodecim
duodecimus
duodēnī
duodeciēns
XII
13
tredecim
tertius decimus
ternī dēnī
terdeciēns
XIII
14
quattuordecim
quārtus decimus
quaternī dēnī
quater deciēns
XIIII or XIV
15
quīndecim
quīntus decimus
quīnī dēnī
quīndeciēns
XV
16
sēdecim
sextus decimus
sēnī dēnī
sēdeciēns
XVI
17
septendecim
septimus decimus
septēni dēnī
septiēns deciēns
XVII
18
duodēvīgintī
duodēvīcēsimus
duodēvīcēnī
octiēns deciēns
XVIII
19
ūndēvīgintī
ūndēvīcēsimus
ūndēvīcēnī
noviēns deciēns
XVIIII or XIX
20
vīgintī, _twenty_
vīcēsimus, _twentieth_
vīcēnī, _twenty each_
vīciēns, _twenty times_
XX
21
vīgintī ūnus or ūnus et vīgintī
vīcēsimus prīmus or ūnus et vīcēsimus
vīcēnī singulī or singulī et vīcēnī
vīciēns semel or semel et vīciēns
XXI
22
vīgintī duo or duo et vīgintī
vīcēsimus alter or alter et vīcēsimus
vīcēnī bīnī or bīnī et vīcēnī
vīciēns bis or bis et vīciēns
XXII
28
duodētrīgintā
duodētrīcēsimus
duodētrīcēnī
duodētrīciēns
XXVIII
29
ūndētrīgintā
ūndētrīcēsimus
ūndētrīcēnī
*ūndētrīciēns
XXVIIII or XXIX
30
trīgintā
trīcēsimus
trīcēnī
trīciēns
XXX
40
quadrāgintā
quadrāgēsimus
quadrāgēnī
quadrāgiēns
XXXX or Xↆ
50
quīnquāgintā
quīnquāgēsimus
quīnquāgēnī
quīnquāgiēns
ↆ
60
sexāgintā
sexāgēsimus
sexāgēnī
sexāgiēns
ↆX
70
septuāgintā
septuāgēsimus
septuāgēnī
septuāgiēns
ↆXX
80
octōgintā
octōgēsimus
octōgēnī
octōgiēns
ↆXXX
90
nōnāgintā
nōnāgēsimus
nōnāgēnī
nōnāgiēns
ↆXXXX or XC
99
ūndēcentum
ūndēcentēsimus
ūndēcentēnī
*ūndēcentiēns
ↆXXXXVIIII or XCIX
100
centum, _one hundred_
centēsimus, _one hundredth_
centēnī, _a hundred each_
centiēns, _a hundred times_
C
101
centum ūnus or centum et ūnus
centēsimus prīmus or centēsimus et prīmus
centēnī singulī
centiēns semel or centiēns et semel
CI
200
ducentī (641)
ducentēsimus
ducēnī
ducentiēns
CC
300
trecentī
trecentēsimus
trecēnī
trecentiēns
CCC
400
quadringentī
quadringentēsimus
quadringēnī
quadringentiēns
CCCC
500
quīngentī
quīngentēsimus
quīngēnī
quīngentiēns
D
600
sescentī
sescentēsimus
sescēnī
sescentiēns
DC
700
septingentī
septingentēsimus
septingēnī
septingentiēns
DCC
800
octingentī
octingentēsimus
octingēnī
octingentiēns
DCCC
900
nōngentī
nōngentēsimus
nōngēnī
nōngentiēns
DCCCC
1,000
mīlle, _thousand_ (642)
mīllēsimus, _thousandth_
singula mīllia, _a thousand each_
mīlliēns, _a thousand times_
ↀ
2,000
duo mīllia
bis mīllēsimus
bīna mīllia
bis mīlliēns
ↀↀ
5,000
quīnque mīllia
quīnquiēns mīllēsimus
quīna mīllia
quīnquiēns mīlliēns
ↁ
10,000
decem mīllia
deciēns mīllēsimus
dēna mīllia
deciēns mīlliēns
ↂ
50,000
quīnquāgintā mīllia
quīnquāgiēns mīllēsimus
quīnquāgēna mīllia
quīnquāgiēns mīlliēns
ↇ
100,000
centum mīllia
centiēns mīllēsimus
centēna mīllia
centiēns mīlliēns
ↈ
1,000,000
deciēns centēna mīllia
deciēns centiēns mīllēsimus
deciēns centēna mīllia
deciēns centiēns mīlliēns
[symbol]

[Erratum:
2405 ... quadringentēsimus
quādringentēsimus]

[Transcriber’s Note:
In this section, [--] represents a letter or image that could not be
reproduced in plain text.]

NOTATION.

2406. Numbers are noted by combinations of the characters #I# = 1; #V# = 5; #X# = 10; ↆ, later [--], [--], or #L# = 50; #C# = 100; #D# = 500; ↀ or [--], post-Augustan M = 1000.

2407. Of these signs, #V# seems to be the half of #X#, which may be Etruscan in origin. The original signs for 50 and 1000 were taken from the Chalcidian Greek alphabet (18, 19), in which they represented sounds unknown to early Latin. Thus, ↆ, in the Chalcidian alphabet representing #ch# (49), was used by the early Romans for 50, and became successively [--], [--], and #L#. The form ↆ, is found very rarely, [--] oftener, in the Augustan period; [--] is common during the last century of the republic and in the early empire; L, due to assimilation with the Roman letter, appears in the last century of the republic. The sign for 1000 was originally ↀ (Chalcidian #ph#); it became [--] (the common classical form), [--], or [--]; the form #M# as a numeral appears in the second century A.D., although M is found much earlier as an abbreviation for #mīllia# in M · P, that is #mīllia passuum#. For 100, the sign Θ (Chalcidian #th#) may have been used originally; but C (the abbreviation for #centum#) came into use at an early period. The sign #D#, = 500, is the half of ↀ.

2408. To denote 10,000 the sign for 1000 was doubled: thus, ↂ, written also [--], [--], [--]. Another circle was added to denote 100,000: thus, ↈ, written also [--], [--], [--]. The halves of these signs were used for 5000 and 50,000: thus, ↁ and ↇ; variations of these last two signs are found, corresponding to the variations of the signs of which they are the halves.

2409. From the last century of the republic on, thousands are sometimes indicated by a line drawn above a numeral, and hundreds of thousands by three lines enclosing a numeral: as, #V̅# = 5000; [--] = 1,000,000.

2410. To distinguish numerals from ordinary letters, a line is often drawn above them: as, #V͞I# = 6. This practice is common in the Augustan period; earlier, a line is sometimes drawn across the numeral, as, [--] = 2; [--] = 500.

2411. Of the two methods of writing the symbols for 4, 9, 14, 19, &c., the method by subtraction (#IV#, #IX#, #XIV#, #XIX#, &c.) is rarer, and is characteristic of private, not public inscriptions.

[Erratum:
2410 ... a line is sometimes drawn across the numeral
_examples show that “across” means “through”, not “above”_]

SOME FORMS OF NUMERALS.

2412. #quīnctus#, the older form of #quīntus# (170, 4) is sometimes found in old and even in classical writers. Instead of #septimus# and #decimus#, the older #septumus# and #decumus# are not uncommon (28).

2413. In the ordinals from _twentieth_ upwards, the older forms #vīcēnsumus# or #vīcēnsimus#, #trīcēnsumus# or #trīcēnsimus#, &c., &c., are not infrequently found instead of #vīcēsimus#, #trīcēsimus#, &c., &c. (63; 28).

2414. In the numeral adverbs from #quīnquiēns# upwards, later forms in #-īēs# (63) are often found: as, #quīnquiēs#, #deciēs#, &c., &c.

2415. In cardinals and ordinals from _thirteen_ to _seventeen_ inclusive, the larger number sometimes comes first, and in cardinals #et# is sometimes used, though rarely in Cicero.

#decem trēs#, L. 37, 30, 7, _thirteen_. #fundōs decem et trēs relīquit#, _RA_. 20, _he left thirteen farms_. Rarely the smaller number comes first with #et#: as, #dē tribus et decem fundīs#, _RA_. 99, _of the thirteen farms_.

2416. Numbers from 18 to 99 inclusive which end in 8 or 9 are usually expressed by subtraction, as in the list (2405); less frequently (not in Cicero, rarely in classical writers) by addition: as, #decem et octō#, 4, 19, 4; #decem novem#, Ta. _H._ 2, 58.

2417. In compound numbers from _twenty-one_ to _ninety-seven_ inclusive, except those which end in _eight_ or _nine_ (2416), the smaller number with et usually comes first or the larger number without #et#, as in the list. But rarely the larger number comes first with #et#: as, #vīgintī et septem#, _V._ 4, 123, _twenty and seven_.

2418. In numbers from a _hundred and one_ upwards, the larger number comes first, either with or without #et#; but with distributives #et# is not used. With cardinals and ordinals the smaller number sometimes comes first with #et#; as, #iīs rēgiīs quadrāgintā annīs et ducentīs praeteritīs#, _RP_. 2, 52, _after these two hundred and forty years of monarchy were ended_.

SOME USES OF NUMERALS.

CARDINALS AND ORDINALS.

2419. Dates are expressed either by cardinals with a plural substantive or by ordinals with a singular substantive: as,

#dictātor factus est annīs post Rōmam conditam CCCCXV#, _Fam._ 9, 21, 2, _he was made dictator_ 415 U. C. (1393). #annō trecentēsimō quīnquāgēsimō post Rōmam conditam, Nōnīs Iūnīs#, _RP_. 1, 25, _on the 5th of June_, 350 U. C. (1350). The ordinal is also used with a substantive not used in the singular: as, #mancipia vēnībant Sāturnālibus tertiīs#, _Att._ 5, 20, 5, _the slaves were sold on the third day of the Saturnalia_. As the Romans, however, had no fixed official era, they had no dates in the modern sense, and marked the year by the names of the consuls.

DISTRIBUTIVES.

2420. Distributives are used to denote an equal division among several persons or things, and in expressions of multiplication: as,

#bīnī senātōrēs singulīs cohortibus praepositī#, L. 3, 69, 8, _two senators were put over every cohort_: sometimes when #singulī# is added, the cardinal is used, thus: #singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt#, _V._ 2, 137, _every censor was assessed 300 denars_. #bis bīna#, _DN_. 2, 49, _twice two_. Poets use multiplication freely, partly for variety, but mainly from metrical necessity.

2421. Distributives are also used with substantives which have no singular, or which have a different meaning in the singular; but in this use _one_ is always #ūnī#, not #singulī#, and _three_ is often #trīnī#, not #ternī#: as,

#ut ūna castra iam facta ex bīnīs vidērentur#, Caes. _C._ 1, 74, 4, _so that one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two_. #trīnīs catēnīs vinctus#, 1, 53, 5, _in triple irons_. Similarly with things in pairs, as: #bovēs bīnī#, Pl. _Pers._ 317, _a yoke of oxen_.

2422. Poets sometimes use the singular of distributives: as, #centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat#, V. 10, 207, _and with a hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites_. #duplicī nātūrā et corpore bīnō#, Lucr. 5, 879, _twynatured and of body twain_. The plural is sometimes used in verse for the cardinal: #centum bracchia . . . centēnāsque manūs#, V. 10, 565, _a hundred arms . . . and hundred hands_.

OTHER NUMERALS.

2423. Other numerical adjectives are _multiplicatives_, ending in #-plex#; they are: #simplex#, _onefold_, _simple_, #sēscuplex#, _one and a half fold_, #duplex#, #triplex#, #quadruplex#, #quīncuplex#, #septemplex#, #decemplex#, #centuplex#; and _proportionals_, used mostly in the neuter as substantives: #duplus#, _twice as great_, #triplus#, _three times as great_, #quadruplus#, #septuplus#, #octuplus#. Besides these there are other adjectives derived from numerals: as, #prīmānus#, _soldier of the first_: #prīmārius#, _first rate_: #bīmus#, _twinter_, _two-year-old_; &c., &c.

EXPRESSION OF FRACTIONS.

2424. _One half_ may be expressed by #dīmidium# or #dīmidia pars#; other fractions with 1 as a numerator by ordinals, with or without #pars#: as, #tertia pars# or #tertia#, 1/3.

2425. If the numerator is greater than 1 it is usually expressed by the cardinal feminine, with the ordinal feminine for the denominator: as, #duae septimae#, 2/7. But besides these forms there are others, namely:

2426. (1.) Fractions with a numerator less by 1 than the denominator, except 1/2, may be expressed by cardinals with #partēs#, as, #duae partēs#, 2/3; #trēs partēs#, 3/4; #quattuor partēs#, 4/5.

2427. (2.) Fractions with 12 or its multiples as a denominator are expressed in business language by the parts of an #ās#: thus,

1/12, uncia
1/6, sextāns
1/4, quadrāns
1/3, triēns
5/12, quīncunx
1/2, sēmis
7/12, septunx
2/3, bēs
3/4, dōdrāns
5/6, dēxtāns
11/12, deūnx
12/12, ās

#ex āsse hērēs#, Quintil. 7, 1, 20, _heir to the whole_; #relīquit hērēdēs ex bēsse nepōtem, ex tertiā parte neptem#, Plin. _Ep._ 7, 24, 2, _she left her grandson heir to 2/3, her granddaughter to 1/3_. #hērēdem ex dōdrante#, N. 25, 5, 2, _heir to 3/4_.

2428. Sometimes fractions are expressed by addition: as, #dīmidia et quarta#, 3/4; #pars tertia et septima#, 10/21; sometimes by division of the denominator: as, #dīmidia quīnta#, 1/10.

(E.) PROSODY.

I. RULES OF QUANTITY.

(A.) IN CLASSICAL LATIN.

2429. The length of the vowel in some classes of syllables, as used in the classical period, may be conveniently fixed in the memory by the following rules. For the usage of older writers, see 126, 129, 132 and 2464-2472. For the general principles of length of vowels and syllables, see 33-41; 121-134; 177-178.

MONOSYLLABLES.

2430. Monosyllables ending in a vowel or a single consonant have the vowel long: as,

#dōs#, #sōl#; #ā# for #ab#; #ē# for #ex# or #ec-#, #pēs# for #*peds#; ablative #quā#, #quī#; #quīn# for #*quīne#; locative #sei#, commonly #sī#; #sīc# (708); dative and ablative plural #quīs# (688).

Exceptions.

2431. The vowel is short in:

2432. (_a._) Monosyllables ending in #b#, #d#, #m#, and #t#: as, #ab#, #ad#, #dum#, #dat#.

2433. (_b._) The indefinite #qua#, N. and Ac.; the enclitics #-que# (rarely #-quē#), #-ne#, #-ve#, #-ce#; and in the words #cor#, #fel#, #mel#; #os#, _bone_; #ac#, #vir#, #is#, #pol#, #quis# (N.); #fac#, #fer#, #per#, #ter#; #an#, #bis#, #in#, #cis#; #nec#, #vel#. N. #hīc# is rarely short (664). For the quantity of #es#, see 747.

POLYSYLLABLES.

PENULTS.

2434. Disyllabic perfects and perfect participles have the vowel of the penult long when it stands before a single consonant: as,

#vēnī#, #vīdī#, #vīcī# (862); #fōvī# (864), #fōtus# (917).

Exceptions.

2435. (_a._) Nine perfects have the penult short (859-861):

bibī, -fidī
dedī, scidī
stetī, stitī
tulī, -tudī, per-culī.

2436. (_b._) Ten perfect participles have the penult short (918; see also 919):

citus, datus
itum, ratus
-rutus, satus
situs, status
litus, quitus.

FINAL SYLLABLES.

(1.) ENDING IN A VOWEL.

2437. In words of more than one syllable, final #a# and #e# are short; final #o#, #u#, and #i#, are long: as,

(_a._) N. #aquila#; Pl. N. and Ac. #oppida#, #cētera#, #omnia#.

(_b._) N. #ille#; N. and Ac. #rēte#; #impūne# (701); V. #bone#; Ab. #tempore#; Inf. #prōmere#; Imperat. #rege# (826); Pres. Ind. and Imperat. #querere#; Perf. #rēxēre#.

(_c._) N. #sermō#; D. and Ab. #verbō#; #vērō# (704). #iō#. #regō#, #erō#, #amābō#, #rēxerō# (826); #estō#.

(_d._) N. and Ac. #cornū# (587); D. and Ab. #metū# (590, 425, 593); #diū#.

(_e._) G. #frūmentī#; V. #Vergilī# (459); G. #domī# (594); D. #nūllī#, #orbī#; Ab. #sitī# (554). Imperat. #vestī# (845). Inf. #querī#, #locārī#; Ind. Perf. #rēxī# (856), #rēxistī#.

[Erratum:
2437a ... #oppida#, #cētera#, #omnia#
omnīa]

Exceptions in #a#.

2438. (_a._) Final #a# is long in the ablative, in indeclinable words, and in the imperative: as,

(_a._) Ab. #mēnsā# (426).

(_b._) #quadrāgintā#; many indeclinable words are ablatives: as, #contrā#, #iūxtā#, (707). The indeclinable #heia#, #ita#, and #quia# (701), have short #a#.

(_c._) Imperat. #locā# (845). But #puta#, _for instance_, has short #a# (130, 4).

2439. (_b._) Final #a# is long in some Greek nominatives and vocatives: as, N. #Ēlectrā#; V. #Aenēā#, #Pallā#.

[Erratum:
2438c ... But #puta#, _for instance_, has short #a# (130, 4).
short #a#.]

Exceptions in #e#.

2440. (_a._) Final #e# is long in cases of nouns with stems in #-ē-# (596), in adverbs from stems in #-o-#, and in the imperative singular active of verbs in #-ēre#: as,

(_a._) #diē# (G., D., or Ab.), #hodiē#, #prīdiē#; see also 603.

(_b._) #altē# (705); also #ferē#, #fermē# and #ohē# or #ōhē#; but #e# is always short in #bene# and #male#; #īnferne# and #superne#.

(_c._) #docē# (845); for #cave#, see 130, 4.

2441. (_b._) Final #e# is long in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. #crambē#, #Circē#; V. #Alcīdē#; Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #cētē#, #melē#, #pelagē#, #tempē#.

Exceptions in #o#.

2442. (_a._) Final #o# is short in the nominatives #ego#, #duo#. It is sometimes shortened in #homo# (130, 3) and in the nominative of other stems in #-n-# (484, 485): as, #mentio#, #Nāso#, #virgo#. #o# is regularly short in #endo#, in the ablatives #cito# and #modo#, used as adverbs, and in many other words in late poetry: as, #īlico#, #immo#, #ergo#, #quando#, #octo#, &c.; very rarely in the ablative of the gerund.

2443. (_b._) Before Ovid, #o# of the present indicative is regularly long. It is shortened only in the following words (130, 3): in

volo, six times (Cat., 4 times; Hor., Prop.).
scio, twice (Verg.).
nescio, six times (Verg., twice; Hor., twice; Tib., Prop.);

and once each in #eo# and #veto# (Hor.), #dēsino# (Tib.), and #findo# (Prop.). From Ovid on, short #o# is not uncommon.

Short #o# in other forms of the verb is rare: as, #dīxero# (Hor.); #esto#, #ero#, #dabo# (Ov.); but #o# is always short in the imperative #cedo#, _give_, _tell_.

Exceptions in #u#.

2444. Final #u# is short in #indu# and #noenu#.

Exceptions in #i#.

2445. (_a._) Final #i# is short in #nisi#, #quasi#, and #sīcuti#; also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as N. and Ac. #sināpi#; V. #Pari#, #Amarylli#; D. #Paridi#, #Minōidi#; Pl. D. #Trōasi#.

2446. (_b._) Final #i# is common in #mihī̆#, #tibī̆#, #sibī̆#; #ibī̆#, #ubī̆# (129, 2).

[Errata:
2445a ... Final #i# is short in #nisi#, #quasi#, and #sīcuti#
_text unchanged, but form “sīcutī” with long ī occurs at least
twice in this book_]

(2.) ENDING IN A SINGLE CONSONANT NOT #s#.

2447. A final syllable ending in a single consonant not #s# has its vowel short: as,

#dōnec#. #illud#. #animal# (536); #semel#. #agmen#. #calcar# (537); #soror#, #stultior# (132). #moror#, #loquar#, #fatēbor# (132); #regitur#, #regimur#, #reguntur#. #regit# (826); #amat#, #sciat#, #pōnēbat#; #tinnit#, #possit#; #iacet#, #neget#, #esset# (132).

Exceptions.

2448. (_a._) The last vowel is long in #allēc#, and in compounds of #pār#; in the contracted genitive plural of stems in #-u-#: as #currūm#; in all cases of #illic# and #istic# except the nominative masculine, in the adverbs #illūc# and #istūc#, and sometimes in #nihī̆l#. Also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. #āēr#, #aethēr#, #sīrēn#; Ac. #Aenēān#.

2449. (_b._) In the short form of the genitive plural of stems in #-o-# and #-ā-#, the vowel was originally long, but afterwards short: as, #dīvŏ̄m# (462), #caelicolū̆m# (439).

2450. (_c._) The last vowel is long in #iīt# and #petiīt# and their compounds.

(3.) ENDING IN #s#.

2451. Final syllables in #is# and #us# have the vowel short; those in #as#, #es#, and #os#, have the vowel long: as,

(_a._) N. #lapis#, #fīnis#; G. #lapidis#, #fīnis#; #magis#. Indic. Pres. #regis# (826); Fut. #eris# (851, 826), #eritis#, #locābis# (853, 826), #locābitis#.

(_b._) N. #dominus#; #currus#; N. and Ac. #tempus#; #prius#; #rēgibus#; #īmus#; #regimus#.

(_c._) #aetās#; Pl. Ac. #mēnsās# (424). Indic. Pres. #locās# (840); Imp. #erās# (848); #regēbās# (847); Plup. #rēxerās# (880); Subj. Pres. #regās#, #vestiās#, #doceās# (842).

(_d._) N. #hērēs#; #sēdēs#; #nūbēs#; #Cerēs#; #fidēs#; Pl. N. and Ac. #rēgēs# (424); Indic. Pres. #docēs# (840); Fut. #regēs# (852); Subj. Pres. #siēs# (841); #locēs# (843); Imp. #essēs# (850); #regerēs# (849); Plup. #rēxissēs# (881).

(_e._) N. #custōs#; #arbōs#; Pl. Ac. #ventōs# (424).

Exceptions in #is#.

2452. (_a._) Final #is# has #ī# in all plural cases: as,

N. and Ac. #omnīs#; D. and Ab. #viīs#, #locīs# (108, _a_), #vōbīs#. Also in the nominatives singular #Quirīs# and #Samnīs#, usually in #sanguī̆s# (486), and twice in #pulvī̆s#.

2453. (_b._) Final #is# has #ī# in the second person singular of verbs in #-īre#, in #māvīs#, in compounds of #sīs#, and in all present subjunctives singular: as, #duīs#, #edīs#, #velīs#, #mālīs#, #nōlīs#. For #-rī̆s# of the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect, see 877, 878, 883, 884.

Exceptions in #us#.

2454. #u# is long in the nominative singular of consonant stems with #ū# before the final stem consonant: as, #tellūs#, stem #tellūr-#; #palūs#, once #palus# (Hor.), stem #palūd-#; in the genitive singular and nominative and accusative plural of nouns with stems in #-u-#: as, #frūctūs#; and in the ending of some Greek names: as, N. #Panthūs#; G. #Sapphūs#.

Exceptions in #as#.

2455. Final #as# has short #a# in #anas# and in the ending of some Greek nouns: as, N. #Īlias#; Pl. Ac. #cratēras#.

Exceptions in #es#.

2456. Final #es# has short #e# in the nominative singular of stems in #-d-# and #-t-# which have the genitive in #-idis#, #-itis#, and #-etis# (475, 476): as, #praeses#, #teges#, #comes# (but #ē# in #abiēs#, #ariēs#, and #pariēs#), also, in #penes#, in compounds of #es#, _thou art_, and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. #Cynosarges#; Pl. N. #Arcades#, #cratēres#.

Exceptions in #os#.

2457. Final #os# has short #o# in the nominative of stems in #-o-#: as, #servos#, #suos#, #Dēlos#; also in #compos#, #impos#, and #exos#; and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. and Ac. #epos#; G. #chlamydos#, #Erīnyos#.

POSITION.

2458. For the general rule of position, see 177, 178; but, except in the thesis of a foot, a final syllable ending with a short vowel generally remains short before a word beginning with two consonants or a double consonant: as, #molliă strāta#, #nemorōsă Zacȳnthos#, #lūcĕ smaragdī#.

In Horace such a final syllable is never lengthened before a word beginning with two consonants.

HIDDEN QUANTITY.

2459. A vowel which stands before two consonants, or a double consonant, belonging to the same word, so that its natural quantity cannot be determined from the scansion of the word, is said to possess _Hidden Quantity_.

2460. The natural quantity of such a vowel may sometimes be ascertained: (_a._) from the statements of ancient writers; (_b._) from the way in which the vowel is written in Latin inscriptions (see 24, 29); (_c._) from the transliteration of the word into other languages, especially Greek; (_d._) from the etymology of the word, or from a comparison of it with kindred words in other Indo-European languages; (_e._) from comparison with derived words in the Romance languages. But all these kinds of evidence must be used with great caution.

2461. For the length of a vowel before #ns#, #nf#, and certain other groups of consonants, see 122.

2462. In inceptive verbs (834) the ending #-scō# is thought to be always preceded by a long vowel: as, #crēscō#, #nāscor#, #proficīscor#.

2463. In the perfect indicative active, perfect participle passive and kindred formations of verbs in #-gō# preceded by a short vowel, as #agō#, #regō#, the theme syllable shows a long vowel: as, #lēxī#, #rēxī#, #tēxī#; #āctus#, #lēctus#; #rēctor#; #āctitō#.

(B.) SOME PECULIARITIES OF QUANTITY IN OLD LATIN.

2464. For the preservation of a long vowel in certain specific endings in old Latin, see 132.

2465. Final #-āl# is sometimes preserved long in the nominative singular: as, #bacchānāl# (Plaut.); also the syllable #-es# in the nominative singular of stems in #-t-# which have the genitive in #-itis# (477): as #mīlēs# (Plaut.) 171, 1.

2466. #Hic#, #illic# and #istic#, when adverbs, have a long final syllable; but when nominative singular masculine, have the final syllable regularly short.

2467. In Plautus #frūstrā# always where determinable (seven times) has the final syllable short. #contrā# sometimes has a short final syllable in old Latin.

2468. In Latin poetry down to the time of Cicero, final #s# often does not “make position” before a following consonant (66); as, #tempŭs fert# (Plaut.); #magĭs stetisse# (Ter.).

2469. The first syllable of #ille#, #illic# (the pronoun), #quippe#, #immō#, #inde#, #unde#, #nempe#, #omnis#, and perhaps #iste#, is sometimes shortened.

In #ille#, #illic#, #quippe#, and #immō# the shortening is, some hold, due to the fact that in common speech one of the double consonants was often pronounced faintly or not at all; while in #inde#, #unde#, #nempe#, and #omnis# the nasal was very faintly sounded before the following consonant. But some authorities hold that always in #nempe#, and sometimes in #ille#, #quippe#, #inde#, #unde#, and perhaps #iste#, before an initial consonant final #e# disappears, and the word becomes a monosyllable.

LAW OF IAMBIC SHORTENING.

2470. A long syllable, preceded by a short monosyllable or by a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the verse-ictus, may be shortened: as, #ét hŭnc#, #dómŏ mē#, #ad ŭxṓrem#, #volŭntā́te#.

The short monosyllable may be a word which has become monosyllabic by elision: as, #ég(o) hănc#.

2471. If the syllable to be shortened is the first of a word of more than one syllable, or the second of a polysyllable, it must be one which is long by position, not by nature. There are some possible exceptions to this rule, such as #verĕbā́minī# (T. _Ph._ 902); but these are few and doubtful.

2472. Iambic shortening took place not only in verse, but also to a considerable extent in common speech, particularly in iambic words (see 130), in which the accent coöperated with the verse-ictus to produce the shortening.

II. FIGURES OF PROSODY.

HIATUS.

2473. For hiatus within a word, and the means by which it is avoided, see 114-120.

2474. Hiatus between two words is much more common in old Latin than in writers of the classical period. The precise extent to which it is allowed by the early dramatists is matter of dispute. The following cases may be mentioned in which the Latin poets admit hiatus:

2475. (1.) After interjections: as, #hahahae homo#, T. _Ph._ 411; #ō et praesidium#, H. 1, 1, 2.

2476. (2.) After proper names, and words of Greek origin: as, #ancillam ferre Venerī aut Cupīdinī#, Pl. _As._ 804; #Thrēiciō Aquilōne#, H. _Epod._ 13, 3.

2477. (3.) In the principal caesura of a verse. So especially in Plautus and Terence after the fourth foot of the iambic septenarius, and in Plautus in the principal break in the iambic octonarius, trochaic septenarius and trochaic octonarius.

2478. (4.) Often in the dramatists where there is a change of speakers: as, #quī potuit vidēre? :: oculīs :: quō pactō? :: hiantibus#, Pl. _Merc._ 182.

2479. (5.) Probably sometimes in cases of repetition, enumeration, or sharp antithesis, and where there is an important pause in the sense: as, #eam volt meretrīcem facere: ea mē dēperit#, Pl. _Cur._ 46; #sī pereō, hominum manibus periisse iuvābit#, V. 3, 606.

2480. Vergil sometimes admits hiatus when the final syllable ending in a vowel is preceded or followed (or both) by two short syllables: as, #lāmentīs gemitūque et fēmĭnĕō ŭlŭlātū#, V. 4, 667.

ELISION.

2481. For elision within a word, see 119.

2482. In verse a final vowel is generally elided before a vowel or #h#: as,

#quidve moror, s(ī) omnīs ūn(ō) ōrdin(e) habētis Achīvōs#, V. 2, 102. Such a vowel was probably faintly sounded, not dropped altogether.

2483. Elision is frequent in most of the early poets; but writers of the Augustan and succeeding ages regarded it with increasing disfavour. The elision of a long vowel before a short was in general avoided; but there are numerous exceptions.

2484. Monosyllabic interjections do not suffer elision.

2485. Monosyllables ending in a diphthong seldom suffer elision before a short vowel.

2486. Diphthongs arising from Synizesis (2499) are sometimes elided in early Latin verse, but not in verse of the classical period.

2487. The monosyllables #quī# (plural), #dō#, #stō#, #rē#, #spē#, are thought never to suffer elision before a short vowel.

2488. The dactylic poets very rarely elide the final syllable of an iambic (⏑ -) or Cretic (- ⏑ -) word before a short vowel.

2489. Elision seldom occurs if the syllable to be elided is immediately preceded by a vowel: as in #de(am) et#.

2490. The final syllable of a Greek word is rarely elided.

2491. Elision is more common toward the beginning of a verse than toward the end.

2492. Elision rarely occurs in the first syllable or last syllable of a verse; but see under Synapheia (2510), and for the elision of the enclitic #-que# or #-ve# at the end of a dactylic hexameter, see 2568.

2493. ECTHLIPSIS (Gr. ἔκθλιψις, _a squeezing out_). Final #m# and a preceding short vowel are usually elided before a vowel or #h#: as,

mōnstr(um) horrend(um) īnform(e) ingēns, cui lūmen ademptum,
V. 3, 658.

In such cases the ending was probably not cut off altogether, but was given a faint nasal sound.

2494. Sometimes a monosyllable ending in a short vowel and #m# is not elided before a vowel: as #quắm ego# (Ter.); #súnt cŭm odōre# (Lucr.).

Such unelided monosyllables are most frequent in the early dramatists, and in them usually fall under the verse-ictus. See 61.

2495. The monosyllables #dem#, #stem#, #rem#, #spem#, #sim#, are thought never to be elided before a short vowel.

2496. After a word ending with a vowel, #-m#, or #-us#, the verb #est# often loses its #e#: as, #bonast#, #bonumst#, #bonust#, #vīsust#. So, too, #es# sometimes loses its vowel: as #homo’s#, #adeptus’#. This usage reflects the actual pronunciation of common speech.

2497. SEMI-HIATUS OR SEMI-ELISION. A long final vowel is sometimes shortened before a vowel. This may occur either in the arsis (2520), or in a resolved thesis: as, #án quĭ amant# (Verg.); #léctulŏ ērudītulī# (Cat.); #nam quĭ́ aget# (Ter.).

This kind of shortening is not frequent except in the early dramatists, who often shorten under the verse-ictus a monosyllable ending in a long vowel and followed by an initial vowel (as in the third example above).