A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges

Chapter IV: Part 4

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297. The suffix #-mino-# (for #-meno-#, 103, _a_) in its weakest form (135, 2) is found in a few substantives: as, #alu-mnu-s#, _nursling_ (√#al-#, _nurse_). The endings #-minī# (730) and #-minō# (731) are apparently case forms of the same suffix. #-minō# would seem to be an ablative; #-minī# may be a nominative plural.

(B.) DENOMINATIVES.

298. Denominative adjectives may be divided into such as denote: I. _Material_ or _Resemblance_. II. _Appurtenance_: implying sometimes _possession_, often _fitness_, _conformity_, _character_, or _origin_. III. _Supply._ IV. Diminutives. V. Comparatives and Superlatives; a few of these are primitive.

I. MATERIAL OR RESEMBLANCE.

299. The suffixes #-eo-# and #-n-eo-# are used to form adjectives denoting _Material_ or _Resemblance_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

aur-eo- aureus, _golden_ auro-, N. aurum, _gold_
ahē-neo- ahēneus, _bronze_ (58) aes-, N. aes, _bronze_

300. #-eo-#, N. #-eu-s#: #aur-eo-#, N. #aur-eu-s#, _golden_, _all gold_, _as good as gold_ (#auro-#); #ferr-eu-s#, _iron_ (#ferro-#); #pulver-eu-s#, _all dust_ (#pulver-#); #virgin-eu-s#, _girlish_ (#virgin-#).

301. #-n-eo-#, N. #-n-eu-s#: #ahē-neu-s#, _bronze_ (#ahē-#, 58; #aes-#); #quer-neu-s#, _oaken_ (#quercu-#). #-no-# is usually poetical: as, #ebur-nu-s#, _ivory_ (#ebur-#); #quer-nu-s#, _oaken_ (#quercu-#). #-ā-neo-#, N. #-ā-neu-s#: #miscell-āneu-s#, _mixed_ (#miscello-#).

II. APPURTENANCE.

302. The suffixes #-o-#, #-io-#, #-vo-#; #-timo-#, #-li-#, #-no-#; #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-#; #-co-#, #-ti-#, #-si-#, are used to form adjectives denoting _Belonging to_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

rēg-io- rēgius, _kingly_ rēg-, N. rēx, _king_
mari-timo- maritimus, _of the sea_ mari-, N. mare, _sea_
rēg-āli- rēgālis, _of a king_ rēg-, N. rēx, _king_
can-īno- canīnus, _of a dog_ can-, N. canis, _dog_
mulie-bri- muliebris, _womanly_ mulier-, N. mulier, _woman_
cīvi-co- cīvicus, _citizen’s_ cīvi-, N. cīvis, _citizen_

(1.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-io-# (N. #-iu-s#), #-vo-# (N. #-vu-s#).

303. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #decōr-o-#, N. #decōr-u-s#, _becoming_ (#decōr-#); #canōr-u-s#, _melodious_ (#canōr-#); #pervius#, _passable_ (#via-#).

304. #-io-# is one of the commonest suffixes, and is often added to other suffixes; thus: #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#; #-tōr-io-# (#-sōr-io-#); #-ār-io-#.

305. #-io-#, N. #-iu-s#: #rēg-io-#, N. #rēg-iu-s#, _of_ or _like a king_ (#rēg-#); #patr-iu-s#, _of a father_ (#patr-#). Here belong many gentile names: as, #Sēst-iu-s# (#Sexto-#). These are used with substantives as adjectives: as, #lēx Cornēl-ia#, #lēx Iūl-ia#. Furthermore patrial adjectives: as, #Corinth-iu-s#, _Corinthian_ (#Corintho-#). In some, consonant #-io-# is used: #plēbē-iu-s#, _of the commons_ (#plēbē-#). #-io-# is rare in primitives: #exim-iu-s#, _select_ (#ex#, √#em-#, _take_).

306. #-c-io-#, N. #-c-iu-s# (202): #aedīli-cio#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, _of an aedile_ (#aedīli-#); #patr-iciu-s#, _of the fathers_ (#patr-#); #later-iciu-s#, _of brick_ (#later-#).

307. #-īc-io-#, N. #-īc-iu-s#: #nov-īcio-#, N. #nov-īciu-s#, _new_, _new-comer_ (#novo-#); #nātāl-īciu-s#, _birthday’s_ (#nātāli-#); #caement-īciu-s#, _rubble_ (#caemento-#). Usually suffixed to perfect participles to denote the quality derived from the past act: #conduct-īciu-s#, _hired_ (#conducto-#); #trālāt-īciu-s#, _transferred_ (#trālāto-#).

308. #-tōr-io-#, N. #-tōr-iu-s#, or #-sōr-io-#, N. #-sōr-iu-s#, from the agent (205) in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), is the commonest ending with #-io-#: #imperā-tōrio-#, N. #imperā-tōriu-s#, _of a commander_ (#imperātōr-#). The neuter, as substantive, denotes the place where (266): #audī-tōriu-m#, _lecture-room_ (#audītōr-#); #dēvor-sōriu-m#, _inn_ (#dēvorsōr-#).

309. #-ār-io-#, N. #-ār-iu-s#, very common, is chiefly added to substantives: as, #agr-ārio-#, N. #agr-āriu-s#, _of land_ (#agro-#). Often as substantive: #not-āriu-s# (265), _stenographer_ (#notā-#); #aer-āriu-m# (266), _treastury_ (#aer-#); #sēmin-āriu-m#, _nursery_ (#sēmin-#); #bell-āria#, plural, _goodies_, _bonbons_ (#bello-#).

310. #-ī-vo-#, N. #-ī-vu-s# (202): #tempest-īvu-s#, _seasonable_ (#tempestāt-#, 126); #aest-īvu-s#, _summer’s_ (#aestāt-#). See 179.

(2.) #-timo-# (N. #-timu-s#); #-li-# (N. #-li-s#); #-no-# (N. #-nu-s#).

311. #-timo-#, N. #-timu-s# (202), for an older #-tumo-# (28): #mari-timo-#, N. #mari-timu-s#, _of the sea_ (#mari-#); #fīni-timu-s#, _of the border_ (#fīni-#); #lēg-itimu-s#, _lawful_ (#lēg-#).

312. #-li-# N. #-li-s#: #humi-li-#, N. #humi-li-s#, _lowly_ (#humo-#); but almost always in denominatives #-li-# is preceded by a long vowel (202), usually #-ā-# or #-ī-#, thus: #-ā-li-# (#-ā-ri-#), #-ī-li#; #-ē-li-#, #-ū-li-#.

313. #-ā-li-#, N. #-ā-li-s#: #rēg-āli-#, N. #rēg-āli-s#, _kingly_ (#rēg-#); #decemvir-āli-s#, _of a decemvir_ (#decemviro-#); #fāt-āli-s#, _fated_ (#fāto-#); #t-āli-s#, _such_ (stem #to-#, _that_); #qu-āli-s#, _as_ (#quo-#), #-ā-ri-#, N. #-ā-ri-s#, is used for #-āli-# if an #l# precedes (173): as, #mol-āri-#, N. #mol-āri-s#, _of a mill_ (#molā-#); #mīlit-āri-s#, _of a soldier_ (#mīlit-#). Neuters in #-āli-# and #-āri-# often become substantives (600): #fōc-āle#, _neckcloth_ (#fauci-#); #anim-al#, _breathing thing_ (#animā-#); #calc-ar#, _spur_ (#calci-#).

314. #-ī-li-#, N. #-ī-li-s#: #cīv-īli-#, N. #cīv-īli-s#, _of a citizen_ (#cīvi-#); #puer-ili-s#, _boyish_ (#puero-#). The neuter, as substantive, sometimes denotes the place where (266): #ov-īle#, _sheepfold_ (#ovi-#).

315. #-ē-li#, N. #-ē-li-s#: #fidē-li-#, N. #fidē-li-s#, _faithful_ (#fidē-#); #crūd-ēli-s#, _cruel_ (#crūdo-#); #patru-ēli-s#, _cousin_ (#patruo-#). #-ū-li-#, N. #-ū-li-s#: #tribū-li-#, N. #tribū-li-s#, _tribesman_ (#tribu-#).

316. The old participle suffix #-no-# (296) is sometimes added at once to noun stems, sometimes to other suffixes: thus, #-ā-no-#, #-ī-no-#; #-ti-no-#, #-tī-no-#; #-er-no-#, #-ur-no-#.

317. #-no-#, N. #-nu-s#, is added to stems formed with the comparative suffix #-ero-# or #-tero-# (347), denoting place: #super-no-#, N. #super-nu-s#, _above_; #inter-nu-s#, _internal_ (#inter#); #exter-nu-s#, _outside_; so, also, #alter-nu-s#, _every other_ (#altero-#); and to a very few substantives: as, #pater-nu-s#, _fatherly_ (#patr-#); #frāter-nu-s#, _brotherly_ (#frātr-#); #vēr-nu-s#, _of spring_ (#vēr-#). Also to cardinals, making distributives: as, #bī-nī#, _two by two_ (for #*dṷīnī#, #duo-#, 161).

318. #-ā-no-#, N. #-ā-nu-s# (202): #arcā-no-#, N. #arc-ānu-s#, _secret_ (#arcā-#); #Rōma-nu-s#, _of Rome_ (#Rōmā-#); #mont-ānu-s#, _of a mountain_ (#monti-#); #oppid-ānu-s#, _of a town_ (#oppido-#). #-i-āno-#: #Cicerōn-iāno-#, N. #Cicerōn-iānu-s#, _Cicero’s_. Rarely #-ā-neo-#: #mediterrā-neu-s#, _midland_ (#medio-#, #terrā-#).

319. #-ī-no-#, N. #-ī-nu-s# (202): #mar-īno-#, N. #mar-īnu-s#, _of the sea_; #repent-īnu-s#, _sudden_ (#repenti-#); oftenest added to names of living beings: as, #can-īnu-s#, _of a dog_ (#can-#); #dīv-īnu-s#, _of a god_ (#dīvo-#); #-ē-no-#: #lani-ēnu-s#, #ali-ēnu-s#. Also to proper names: as, #Plaut-īno-#, N. #Plaut-īnu-s#, _of Plautus_ (#Plauto-#); #Alp-īnu-s#, _Alpine_ (#Alpi-#).

320. #-ti-no-#, N. #-ti-nu-s#, is used in some adjectives of time: #crās-tinu-s#, _to-morrow’s_ (#crās-#); #diū-tinu-s#, _lasting_ (#diū#); #prīs-tinu-s#, _of aforetime_ (#prī-#, #prae#).

321. #-tī-no-#, N. #-tī-nu-s#, is used in a few words of place and time: #intes-tīno-#, N. #intes-tinu-s#, _inward_ (#intus#); #vesper-tīnu-s#, _at eventide_ (#vespero-#).

322. From words like #frāter-nus# (from #*fratr(i)-nus#, 111, _b_), #pater-nus#, #exter-nus#, #inter-nus#, arose a new suffix #-terno-#: as, #hes-ternus#, from the stem #hes-# (cf. #her-ī#, 154), and #-erno-# in #hodiernus#. From the adverb #*noctur# (νυκτωρ) was derived #noctur-nus#, by analogy to which #diurnus# was formed. Elsewhere the #-ur# of #-urnus# and the #-tur-# of #-turnus# belong to the stem: as, #ebur-nus#; #tacitur-nus#, from the agent #*taci-tor# (205).

(3.) #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-# (N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#, &c.).

323. #-bri-#, N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#: #salū-bri-#, N. #salū-ber#, _healthy_ (#salūt-#); #mulie-bri-s#, _womanly_ (#mulier-#).

324. #-cri-#, N. #-cer# or #-cri-s# (202): #volu-cri-#, N. #volu-cer#, _winged_ (#*volo-#, _flying_); #medio-cri-s#, _middling_ (#medio-#).

325. #-tri-#, N. #-ter# or #-tri-s#: #eques-tri-#, N. #eques-ter#, _of horsemen_ (#equit-#, 152); #sēmēs-tri-s#, _of six months_ (#sex#, #mēns-#). #-es-tri-# is used in a few words: #camp-ester#, _of fields_ (#campo-#); #silv-estri-s#, _of woods_ (#silvā-#).

(4.) #-co-# (N. #-cu-s#); #-ti-#, #-si-# (N. #-s#, #-si-s#).

326. #-co-# is often suffixed to #-ti-#, sometimes to #-es-ti-#; thus: #-ti-co-#, #-es-ti-co-#.

327. #-co-#, N. #-cu-s#: #cīvi-co-#, N. #cīvi-cu-s#, _of a citizen_ (#cīvi-#); #belli-cu-s#, _of war_ (#bello-#); #vīli-cu-s#, _bailiff_ (#vīllā-#). #-ā-co-#, #-ī-co-#, #-ū-co-# (202): #merā-cu-s#, #amī-cu-s#, #antī-cu-s#, #aprī-cu-s#, #postī-cu-s#, #pudī-cu-s#, #cadū-cu-s#. #-ti-co-#, N. #-ti-cu-s#: #rūs-tico-#, N. #rūs-ticu-s#, _of the country_ (#rūs-#). #-es-ti-co-#, N. #-es-ti-cu-s#: #dom-esticu-s#, _of a house_ (#domo-#, #domu-#).

328. #-ti-# or #-si-# denotes belonging to a place; usually #-ā-ti-#, #-ī-ti-#, #-es-ti-#, #-en-ti-#; #-ēn-si-#, or #-i-ēn-si-#.

329. #-ti-#, N. #-s#: #Tībur-ti-#, N. #Tībur-s#, _Tiburtine_ (#Tībur-#). #-ā-ti-#: #quoi-āti-#, N. #quoi-ā-s#, _what countryman?_ (#quoio-#); #Anti-ā-s#, _of Antium_ (#Antio-#); #optim-ātēs#, _good men and true_ (#optimo-#). #-ī-ti-#: #Samn-īti-#, N. #Samn-ī-s#, _Samnian_ (#Samnio-#). #-en-ti-#: #Vēi-enti-#, N. #Vēi-ēn-s#, _of Vei_ (#Vēio-#). #-es-ti-#, N. #-es-ti-s#: #agr-esti-#, N. #agr-esti-s#, _of the fields_ (#agro-#); #cael-esti-s#, _heavenly_ (#caelo-#).

330. #-ēn-si-#, N. #-ēn-si-s# (202), from appellatives of place or proper names of place: #castr-ēnsi-#, N. #castr-ēnsi-s#, _of a camp_ (#castro-#); #circ-ēnsi-s#, _of the circus_ (#circo-#); #Hispāni-ēnsi-s# _(temporarily) of Spain_. #-i-ēnsi-#: #Karthāgin-iēnsi-s#, _of Carthage_ (#Karthāgin-#).

III. SUPPLY.

331. The suffixes #-to-# or #-ōso-# are used to form adjectives denoting _Supplied_ or _Furnished with_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

barbā-to- barbātus, _bearded_ barbā-, N. barba, _beard_
ann-ōso- annōsus, _full of years_ anno-, N. annus, _year_

(1.) #-to-# (N. #-tu-s#); #-len-to-# (N. #-len-tu-s#).

332. #-to-#, the perfect participle suffix, is sometimes added at once to a noun stem, sometimes to other suffixes, thus: #-āto-#, #-īto-#, #-ēto-#, #-ūto-#, #-ento-#, #-lento-#.

333. #-to-#, N. #-tu-s#: #onus-to-#, N. #onus-tu-s#, _loaded_ (#onus-#); #vetus-tu-s#, _full of years_ (#*vetus-#, _year_); #iūs-tu-s#, _just_ (#iūs-#); #hones-tu-s#, _honourable_ (#*hones-#); #fūnes-tu-s#, _deadly_ (#fūnes-#). #-ā-to-#: #barbā-tu-s#, _bearded_ (#barbā-#); #dent-ātu-s#, _toothed_ (#denti-#); #-ī-to-#: #aurī-tu-s#, _long-eared_ (#auri-#); #-ū-to-#: #cornū-tu-s#, _horned_ (#cornu-#). #-en-to-#, N. #-en-tu-s#: #cru-ento-#, N. #cru-entu-s#, _all gore_ (#*cruenti-#, #*cruēre#). As substantive, #arg-entu-m# (_white metal_), _silver_; #flu-enta#, plural, _streams_ (#fluenti-#).

334. The neuter of stems in #-to-#, as a substantive, denotes the place where something, generally a plant, is found (266): #arbus-tu-m#, _vineyard_ (#arbos-#); commonly preceded by #-ē-#, forming #-ē-to-# (202), usually plural: #dūm-ēta#, _thorn-thickets_ (#dūmo-#); #murt-ēta#, _myrtle-groves_ (#murto-#).

335. #-len-to-#, N. #-len-tu-s# (202): #vīno-lento-#, N. #vīno-lentu-s#, _drunken_ (#vīno-#); #sanguin-olentu-s#, _all blood_ (#sanguin-#); #lūcu-lentu-s#, _bright_ (#lūci-#, 28); #pulver-ulentu-s#, _dusty_ (#pulver-#). A shorter form #-lenti-# is rare: #vi-olenti-#, N. #vi-olēn-s#, _violent_ (#vi-#); #op-ulēn-s#, _rich_ (#op-#).

(2.) #-ōso-# (N. #-ōsu-s#).

336. #-ōso-# (sometimes #-ōnso-#, #-ōsso-#), N. #-ōsu-s#, _full of_, is very common indeed, #-ōso-# is sometimes attached to other suffixes, thus: #-c-ōso-#, #-ul-ōso-#, #-ūc-ul-ōso-#.

337. #-ōso-#, N. #-ōsu-s#: #ann-ōso-#, N. #ann-ōsu-s#, _full of years_; #fōrm-ōnsu-s#, #fōrm-ōssu-s# or #fōrm-ōsu-s#, _shapely_ (#fōrmā-#); #perīcul-ōsu-s#, _with danger fraught_ (#perīculo-#); #mōr-ōsu-s#, _priggish_, _cross_ (#mōr-#); #calamit-ōsu-s#, _full of damage_ (#calamitāt-#, 179); #superstiti-ōsu-s#, _superstitious_ (#superstitiōn-#, 179); #frūctu-ōsu-s#, _fruitful_ (#frūctu-#, 116, _c_); #mont-uōsu-s#, _full of mountains_ (#monti-#, 202); #cūri-ōsu-s#, _full of care_ (#cūrā-#); #labōr-iōsu-s#, _toilsome_ (#labōr-#, 202).

338. #-c-ōso-#, N. #-c-ōsu-s#: #belli-cōso-#, N. #belli-cōsu-s#, _warlike_ (#bello-#, #bellico-#). #-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ul-ōsu-s#: #formīd-ulōso-#, N. #formid-ulōsu-s#, _terrible_ (#formīdin-#, 179). #-ūc-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ūc-ul-ōsu-s#: #met-ū-culoso-#, N. #met-ū-culōsu-s#, _skittish_ (#metu-#).

[Erratum:
338 ... #met-ū-culoso-#
printed met-/-u- at line break]

IV. DIMINUTIVES.

339. Diminutives are formed from adjectives, as from substantives (267).

#-lo-#, N. #-lu-s#: #aureo-lo-#, N. #aureo-lu-s#, _all gold_, _of precious gold_, _of red red gold_, _good as gold_ (#aureo-#); #ebrio-lu-s#, _tipsy_ (#ebrio-#); #parvo-lu-s#, or #parvu-lu-s#, _smallish_ (#parvo-#); #frīgidu-lu-s#, _chilly_ (#frigido-#); #vet-ulus#, _little old_ (#vet-#); #tenellu-lu-s#, _soft and sweet_ (#tenello-#, #tenero-#); #pulchel-lus#, _sweet pretty_ (#pulchro-#); #bel-lu-s#, _bonny_ (#bono-#); #novel-lu-s#, _newborn_ (#*novolo-#, #novo-#). #-culo-#, N. #-culu-s#: #pauper-culo-#, N. #pauper-culu-s#, _poorish_ (#pauper-#); #levi-culu-s#, _somewhat vain_ (#levi-#).

340. A peculiar class of diminutives is formed by adding #-culo-# to the comparative stem #-ius-# (346): as, #nitidius-culo-#, N. #nitidius-culu-s#, _a trifle sleeker_ (#nitidius-#); #longius-culu-s#, _a bit longer_ (#longius-#).

341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as, #bellē#, _charmingly_; #paullulum#, _a little bit_; #meliusculē#, _a bit better_ (340).

[Erratum:
339 ... _of red red gold_
text unchanged]

V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as, #dignior#, _worthier_, #dignissimus#, _worthiest_, from #digno-#, stem of #dignus#. A few are formed directly from roots: thus, #maior#, _greater_, and #maximus#, _greatest_, are formed from the √#mag-#, and not from #magno-#, stem of #magnus#.

(1.) COMPARATIVE #-ior#, SUPERLATIVE #-issimus#.

343. The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in #-ior#, and that of superlatives in #-issimus#: thus,

COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.
-ior -ior -ius -issimus -issima -issimum

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_.
trīstis, _sad_, trīstior, _sadder_, trīstissimus, _saddest_.

(2.) SUPERLATIVE #-rimus#.

344. Adjectives with the nominative in #-er# have the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with #-rimus# added (350): as,

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

pauper, _poor_, pauperior, _poorer_, pauperrimus, _poorest_.
ācer, _sharp_, ācrior, _sharper_, ācerrimus, _sharpest_.

#mātūrrimus# occurs once (Tac.), for #mātūrissimus#, positive #mātūrus#, _ripe_.

(3.) SUPERLATIVE #-limus#.

345.

humilis, difficilis, and facilis,
similis, dissimilis, and gracilis,

have the nominative of the superlative in #-limus#, following #l# of the stem (350): as,

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

humilis, _lowly_, humilior, _lowlier_, humillimus, _lowliest_.

THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.

346. The comparative suffix is #-iōs-#, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine, #-ior# (154; 132), neuter nominative and accusative, #-ius# (107, _c_); in all other cases #-iōr-# (154).

347. Other comparative suffixes are #-ro-# or #-ero-#, and #-tro-# or #-tero-#, used in a few words, principally designating place: as, #sup-erī#, _the upper ones_, #īnferī#, _the nether ones_; #ex-terī#, _outsiders_, #posterī#, _after-generations_; #alter#, _the other_; #uter#, _whether?_ _which of the two?_ (for #*quo-ter#, 146); #dexter#, _right_.

348. Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix, #-er-iōr-#, or #-ter-iōr-#: as, #sup-er-ior#, _upper_, #īnferior#, _lower_. #ci-ter-ior#, _hither_, #dēterior# (_lower_), _worse_, #exterior#, _outer_, #interior#, _inner_, #posterior#, _hinder_, _after_, #ulterior#, _further_, #dexterior#, _more to the right_, #-is-tro-# is used in two words which have become substantives: #min-is-ter# (_inferior_), _servant_, and #magister# (_superior_), _master_.

THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.

349. The common superlative suffix is #-issimo-#, nominative #-issimus#, with older #-issumo-#, nominative #-issumus# (28).

350. Stems which end in #-ro-#, #-ri-#, or #-li-# (344, 345) take the suffix #-issimo-# (cf. #-simo-#, 351) with syncope of its initial #i# (111) and assimilation of the final #l# or #r# (166, 8).

351. The suffix #-timo-# is further used in a few root superlatives: #ci-timus#, #dextimus#, #extimus#, #intimus#, #optimus#, #postumus#, and #ultimus#; and #-simo-# in #maximus#, #pessimus#, and #proximus#.

352. The suffix #-mo-# or #-imo-# is used in #sum-mo-#, N. #summus#, _highest_ (#sub#); #min-imo-#, N. #minimus#, _least_; #prīmus#, _first_, #septimus#, _seventh_, #decimus#, _tenth_. #-mo-# or #-imo-# is attached to #-is-# (135, 2) in #plūrimus# for #*plō-is-imo-s# (_fullest_), _most_ (99); and to #-rē-# or #-trē-#, possibly an adverbial form (705), in #suprēmus#, #extrēmus#, and #postrēmus#.

PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.

353. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,

frūgī, _thrifty_, frūgālior, frūgālissimus.
nēquam, _naughty_, nēquior, nēquissimus.
iuvenis, _young_, iūnior, (nātū minimus).
senex, _old_, senior, (nātū maximus).
magnus, _great_, maior, maximus (351).
beneficus, _kindly_, beneficentior, beneficentissimus.
honōrificus, _complimentary_, honōrificentior, honōrificentissimus.
magnificus, _grand_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.

354. #iuvenior#, _younger_, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.). #benevolēns#, _kindly_, #benevolentior#, #benevolentissimus#, and #maledīcēns#, _abusive_, #maledīcentior# (once each, Plaut.), #maledīcentissimus#, have usually as positive #benevolus# and #maledicus# respectively.

355. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,

bonus, _good_, melior, optimus (351).
malus, _bad_, peior, pessimus (351).
multus, _much_, plūs (sing. Ne. only), plūrimus (352).
parvus, _little_, minor, minimus (352).

#parvus# has rarely #parvissimus#.

356. Four comparatives in #-erior# or #-terior#, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:

exterior, extimus (351), or extrēmus (352), _outermost_.
īnferior, īnfimus, or īmus, _lowest_.
posterior, postumus (351), _lastborn_, or postrēmus (352), _last_.
superior, summus (352), or suprēmus (352), _highest_.

357. Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:

cis, _this side_, citerior (348), citimus (351), _hitherest_.
dē, _down_, dēterior (348), dēterrimus, _lowest_, _worst_.
in, _in_, interior (348), intimus, _inmost_.
prae, _before_, prior, prīmus (352), _first_.
prope, _near_, propior, proximus (351), _nearest_.
uls, _beyond_, ulterior (348), ultimus (351), _furthest_.

#ōcior#, _swifter_, #ōcissimus#, has no positive.

358. These have a superlative, but no comparative: #bellus#, _pretty_, #falsus#, _false_, #inclutus#, _famed_, #invictus#, _unconquered_, #invītus#, _unwilling_, #meritus#, _deserving_, #novus#, _new_; #vetus#, #veterrimus#, _old_, #sacer#, #sacerrimus#, _sacred_, #vafer#, #vaferrimus#, _sly_; #malevolus#, #malevolentissimus# (twice, Cic.), _spiteful_; #maleficus#, #maleficentissimus# (once, Suet.), _wicked_, #mūnificus#, #mūnificentissimus# (inscrr.; Cic. once), _generous_, #mīrificus#, #mīrificissimus# (twice, Acc., Ter.), _strange_. Plautus has #ipsissumus#, _his very self_.

359. Most primitives in #-ilis# and #-bilis# (292, 294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative: #facilis# and #difficilis# (345), _easy_ and _hard_, #ūtilis#, _useful_; also #fertilis#, _productive_, #amābilis#, _lovable_, #mōbilis#, _movable_, #nōbilis#, _well known_.

360. Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these by #magis#, _more_, and #maximē#, _most_: as, #mīrus#, _strange_, #magis mīrus#, #maximē mīrus#. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.

[Erratum:
358 ... (inscrr.; Cic. once), _generous_,
_generous_.]

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.

361. Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in #-ē#: as,

altē, _on high_, altius, altissimē.
ācriter, _sharply_, ācrius, ācerrimē.
facile, _easily_, facilius, facillimē.

362. An older superlative ending, #-ēd# for #-ē#, occurs in an inscription of 186 B.C.: FACILVMED, i.e. #facillimē#. A few adverbs have superlatives in #-ō# or #-um#: as, #meritissimō#, _most deservedly_; #prīmō#, _at first_, #prīmum#, _first_; #postrēmō#, _at last_, #postrēmum#, _for the last time_.

363. If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as, #bene#, _well_, #melius#, #optimē#; #male#, _ill_, #peius#, #pessimē#; #multum#, _much_, #plūs#, #plūrimum#; #mātūrē#, _betimes_, #mātūrius#, #mātūrissimē# (Cic., Plin.), or #mātūrrimē# (Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.). #ōcius#, _swifter_, no positive, #ōcissimē#. #minus#, _less_, is formed by the nominal suffix #-es-# (236), from √#min-# (#minuō#); for #magis#, _more_, see 135, 2. In poetry #magis# sometimes becomes #mage#, as if neuter of an adjective in #-i-#.

364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as, #diū#, _long_, #diūtius#, #diūtissimē#; #saepe#, _often_, #saepius#, #saepissimē#; #nūper#, _lately_, no comparative, #nūperrimē#; #secus#, _otherwise_, #sētius#, _the less_; #temperī#, _betimes_, #temperius#, _earlier_, no superlative.

[Erratum:
363 ... #ōcius#, _swifter_, no positive; #ōcissimē#.
positive.]

(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.

365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre# (#-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,

VERB. FROM NOUN.

fugā-re, _rout_ fugā-, N. fuga
locā-re, _place_ loco-, N. locus
nōminā-re, _name_ nōmin-, N. nōmen
levā-re, _lighten_ levi-, N. levis
sinuā-re, _bend_ sinu-, N. sinus
albē-re, _be white_ albo-, N. albus
miserē-rī, _pity_ misero-, N. miser
flōrē-re, _blossom_ flōr-, N. flōs
sordē-re, _be dirty_ sordi-, N. sordēs
pūnī-re, _punish_ poenā-, N. poena
condī-re, _season_ condo-, N. condus
custōdī-re, _guard_ custōd-, N. custōs
vestī-re, _dress_ vesti-, N. _vestis_
gestī-re, _flutter_ gestu-, N. _gestus_

366. These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix #-i̭o-#, #-i̭e-# to the noun stem: as #*fugā-i̭ō#, _I flee_; the #i̭# between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.

367. In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in #-u-# the #u# of the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116, _c_): these are, #acuere#, _sharpen_ (#acu-#), #metuere#, _fear_, #statuere#, _set_, #tribuere#, _assign_; #arguere#, _make clear_, #bātuere#, _beat_.

368. Verbs in #-āre# are by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as, #dominārī#, _lord it_, _play the lord_; #aquārī#, _get oneself water_. Most verbs in #-īre# also are transitive; those in #-ēre# usually denote a state: as, #calēre#, _be warm_; but some are causative: as, #monēre#, _remind_.

369. Many denominative verbs in #-āre# contain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are: #-co-#, #-cin-#, #-lo-#, #-er-#, #-ro-#, #-to-#, &c.: as,

#-co-#: #albi-cāre#, _be white_ (#*albi-co-#); #velli-cāre#, _pluck_ (#*velli-co-#, _plucker_). #-cin-#: #latrō-cinārī#, _be a robber_ (#latrōn-#); #sermō-cinārī#, _discourse_ (#sermōn-#). #-lo-#: #grātu-lārī#, _give one joy_ (#*grātu-lo-#); #vi-olāre#, _harm_ (#*vi-olo-#); #heiu-lāri#, _cry_ ‘#heia#’ (#*heiu-lo-#). #-er-#: #mod-erārī#, _check_ (#*mod-es-#, 236). #-ro-#: #tole-rāre#, _endure_ (#*tole-ro-#); #flag-rāre#, _blaze_ (#*flag-ro-#). #-to-#: #dēbili-tāre#, _lame_ (#*dēbili-to-#); #dubi-tāre#, _doubt_ (#*dubi-to-#).

370. Many denominatives in #-āre# are indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the root #fac-#, _make_, #ag-#, _drive_, _do_, or #cap-#, _take_: as,

#opi-tul-ārī#, _bear help_ (#opitulo-#); #suf-fōc-āre#, _suffocate_ (#*suf-fōc-o-#, #fauci-#); #aedi-fic-āre# (_housebuild_), _build_ (#*aedific-# or #*aedifico-#, _housebuilder_); #sīgni-fic-āre#, _give token_ (#*sīgnifico-#); #fūm-ig-āre#, _make smoke_ (#*fūmigo-#, _smoker_, #fūmo-#, √#ag-#); #nāv-ig-āre#, _sail_, and #rēm-ig-āre#, _row_ (#nāvi-#, _ship_, and #rēmo-#, _oar_); #mīt-ig-āre#, _make mild_ (#mīti-#); #iūr-ig-āre#, commonly #iūr-g-āre#, _quarrel_ (#iūr-#); #pūr-ig-āre#, commonly #pūr-g-āre#, _clean_ (#pūro-#); #gnār-ig-āre#, _tell_ (#gnāro-#, #narrāre#, 169, 2; 133, 1); #anti-cip-āre#, _take beforehand_ (#*anticipo-#, #ante#, √#cap-#); #oc-cup-āre#, _seize_ (#*occupo-#); #re-cup-er-āre#, _get back_ (#*recupero-#).

371. Many verbs in #-tāre# (#-sāre#), or #-tārī# (#-sārī#), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are called _Frequentatives_ or _Intensives_; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in #-ā-to-# become #-i-to-#: as,

#cant-āre#, _sing_ (#canto-#); #cess-āre#, _loiter_ (#cesso-#); #amplex-ārī#, _embrace_ (#amplexo-#); #habit-āre#, _live_ (#habito-#); #pollicit-āri#, _make overtures_ (#pollicito-#); #dormīt-āre#, _be sleepy_ (#dormīto-#); #neg-itāre#, _keep denying_ (for #*negā-tāre#, with suffix #-i-tāre#, 910).

372. Some frequentatives in #-tāre# are formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ere#; the formative vowel before #-tāre# becomes #i#: as,

#agi-tāre#, _shake_ (#age-re#); #flui-tāre#, _float_ (#flue-re#); #nōsci-tāre#, _recognize_ (#nōsce-re#); #quaeri-tāre#, _keep seeking_ (#quaere-re#); #scīsci-tārī#, _enquire_ (#scīsce-re#); #vēndi-tāre#, _try to sell_ (#vēnde-re#).

373. A few frequentatives add #-tā-# to the perfect participle stem: as,

#ācti-tāre#, _act often_ (#ācto-#); #facti-tāre#, _do repeatedly_ (#facto-#); #lēcti-tāre#, _read again and again_ (#lēcto-#); #ūncti-tāre#, _anoint often_ (#ūncto-#). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as, #dict-āre#, _dictate_, #dicti-tāre#, _keep asserting_ (#dicto-#).

374. Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as, #gust-āre#, _taste_ (#*gusto-#, √#gus-#, _taste_); #put-āre#, _think_ (#puto-#, √#pu-#, _clean_); #aegrōt-āre#, _be ill_ (#aegrōto-#).

375. A few verbs in #-uriō#, #-urīre#, express desire; such are called _Desideratives_: as, #ēss-urīre# or #ēs-urīre#, _want to eat_ (#edere#, #ēsse#). A few in #-ssō#, #-ssere#, express earnest action; such are called _Meditatives_: as, #lacē-ssō#, #lacē-ssere#, _provoke_.

[Erratum:
365 (table) ... albē-re, _be white_ albo-, N. albus
N albus]

COMPOSITION.

376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.

377. A DIRECT COMPOUND is one formed directly from two parts: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#, _yoke-fellow_ (#com-#, _together_, √#iug-#, _yoke_); #con-iungere#, _join together_ (#com-#, #iungere#); an INDIRECT COMPOUND is one formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as, #iūdic-io-#, N. #iūudicium#, _trial_ (#iūdic-#): #iūdicā-re#, _judge_ (#iūdic-#).

378. A REAL COMPOUND is a word whose stem is formed from two stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; an APPARENT COMPOUND is formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.

I. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.

(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.

FORM OF COMPOUNDS.

379. If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as, #Ahēno-barbus#, _Redbeard_, _Barbarossa_; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as, #aurifex#, _jeweller_ (#auro-#). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see 174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as, #*venēni-ficus#, #venē-ficus#, _poisoner_ (#venēno-#); or of a vowel (111): as, #man-ceps#, _contractor_ (#manu-#); particularly before a vowel (119): as, #magn-animus#, _great-souled_ (#magno-#). Consonant stems are often extended by #i# before a consonant: as, #mōri-gerus#, _complaisant_ (#mōr-#).

380. Stems in #-s-#, including those in #-er-#, #-or-# and #-ōr-# (236), are sometimes compounded as above (379): as, #nemori-vagus#, _woodranger_; #honōri-ficus#, _complimentary_; but usually they drop the suffix and take #i#: as, #opi-fex#, _work-man_ (#oper-#); #foedi-fragus#, _truce-breaker_ (#foeder-#); #volni-ficus#, _wounding_ (#volner-#); #mūni-ficus#, _generous_ (#mūner-#); #terri-ficus#, _awe-inspiring_ (#terrōr-#); #horri-fer#, _dreadful_, #horri-sonus#, _awful-sounding_ (#horrōr-#).

381. The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102), is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a formative suffix; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified: as, #iū-dic-#, N. #iūdex#, _juror_ (√#dic-#, _declare_); #causi-dic-o-#, N. #causidicus#, _pleader_ (209); #in-gen-io-#, N. #ingenium#, _disposition_ (√#gen-#, _beget_, 219); #con-tāg-iōn-#, N. #contāgiō#, _touching together_ (√#tag-#, _touch_, 227); #im-berb-i-#, N. #imberbis#, _beardless_ (#barbā-#).

MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.

382. DETERMINATIVES are compounds in which the second part keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best expressed by two words.

383. (1.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix; the second part is a noun: as,

#lāti-fundium#, i.e. #lātī fundī#, _broad acres_; #prīvi-lēgium#, i.e. #prīva lēx#, _special act_; #alti-sonāns#, i.e. #altē sonāns#, _high-sounding_; #con-discipulus#, i.e. #cum alterō discipulus#, _fellow-pupil_; #per-magnus#, i.e. #valdē magnus#, _very great_; #in-dignus#, i.e. #nōn dignus#, _unworthy_.

384. (2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique case of a noun, generally a substantive; the second part is a noun or verb stem. These compounds are called _Objectives_: as,

Accusative of direct object (1132), #armi-ger#, i.e. #quī arma gerit#, _armour-bearer_; dative of indirect object (1208), #man-tēle#, i.e. #manibus tēla#, _handkerchief_, _napkin_; genitive (1227), #sōl-stitium#, i.e. #sōlis statiō#, _solstice_; ablative instrumental (1300), #tubi-cen#, i.e. #quī tubā canit#, _trumpeter_; locative (1331), #Troiu-gena#, i.e. #Troiae nātus#, _Troy-born_; ablative locative (1350), #nocti-vagus#, _night-wandering_; #monti-vagus#, _mountain-ranging_.

385. POSSESSIVES are adjective compounds in which the meaning of the second part is changed. The second part of a possessive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun, adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole expresses an attribute which something _has_: as,

#longi-manus#, _longarms_, _long-armed_; #miseri-cors#, _tender-hearted_; #bi-linguis#, _two-tongued_; #magn-animus#, _greatheart_, _great-hearted_; #im-berbis#, _beardless_.

(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.

386. Apparent Compounds are formed:

387. (1.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending, the other with full inflections: as, #aquae-ductus#, _aqueduct_; #senātūs-cōnsultum#, _decree of the senate_; #pater-familiās#, _father of a family_; #vērī-similis#, _like the truth_; in these words, #aquae#, #senātūs#, #familiās#, and #vērī# are genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is declinable.

388. (2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with it, both parts being declined: as, #rēs pūblica#, _the common-weal_; #rēs gestae#, _exploits_; #iūs iūrandum#, _oath_; #pecūniae repetundae#, _money claim_.

389. (3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely side by side and making one idea. The two words may be used: (_a._) Copulatively: as, #ūsus-frūctus#, _use and enjoyment_; #pactum-conventum#, _bargain and covenant_; #duo-decim#, _two and ten_, _twelve_; or (_b._) Appositively: one word explaining the other (1045): as, #Iuppiter#, _Jove the Father_ (94; 133); #Mārspiter#, _Mars the Father_, for #Mārs pater#.

390. (4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as, #prōcōnsul#, _proconsul_, from #prō cōnsule#, _for a consul_; #ēgregius#, _select_, from #ē grege#, _out of the herd_; #dēlīrus#, _astray_, _mad_, from #dē līrā#, _out of the furrow_.

II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.

(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.

391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,

#per-agere#, _put through_, _accomplish_; #ab-igere#, _drive away_; #ex-quīrere#, _seek out_. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396).

392. Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composition: #ambi-#, _round_, #an-#, _up_, #dis-#, _in two_, _apart_, #por-#, _towards_, #red-#, #re-#, _back_, #sēd-#, #sē-#, _by oneself_, _away_: as, #amb-īre#, _go round to_; #an-hēlāre#, _breathe up_; #dis-pellere#, _drive apart_; #por-rigere#, _stretch forth_; #red-dere#, _give back_; #sē-iungere#, _separate_.

(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.

393. Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposition of:

394. (1.) A verb with a verb: #faciō# and #fīō# are added to present stems, mostly of intransitive verbs in #-ēre#; the #-e-# of the first verb is sometimes long, and sometimes short (130, 5): as, #calē̆-facere#, _make warm_ (#calēre#); #excandē̆-facere#, _make blaze_ (#candēre#); #madē̆-facere#, _make wet_ (#madēre#). In these apparent compounds, the accent of #faciō# remains the same as in the simple verb: as, #calē̆fácis#.

395. (2.) A substantive with a verb: as, #anim-advertere#, _pay heed to_, #animum advertere#; #vēnum-dare#, or #vēndere#, _sell_, #vēnum dare#; #vēn-īre#, _be sold_, #vēnum īre#; #lucrī-facere#, _make gain_, #lucrī facere#; #manū-mittere#, _set free_.

396. (3.) An adverb with a verb: as, #circum-dare#, _put round_; #satis-facere#, #satis-dare#, _give satisfaction_; #intro-īre#, _go inside_; #mālle#, _prefer_, for #magis velle# (170, 2); #nōlō#, _be unwilling_, for #ne volō#; #ne-scīre#, #hau-scīre#, _not know_.

[Erratum:
396. (3.)
(2)]

C. INFLECTION.

397. INFLECTION is the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.

The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often called _Declension_, and that of a verb, _Conjugation_.

(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.

398. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.

The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.

THE STEM.

399. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in #-ā-#, in #-o-#, in a consonant, or in #-i-#; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in #-u-# or #-ē-#; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.

400. In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as, #urbi-um#, #ācri-a#, #cornu-a#, #portu-ī#, #portu-um# (116, _c_); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as, #mēnsīs#, #dominīs# (108, _a_).

401. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,

#sēdēs# (476); #femur#, #iecur# (489); #vās#, #mēnsis# (492); #vīrus#, #volgus# (493); #iter#, #nix#, #senex#, &c. (500); #vīs# (518); #caedēs# (523); #famēs#, #plēbēs# (524); #domus# (594); #angiportus#, &c. (595). Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an #-i-# stem in the plural: see 516; most substantives in #-iē-# or #-tiē-# have a collateral form in #-iā-# or #-tiā-# (604). Some adjectives have two different stems: as, #hilarus#, #hilara#, #hilarum#, and #hilaris#, #hilare#; #exanimus# and #exanimis#.

GENDER.

402. There are two genders, _Masculine_ and _Feminine_. Masculine and feminine nouns are called _Gender nouns_. Nouns without gender are called _Neuter_.

403. Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.

404. Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.

GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.

MASCULINES.

405. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,

#Caesar#, #Gāius#, #Sūlla#, men’s names; #pater#, _father_; #erus#, _master_; #scrība#, _scrivener_; #Tiberis#, _the Tiber_; #Aquilō#, _a Norther_; #Lūcrētilis#, _Mt. Lucretilis_.

406. The river names: #Allia#, #Dūria#, #Sagra#, #Lēthē#, and #Styx# are feminine. Also the mountain names #Alpēs#, plural, _the Alps_, and some Greek names of mountains in #-a# or #-ē#: as, #Aetna#, _Mt. Etna_; #Rhodopē#, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, as #Sōracte#.

FEMININES.

407. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,

#Gāia#, #Glycerium#, women’s names; #mālus#, _apple-tree_; #quercus#, _oak_; #īlex#, _holm-oak_; #abiēs#, _fir_.

408. Masculine are: #bōlētus#, _mushroom_, #carduus#, _thistle_, #dūmī#, plural, _brambles_, #intibus#, _endive_, #iuncus#, _rush_, #oleaster#, _bastard olive_, #rubus#, _bramble_, #rumex#, _sorrel_, #scirpus#, _bulrush_, and rarely #fīcus#, _fig_. Also some of Greek origin: as, #acanthus#, #amāracus#, #asparagus#, and #crocus#. Neuter are: #apium#, _parsley_, #balsamum#, _balsam-tree_, #rōbur#, _heart of oak_, and some names with stems in #-er-# (573).

MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.

409. MOBILE NOUNS have different forms to distinguish sex: as, #Iūlius#, a man, _Julius_, #Iūlia#, a woman, _Julia_; #cervus#, _stag_, #cerva#, _hind_; #socer#, _father-in-law_, #socrus#, _mother-in-law_; #victor#, _conqueror_, #victrīx#, _conqueress_. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.

410. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be of _Common Gender_: as, #adulēscēns#, _young man_ or _young woman_; #dux#, _leader_; #īnfāns#, _baby_, _child_; and many other consonant stems or stems in #-i-#, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.

411. EPICENES have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus, #aquila#, _eagle_, is feminine, though it may denote a _he-eagle_ as well as a _she-eagle_; #anatēs#, _ducks_, feminine, includes _drakes_.

[Erratum:
411 ... as well as a _she-eagle_;
_she-eagle_:]

NEUTERS.

412. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,

#vīvere ipsum#, _mere living_; #istūc ‘taceō,’# _your ‘I won’t mention;’_ #longum vale#, _a long goodbye_; #o Graecum#, _Greek O_. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with #littera# understood.

VARIABLE GENDER.

413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, #epulum#, neuter, #epulae#, feminine, _feast_. See #balneum#, #frēnum#, #jocus#, #locus#, #margarīta#, #ostrea#, #rāstrum#, in the dictionary.

NUMBER.

414. There are two numbers, the _Singular_ used of one, the _Plural_ of more than one.

415. #ambō#, _both_, and #duo#, _two_, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an old _Dual_ number, denoting two.

416. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.

Such are: proper names: as, #Cicerō#, _Cicero_; #Rōma#, _Rome_; material and abstract substantives: as, #oleum#, _oil_, #vīnum#, _wine_, #iūstitia#, _justice_; and gerunds: as, #regendī#, _of guiding_. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.

417. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.

Such are: names of persons of a class: as, #maiōrēs#, _ancestors_; #superī#, _the beings above_; #mānēs#, _ghosts_; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as, #Sāturnālia#, _festival of Saturn_; #kalendae#, _first of the month_; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as, #arma#, _arms_; #artūs#, _joints_; #quadrīgae#, _four-in-hand_; #exsequiae#, _funeral rites_; of some places: as, #Faleriī#; #Vēī#; #Pompēī#; #Athēnae#, _Athens_; #Alpēs#, _the Alps_.

418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,

#aedis#, _temple_, #aedēs#, _house_; #auxilium#, _aid_, #auxilia#, _auxiliaries_; #carcer#, _jail_, #carcerēs#, _race-barriers_; #Castrum#, _Castle_, #castra#, _camp_; #comitium#, _meeting-place_, #comitia#, _election_; #cōpia#, _abundance_, #cōpiae#, _troops_; #facultās#, _ability_, #facultātēs#, _wealth_; #fīnis#, _end_, #fīnēs#, _boundaries_; #grātia#, _favour_, #grātiae#, _thanks_; #impedīmentum#, _hindrance_, #impedīmenta#, _baggage_; #littera#, _letter (of the alphabet)_, #litterae#, _epistle_; #rōstrum#, _beak_, #rōstra#, _speakers stand_. See also #aqua#, #bonum#, #fortūna#, #lūdus#, #opera#, #pars#, in the dictionary.

CASE.

419. Nouns have five cases, the _Nominative_, _Genitive_, _Dative_, _Accusative_, and _Ablative_.

The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation of _of_, the dative of _to_ or _for_, and the ablative of _from_, _with_, _in_, or _by_. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are called _Oblique Cases_.

420. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called the _Locative_. Masculine stems in #-o-# and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called the _Vocative_.

421. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that #o# of #-o-# stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus: #-ae#, #-ī#, #-is#, #-ūs# (#-ĕī#), indicate respectively stems in #-ā-#, #-o-#, a consonant or #-i-#, #-u-#, and #-ē-#, as follows:

GENITIVE SINGULAR. GENITIVE PLURAL. STEMS IN.

-ae, mēnsae, _table_ -ārum, mēnsā-rum -ā-, mēnsā-, N. mēnsa
-ī, dominī, _master_ -ōrum, dominō-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus
-is, rēgis, _king_ -cons. um, rēg-um -consonant, rēg-, N. rēx
-is, cīvis, _citizen_ -ium, cīvi-um -i-, cīvi-, N. cīvis
-ūs, portus, _port_ -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus
(ĕ̄ī, rĕ̄ī), _thing_ (-ērum, rē-rum) -ē, rē-, N. rēs

422. Gender nominatives usually add #-s# to the stem: as, #servo-s# or #servu-s#, _slave_, #rēx# (164, 1), #cīvi-s#, #portu-s#, #rē-s#. But stems in #-ā-# or in a continuous consonant (#-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#) have no #-s#: as, #mēnsa#, #cōnsul#, _consul_, #flāmen#, _special priest_, #pater#, _father_, #flōs#, _flower_.

423. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: as #nōmen#, _name_; or a shortened stem: as, #exemplar#, _pattern_; but stems in #-o-# take #-m#: as, #aevo-m# or #aevu-m#, _age_. In the plural #-a# is always used: as, #rēgna#, _kingdoms_, #nōmina#, #cornua#, _horns_. For #-s# in adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see 612.

424. Gender accusatives singular add #-m# to the stem: as, #mēnsa-m#, #servo-m# or #servu-m#, #nāvi-m#, _ship_, #portu-m#, #die-m#. The consonant stems have the ending #-em#: as, #rēg-em#; most substantive stems in #-i-# and all adjectives also drop #-i-# and take #-em#: as, NĀV-EM, #trīst-em#, _sad_. In the plural, gender stems add #-s# before which the vowel is long: as, #mēnsā-s#, #servō-s#, #rēgē-s#, #nāvī-s# or #nāvē-s#, #portū-s#, #rē-s#.

425. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as, #mēnsā#, #dominō#, #nāvī#, #portū#, #rē#. The ablative of consonant stems usually has #-e# (rarely #-ī-#, see 502): as, #patre#, _father_; and that of substantive #-i-# stems has #-e# more commonly than #-ī#: as, #nāve#.

426. The ablative singular of #-ā-# and #-o-# stems ended anciently in #-ād# and #-ōd# respectively: as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in #-īd#: as, AIRID, COVENTIONID. But #-d# is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).

427. The genitive plural adds #-rum# to #-ā-#, #-o-#, and #-ē-# stems: as, #mēnsā-rum#, #dominō-rum#, #rē-rum#; and #-um# to consonant stems, #-i-# stems, and #-u-# stems: as, #rēg-um#, #cīvi-um#, #portu-um#.

428. The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in #-ā-# and #-o-# take #-is#, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as, #mēnsīs#, #dominīs#; other stems have #-bus#, before which consonant stems are extended by #i#: as, #rēgi-bus#, #nāvi-bus#, #portu-bus# or #porti-bus#, #rē-bus#.

429. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar case endings; see 618-694.

430. Many nouns are defective in case.

Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural: as, #aes#, _copper_, #cor#, _heart_, #cōs#, _whetstone_, #dōs#, _dowry_, #ōs#, _face_, #pāx#, _peace_, #pix#, _pitch_, #rōs#, _dew_, #sāl#, _salt_, #lūx#, _light_; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural: as, #hiemps#, _winter_; especially neuters: as, #fār#, _spelt_, #fel#, _gall_, #mel#, _honey_, #pūs#, _matter_, #rūs#, _country_, #tūs#, _frankincense_. Many words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) have only the ablative (235). For #-ē-# stems, see 600. Other words more or less defective are #exlēx#, #exspēs#, #fās# and #nefās#, #īnfitiās#, #inquiēs#, #īnstar#, #luēs#, #nēmō#, #opis# and #vicis# genitives, #pondō# and #sponte# ablatives, #secus#, #vīs#. Many adjectives ‘of one ending’ want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.

431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, #frūgī#, _thrifty_, an old dative; #nēquam#, _naughty_, an old accusative; #quot#, _how many_; #tot#, _so many_; and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.

THE SUBSTANTIVE

STEMS IN #-ā-#.

_The First Declension._

Genitive singular #-ae#, genitive plural #-ā-rum#.

432. Stems in #-ā-# include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.

433. Names of males are masculine (405): as, #scrība#, _writer_; also #Hadria#, _the Adriatic_, and rarely #damma#, _deer_, and #talpa#, _mole_.

434. The nominative of stems in #-ā-# ends in the shortened stem vowel #-a#.

435. Stems in #-ā-# are declined as follows:

+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+
| Example | mēnsa, _table_, mēnsā-, F. | Stem and |
| | | case |
| Stem | | endings |
+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+
| Singular | | |
| _Nom._ | mēnsa _table_, _a_ (or _the_) _table_ | -a |
| _Gen._ | mēnsae _a table’s_, _of a table_ | -ae |
| _Dat._ | mēnsae _to_ or _for a table_ | -ae |
| _Acc._ | mēnsam _a table_ | -am |
| _Abl._ | mēnsā _from_, _with_, or _by a table_ | -ā |
+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+
| Plural | | |
| _Nom._ | mēnsae _tables_ (or _the_) _tables_ | -ae |
| _Gen._ | mēnsārum _tables’_, _of tables_ | -ārum |
| _Dat._ | mēnsīs _to_ or _for tables_ | -īs |
| _Acc._ | mēnsās _tables_ | -ās |
| _Abl._ | mēnsīs _from_, _with_, or _by tables_ | -īs |
+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+

[Erratum:
THE SUBSTANTIVE
header supplied from Table of Contents]

SINGULAR CASES.

436. #-ā-# of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at an early period (130, 132). A few apparent examples of the nominative in #-ā#, found in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes: as, #aquilā́# (Enn.). But #-ā# occurs in Greek proper names (445). A couple of old masculine nominatives in #-ās# are quoted (422): #pāricīdās#, _murderer_, and #hosticapās#, _taker of enemies_. In the accusative singular #-ām# occurs once: #inimīcitiā́m# (Enn.).

437. The genitive sometimes ends (1.) in #-āī# in poetry: as, #aulāī#, _of the hall_; #pīctāī#, _embroidered_; (2.) in #-ās#: as, #molās#, _of a mill_. This genitive is rare, but was always kept up in the word #familiās# with #pater# or #māter#, sometimes with #fīlius# or #fīlia#: #pater familiās#, _the goodman_, #māter familiās#, _the housewife_. But #pater familiae#, or in the plural #patrēs familiārum#, is equally common.

438. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ae#: as, #Rōmae#, _at Rome_, _in Rome_; #mīlitiae#, _in war_, _in the field_, _in the army_.

PLURAL CASES.

439. Compounds ending with #-cola#, _inhabiting_, and #-gena#, _born_, and patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in #-ū̆m# in poetry: as, #caelicolū̆m#, _of occupants of heaven_; #Graiugenū̆m#, _of Greek-born men_; #Aeneadū̆m#, _of Aeneas’s sons_; also names of peoples: as, #Lapithū̆m#, _of the Lapithae_. With these last #-ū̆m# occurs even in prose: as, #Crotōniātū̆m#, _of the Crotona people_. Others in #-ŭm# are #drachmŭm#, #amphorū̆m#.

440. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# sometimes occurs (443): as, #tueis ingrātieis#, _against your will_ (Plaut.). Nouns in #-ia# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #pecūnīs#, _by moneys_ (Cic.); #taenīs#, _with fillets_ (Verg.); #nōnīs Iūnīs#, _on the fifth of June_ (Cic.). See 24.

441. In the dative and ablative plural, words in #-āia#, or plural #-āiae#, have #-āīs#, and those in #-ēia# have #-ēīs# (127, 7): as KAL. MAIS, _on the calends of May_ (inscr.); #Bāīs#, _at Bajae_ (Hor.); #plēbēīs#, _plebeian_.

442. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in #-ābus#, particularly in #deābus#, _goddesses_, and #fīliābus#, _daughters_, to distinguish them from #deīs#, _gods_, and #fīliīs#, _sons_. #ambae#, _both_, and #duae#, _two_, regularly have #ambābus# and #duābus#.

443. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

G. #-ai#, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation: PVLCHRAI; LAVERNAI; #-āēs#, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES; rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; #-ēs#: MINERVES; #-ā#, VESTA; COIRA, i.e. #Cūrae#. D. #-ai#, in all periods (96): FILIAI; #-ā#: FORTVNA; #-ē# (96): FORTVNE. Ac. #-a# (61): TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. #-ād# (426): PRAIDAD. Loc. #-ai#: ROMAI. Plural: N. #-ai# (96): TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare: MATRONA; #-ē#, rare and provincial (96): MVSTE, i.e. #mystae#. D. and Ab. #-eis#, very often (98): SCRIBEIS; D. #-ās#, once: DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. #dīvīs Cornīscīs#. Ab. #-ēs# once (98): NVGES, i.e. #nūgīs#.

[Erratum:
443 ... TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare
DATAI:]

GREEK NOUNS.

444. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in the plural, and usually throughout: thus, #poēta#, M., _poet_, and #aula#, F., _court_, are declined like #mēnsa#. Masculines have sometimes a nominative #-ēs# and accusative #-ēn#: as, #anagnōstēs#, _reader_, #anagnōstēn#; rarely an ablative #-ē#: as, #sophistē#, _sophist_. Greek feminines in #-ē# sometimes have Greek forms in late writers: as, N. #grammaticē#, _philology_, G. #grammaticēs#, Ac. #grammaticēn#, Ab. #grammaticē# (Quintil.).

445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine #-ās#, #-ēs#: as, #Prūsiās#, #Atrīdēs#; feminine #-ā#: as, #Gelā#, #Phaedrā#; #-ē#: as, #Circē#. Genitive feminine #-ēs#: as, #Circēs#. Accusative masculine #-ān#, #-dēn#: as, #Aenēān#, #Pēlīdēn#; feminine #-ēn#: as, #Circēn#. Ablative feminine #-ē#: as, #Tīsiphonē#. Vocative #-ā# or #-a#: as, #Atrīdā#, #Atrīda#, #Thyesta#; #-tē#: as, #Boōtē#; #-dē#: as, #Aeacidē#.

STEMS IN #-o-#.

_The Second Declension._

Genitive singular #-ī#, genitive plural #-ō-rum#.

446. Stems in #-o-# include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.

447. Most names of plants in #-us# are feminine (407); also the following: #alvos# or #alvus#, _belly_, #colus#, _distaff_, #domus#, _house_, #humus#, _ground_, #vannus#, _fan_.

448. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem vowel, in #-o-s#, or usually #-u-s#; some end in #-r#; neuters end in #-o-m#, or usually #-u-m#.

449. (1.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-us# or #-um# are declined as follows:

+--------+----------------------------+------------+--------------+
|Examples| dominus, _master_, |rēgnum, | Stem |
| | domino-, M. | _kingdom_,| and case |
| Stems | |rēgno-, Ne. | endings |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+
|Singular| | | M. | Ne. |
| _Nom._ | dominus, _a_ (or _the_) | rēgnum | -us | -um |
| | _master_ | | | |
| _Gen._ | dominī, _a master’s_ | rēgnī | -ī | -ī |
| _Dat._ | dominō, _to_ | | | |
| | or _for a master_ | rēgnō | -ō | -ō |
| _Acc._ | dominum, _a master_ | rēgnum | -um | -um |
| _Abl._ | dominō, _from_, _with_, | rēgnō | -ō | -ō |
| | or _by a master_ | | | |
| _Voc._ | domine, _master_ | | -e | |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+
| Plural | | | | |
| _Nom._ | dominī, (_the_) _masters_ | rēgna | -ī | -a |
| _Gen._ | dominōrum, _of masters_ | rēgnōrum | -ōrum| -ōrum |
| _Dat._ | dominīs, _to_ or | | | |
| | _for masters_ | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs |
| _Acc._ | dominōs, _masters_ | rēgna | -ōs | -a |
| _Abl._ | dominīs, _from_, _with_, | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs |
| | or _by masters_ | | | |
+--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+

450. #deus#, _god_, is declined as follows: N. #deus#, G. #deī#, D. and Ab. #deō#, Ac. #deum#. Plural: N. #deī#, #di͡i#, commonly #dī#, G. #deōrum# or #deŭm#, D. and Ab. #deīs#, #di͡is#, commonly #dīs#, Ac. #deōs#.

451. (2.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-r# or in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# are declined as follows:

SINGULAR CASES.

452. #-us# and #-um# were originally #-os# and #-om#. But #-us# was used in the earliest times, #-um# somewhat later, and both became prevalent between 218 and 55 B.C. (107, _c_). After #u# or #v#, however, the #-os# and #-om# were retained till toward 50 A.D. (107, _c_); also after #qu#; but #-cus# and #-cum# often displaced #-quos# and #-quom# (157): as, #equos#, #equom#, or #ecus#, #ecum#, _horse_; #antīquos#, #antīquom#, or #antīcus#, #antīcum#, _ancient_. In the vocative #-e# was always used, and is retained by Plautus in #puere#, _thou boy_.

453. Words in #-rus# with a long penult, as, #sevērus#, _stern_, and the following substantives with a short penult are declined like #domimus# (449):

erus, _master_
iūniperus, _juniper_
numerus, _number_
umerus, _shoulder_
uterus, _womb_

For adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-rus#, see 615.

454. Masculine stems in #-ro-# preceded by a short vowel or a mute, except those above (453), drop #-os# in the nominative, and have no vocative: as, stem #puero-#, N. #puer#, _boy_ (111, _b_). Most masculines in #-ro-# have a vowel before #r# only in the nominative #-er# (111, _b_): as #agro-#, N. #ager#. But in compounds ending in #-fer# and #-ger#, _carrying_, _having_, and the following, the vowel before #-r# is a part of the stem, and is found in all the cases:

adulter, Līber, _paramour_, _Liber_
gener, socer, _son-in-law_, _father-in-law_
puer, vir, _boy_, _man_
līberī, vesper, _children_, _evening_

For #Mulciber#, #Hibēr#, and #Celtibē̆r#, see the dictionary; for adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-r#, see 616. Once #socerus# (Pl.).

455. #nihilum#, _nothing_, usually drops #-um# in the nominative and accusative, becoming #nihil# or #nīl#, and similarly #nōn#, _not_, may be for #noenum#, _naught_ (99). #famul# is used for #famulus#, _slave_, by Ennius and Lucretius, once each (111, _b_).

456. Substantives ending in #-ius# or #-ium# (but never adjectives), have commonly a single #-ī# in the genitive singular: as,

#Vergilius#, G. #Vergílī# (87); #fīlius#, _son_, G. #fīlī#; #cōnūbium#, _marriage_, G. #cōnūbī#.

457. Vergil has once a genitive #-iī#, #fluviī#, _river’s_. Propertius has #-iī# two or three times; with Ovid, Seneca, and later writers, #-iī# is common: as, #gladiī#, _of a sword_; even in proper names, which were the last to take #-iī#: as, #Tarquiniī#; but family names almost always retain a single #-ī#. Locatives have #-iī#: as, #Iconiī# (Cic.).

458. Proper names ending in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# have #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī# in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative plural, and #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs# in the dative and ablative plural (127, 7): as,

#Gāius#, G., V., and N. Pl. #Gāī#, D. and Ab. Pl. #Gāīs#; #Pompēī#, #Pompēīs#; #Bōī#, #Bōīs#. In verse #-ēī# of the vocative is sometimes made one syllable (120): as, #Pompe͡i#; #Volte͡i# (Hor.).

459. Latin proper names in #-ius# have the vocative in #-ī# only: as,

#Vergilius#, V. #Vergílī#; #Mercurius#, V. #Mercúrī# (87). So, also, #fīlius#, #fīlī#, _son_; #genius#, #genī#, _good angel_; #volturius#, #volturī#, _vulture_; #meus#, #mī#, _my_.

460. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ī#: as, #Ephesī#, _in Ephesus_; #humī#, _on the ground_; #bellī#, _in war_.

[Erratum:
455 ... #noenum#, _naught_ (99).
final . invisible]

PLURAL CASES.

461. In the nominative plural masculine, #-ei# sometimes occurs (465): as, #nātei geminei#, _twins born_ (Plaut.); #-eis# or #-īs# is rare (465): as, #Sardeis#, _Sardians_; #oculīs#, _eyes_; not infrequently #hīsce#, _these here_ (Plaut.); masculine stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #-ī#: as, #fīlī#, _sons_. For #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī#, see 458. The nominative and accusative plural of neuters ended anciently in #-ā# (130, 2). But #-ā# was shortened at an early period.

462. In the common genitive plural #-ōrum#, the #-o-# of the stem is lengthened (123). A genitive plural in #-ū̆m# (or, after #v#, in #-ŏ̄m#) is common from #dīvos#, #dīvus#, and #deus#, _god_; from #dēnārius#, _denar_, #modius#, _peck_, #nummus#, _money_, #sēstertius#, _sesterce_, and #talentum#, _talent_, with numerals; and from cardinals and distributives (641): as, #dīvŏ̄m#, #divū̆m#, #deū̆m#; #mīlle sēstertiŭm#; #ducentū̆m#; #bīnŭm#. The #u# was originally long (132); but it was shortened before 100 A.D.

463. Other masculine substantives have occasionally this genitive: as, #līberū̆m#, _of children_; particularly in set phrases and in verse: as, #centuria fabrū̆m#, _century of mechanics_; #Graiū̆m#, _of Greeks_. With neuter substantives, as #oppidū̆m#, for #oppidōrum#, _of towns_, and with adjectives it is rare.

464. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# is rare (98): as, #Epidamnieis# (Plaut.). Stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #fīlīs#, _for sons_. For #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs#, see 458. #ambō#, _both_, and #duo#, _two_, have #ambōbus# and #duōbus# (640).

465. Other case forms are found in inscriptions as follows:

N. #-os#, #-om#, with #o# retained (107, _c_): FILIOS, TRIBVNOS; POCOLOM; in proper names #-o# (66): CORNELIO; #-u#, rare: LECTV; #-is#, or #-i#, for #-ius# (135, 2): CAECILIS; CLAVDI; neuter #-o# (61): POCOLO. G. oldest form #-ī#: VRBANI; #-ei#, from 146 B.C. to Augustus: POPVLEI; CONLEGEI; #-iī# from stems in #-io-# not before Tiberius: COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, _c_): VOLCANOM; #-o# (61): OPTVMO VIRO; #-u#: GREMIV. Ab. #-od#, not after 186 B.C. (426): POPLICOD, PREIVATOD. Plural: N. #-ei#, always common (98): VIREI; FILEI; -ēs, #-eis#, #-īs# (461): ATILIES; COQVES; LEIBEREIS, i.e. #līnerī#; MAGISTREIS; MAGISTRIS; #-ē#, rare: PLOIRVME, i.e. #plūrumī#. G. #-ōm# or #-ō# (61) ROMANOM; ROMANO; #-ōro# (61): DVONORO. D. and Ab. #-eis#, the only form down to about 130 B.C. (98): ANTIQVEIS; PROXSVMEIS; #-ēs#, twice: CAVATVRINES.

[Erratum:
465 ... COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, _c_): VOLCANOM
(107 _c_)]

GREEK NOUNS.

466. Greek stems in #-o-# are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have #-os# in the nominative, #-on# in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely #-ū# in the genitive, or #-ō# in the feminine ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes #-oe#, masculine or feminine, and genitive, chiefly in book-titles, #-ōn#: as,

Nominative #Īlios#; #Īlion# or #Īlium#. Genitive #Menandrū#, _of Menander_. Ablative feminine adjective #lectīcā octōphorō#, _in a sedan with eight bearers_. Plural: nominative #Adelphoe#, _the Brothers_; #canēphoroe#, _basket-bearers_, feminine. Genitive #Geōrgicōn liber#, _book of Husbandry_. For #Androgeōs#, #Athŏ̄s# and #Panthūs#, see the dictionary.

CONSONANT STEMS.

_The Third Declension._

Genitive singular #-is#, genitive plural #-um#.

467. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and include both gender words and neuters.

Comparatives and a few other words are adjective. For the gender of substantives, see 570.

468. The nominative of consonant stems ends in #-s# (or #-x#); or in #-n# (#-ō#), #-l#, #-r#, or #-s# of the stem, rarely in #-c# or #-t#.

469. Most consonant stems have one syllable less in the nominative than in the genitive.

Such words are called _Imparisyllabic_ words or _Imparisyllables_: as, nominative #rēx#, _king_, one syllable; genitive #rēgis#, _of a king_, two syllables.

470. Many consonant stems have a double form: one form used in the nominative singular (neuters have this form in the accusative also), another form in the other cases: as,

#iūdex#, _juror_, stem of nominative #iūdec-# (136, 2), of other cases #iūdic-#; #flāmen# (103, _a_), _special priest_, #flāmin-# (103, _a_); #virgō#, _maid_, #virgin-# (105, _g_); #auceps# (107, _d_), _fowler_, #aucup-# (104, _c_); #ebur# (107, _c_), _ivory_, #ebor-#; #genus#, _race_, #gener-# (145; 107, _c_); #trīstius# (346), _sadder_, #trīstiōr-# (346); #corpus# (107, _c_), _body_, #corpor-# (105, _i_); #pater# (135, 2), _father_, #patr-#. In such instances the stem of the oblique cases is taken for brevity to represent both forms of the stem.

I. MUTE STEMS.

471. (1.) Stems in a guttural mute, #-g-# or #-c-#, are declined as follows:

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A Latin Grammar for Schools and CollegesChapter IV: Part 4

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