A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges

Chapter VI: Part 6

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602. #fidēs# is declined like #rēs#; it has once a genitive #fidēs# (Plaut.). For #rēī#, #reī#, or #re͡i#, and #fidēī#, #fideī#, or #fide͡i#, see 127, 4. #diēs# has rarely a genitive #diēs# (Enn.) or #diī# (Verg.). #spēs# has only the genitive and dative #spe͡i# in verse. A genitive or dative in #-ē# is sometimes found: as, #rē#, #diē#, #fidē#.

603. A few cases of other words sometimes follow this class (401): as, #plēbēs# (524), _commons_, G. #plēbe͡i# or #plēbī#; #famēs# (524), _hunger_, Ab. always #famē#; #requiēs# (477), _rest_, G. #requiē# (Sall.), Ac. #requiem#, Ab. #requiē#; #tābēs# (523), _waste_, Ab. #tābē#, #*contāgēs#, _contact_, Ab. #contāgē# (Lucr.), &c.

604. (2.) Stems of the second class are formed by the suffix #-iē-# or #-tiē-#, and have three or more syllables.

This class, which is parallel to stems in #-iā-#, has usually no genitive, dative, or plural. Many stems, especially those in #-tiē-#, have also a collateral form in #-iā-#, and the genitive and dative, when used at all, are commonly from a stem in #-iā-#.

605. Stems in #-ē-# of the second class are declined as follows:

lūxuriēs, _extravagance_, stem lūxuriē-, F.
_Nom._ lūxuriēs, _Acc._ lūxuriem, _Abl._ lūxuriē.

606. A few examples of the genitive of these stems are found: as, #perniciī#, #perniciēs#, or #perniciē#, _ruin_ (Cic.); #rabiēs#, _fury_ (Lucr.); #aciē#, _edge of battle_ (Sall., Caes., auct. B. Afr.), #faciē#, _make_ (Plaut., Lucil.), #speciē#, _looks_ (Caes.); #aciēī# (auct. B. Afr.). And a very few of the dative: as, #aciēī# twice (Caes.); #perniciēī#, #perniciī# (Nep.); #perniciē# (Liv.).

607. #ēluviēs#, _offscouring_, _wash_, has the nominative of the plural, and #glaciēs#, _ice_, has the accusative of the plural. Five words only have the nominative and accusative plural:

seriēs, aciēs, _row_, _edge_,
speciēs, faciēs, _look_, _make_,
effigiēs, _likeness_.

[Erratum:
601 (table) ... rēs, (_the_) _things_
rēs (_the_)]

THE ADJECTIVE.

608. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and it has been shown already how their cases are formed. But they differ from substantives in having different forms in some of their cases to denote different genders; it is convenient therefore to put their complete declension together.

609. Adjective stems end in #-o-# and #-ā-#, in a consonant, or in #-i-#.

610. An accusative plural of a stem in #-u-#, #anguimanūs#, _with a serpent for a hand_, is once used (Lucr.). There are no adjective stems in #-ē-#.

611. Adjectives are often conveniently said to be ‘_of three endings_,’ ‘_of two endings_,’ or ‘_of one ending_.’

By the ‘ending’ is meant the ending of the nominative singular: thus, #bonus#, #bona#, #bonum#, _good_, and #ācer#, #ācris#, #ācre#, _sharp_, are ‘of three endings’ (409); #brevis#, #breve#, _short_, is ‘of two endings’ (410); and #audāx#, _bold_, is ‘of one ending’ (410).

612. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ which form a gender nominative in #-s#, retain the #-s# irrationally in the nominative and accusative neuter singular: as, N. M. and F. #audāx#, N. and Ac. Ne. also #audāx#.

STEMS IN #-o-# AND #-ā-#.

613. Most adjectives with stems in #-o-# and #-ā-# are declined as follows:

614. Stems in #-io-# and #-iā-# have no consonant #i# in cases ending in #-i# or #-īs# (153, 3): as #plēbēius#, _plebeian_, G. S. M. and Ne., and N. Pl. M. #plēbēī#, D. and Ab. Pl. #plēbēīs#.

615. Stems in #-ro-# preceded by a long vowel retain #-us# in the nominative singular masculine and are declined like #bonus# (453): as, #sevērus#, _stern_; also

ferus, merus, _wild_, _unmixed_
mōrigerus, _complaisant_
praeposterus, _reversed_
properus, _hasty_
prōsperus, _lucky_
triquetrus, _three-cornered_

616. (1.) Some stems in #-ro-# preceded by a short vowel end in #-r# in the nominative singular masculine and have no vocative (454); they are declined as follows:

Such are: compounds, chiefly poetical, ending in #-fer# and #-ger#, _bearing_, _carrying_, _having_: as, #caelifer#, _heaven-upholding_; #corniger#, _horned_; also the following:

(alter, 618), asper, _other_, _rough_
lacer, līber, _torn_, _free_
gibber, miser, _hump-backed_, _forlorn_
satur, sēmifer, _full_, _half-beast_
tener, Trēver, _tender_, _Treveran_

#dexter#, _right_, has #dextera#, #dexterum#, or #dextra#, #dextrum#, G. #dexterī#, or #dextrī#, &c. #sinister#, _left_, has usually #sinistra#, &c., rarely #sinisteram# (Plaut., Ter.). #asper# has a plural accusative #asprōs# (Stat.), and ablative #asprīs# (Verg.).

617. (2.) Other stems in #-ro-# have a vowel before #r# only in the nominative singular masculine #-er# (454); they are declined as follows:

618. Nine adjectives or adjective pronouns have the pronoun form #-ī̆us# in the genitive singular and #-ī# in the dative singular, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike; they are the following:

alius, _another_
sōlus, _alone_
tōtus, _whole_
ūnus, _one_
ūllus, _any at all_
nūllus, _no_
alter, _the other_
uter, _which of the two_
neuter, _neither_

619. Of the above words, those with the nominative in #-us# are declined like #ūnus# (638). But #alius# has N. and Ac. Ne. #aliud# (659); for the G., #alterī̆us# is mostly used, except in the combination #alīus modī#, _of another sort_; the N. M. is rarely #alis#, Ne. #alid#, D. rarely #alī#. #alter# is declined like #līber# (616), except in the genitive singular #alterī̆us# (127, 6) and dative #alterī#. For #uter# and its derivatives, see 693.

620. The ordinary genitive and dative of #-o-# and #-ā-# stems, from some of the above words, is sometimes found: G. and D. #aliae#, #sōlae#, #alterae#, D. #aliō#, #alterae#, &c.

CONSONANT STEMS.

OF TWO ENDINGS.

621. The only consonant stems of two endings are comparatives (346); they are declined as follows:

622. The ablative rarely has #-ī# for #-e#: as, #meliōrī# (503); the accusative plural masculine and feminine rarely have #-īs#: as, #meliōrīs# (505).

623. #plūs#, _more_, has in the singular only Ne. N. and Ac. #plūs#, G. #plūris#, and Ab. #plūre#. Plural: N. M. and F. #plūrēs#, Ne. #plūra#, G. #plūrium#, D. and Ab. #plūribus#, Ac. M. and F. #plūrēs# or #plūrīs#, Ne. #plūra#. #complūrēs#, _a good many_, plural only, has N. M. and F. #complūrēs#, Ne. N. and Ac. #complūria# or #complūra#, G. #complūrium#, D. and Ab. #complūribus#, Ac. M. and F. #complūrēs# or #complūrīs#.

OF ONE ENDING.

624. A dozen adjectives ‘of one ending,’ mostly words applying to persons, with consonant stems throughout, have no nominative or accusative neuter plural; they are:

caelebs, compos, _unmarried_, _master of_
*dēses, dīves, _lazy_, _rich_
particeps, prīnceps, _sharing_, _first_
pūbēs, impūbēs, _mangrown_, _immature_
sōspes, superstes, _safe_, _surviving_
pauper, cicur, _poor_, _tame_

625. When these adjectives have a neuter, it is the same as the gender forms, except in the accusative singular; they are declined as follows:

M. F. and Ne. #dīves#, _rich_, stem #dīvit-#.

Singular: N. #dīves#, G. #dīvitis#, D. #dīvitī#, Ac. M. and F. #dīvitem#, Ne. #dīves#, Ab. #dīvite#. Plural: N. and Ac. M. and F. #dīvitēs#, G. #dīvitum#, D. and Ab. #dīvitibus#.

626. The plural #caelitēs#, _heavenly_, _occupants of heaven_, is also declined like the plural of #dīves#; the singular Ab. #caelite# occurs a couple of times. #vetus#, _old_, G. _veteris_, is also declined like #dīves#, but has a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #vetera#; the Ab. S. is regularly #vetere#, but #veterī# is sometimes used.

STEMS IN #-i-#.

OF THREE ENDINGS.

627. A dozen adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, have a distinctive form in #-er# for the masculine nominative singular; they are:

celeber, _thronged_
salūber, _healthy_
ācer, _keen_
alacer, _lively_
volucer, _winged_
campester, _of a plain_
equester, _cavalry-_
palūster, _of a swamp_
pedester, _foot-_
puter, _rotten_
silvester, _woody_
terrester, _land-_

So also #celer#, swift. The names of months, #September#, #Octōber#, #November#, #December#, are also adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, but are not used in the neuter. Other adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, have no distinctive form for the masculine nominative singular: as, #muliebris#, #mediocris#, #inlūstris#.

628. These adjectives are declined as follows:

629. In all cases but the masculine nominative singular these adjectives are just like those in #-i-# ‘of two endings’ (630). But the ablative always has #-ī#, never #-e#, and the genitive plural always has #-ium#, never #-um#. In #celer# the second #e# belongs to the stem: M. #celer#, F. #celeris#, Ne. #celere#; the genitive plural, which is #celerum#, is found only as a substantive. Most of these adjectives have now and then a masculine in #-is#, like adjectives ‘of two endings’ (630), and in old Latin the nominative #-er# is rarely feminine.

OF TWO ENDINGS.

630. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ with stems in #-i-# are declined as follows:

631. The ablative is sometimes #-e# when these adjectives are used substantively or in verse (558). The genitive plural is rarely #-um# for #-ium# (563).

OF ONE ENDING.

632. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ have a consonant form of the stem in the singular, except usually in the ablative (633), and an #-i-# stem in the plural; they are declined as follows:

633. Present participles have #-ī# in the ablative, when they are used as adjectives, otherwise #-e# (560). For #-ī# or #-e# in other words, see 559, 561. For #-ium# or #-um# in the genitive plural, 563.

634. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ in #-i-# are declined as above (632); some of them have peculiarities in some of their cases, as follows:

635. (1.) #trux# (531), _savage_, has Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, G. Pl. #-ium#, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #redux# (531), _returning_, has Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, no G. Pl. or Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #hebes#, _dull_, #teres#, _cylindrical_ (533), and compounds of #caput#, _head_, as #anceps#, (533), _two-headed_, have Ab. #-ī#, no G. Pl.; a Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #-ia# is rare. For #locuplēs#, _rich_, see 533.

636. (2.) The following have #-ī# in the ablative, but #-um# of consonant stems in the genitive plural, and no nominative or accusative neuter plural: #inops# (535), _without means_, #vigil# (536), _wide-awake_, #memor# (537), _remembering_, #dēgener#, _degenerate_, ūber (537), _prolific_, has Ab. #-ī#, twice #-e#, Ne. Pl. once #-a# (Acc.). Compounds of #pēs#, as, #bipēs# (532), _two-legged_, have a late and rare Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#.

THE NUMERAL ADJECTIVE.

637. Of the cardinals, #ūnus#, #duo#, #trēs#, and the hundreds except #centum# are declined. The other cardinals are not declined.

638. #ūnus#, _one_, is declined as follows:

+--------+---------------------+------------------------+
| | Singular. | Plural. |
+--------+---------------------+------------------------+
| | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. |
| _Nom._ | ūnus ūna ūnum | ūnī ūnae ūna |
| _Gen._ | ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus | ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum |
| _Dat._ | ūnī ūnī ūnī | ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs |
| _Acc._ | ūnum ūnam ūnum | ūnōs ūnās ūna |
| _Abl._ | ūnō ūnā ūnō | ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs |
| _Voc._ | ūne | |
+--------+---------------------+------------------------+

In verse, the genitive singular is often #ūnius#.

639. #duo#, _two_, and #trēs#, _three_, are declined as follows:

640. In dramatic verse, #du͡o#, &c., is common. In the genitive plural, #duo# sometimes has #duū̆m# (462). #ambō#, _both_, is declined like #duo#, but has #-ō# in the nominative and accusative, and only #ambōrum# and #ambārum# in the genitive plural. For the forms #duo#, #ambō#, see 415; #duōbus#, #duābus#, 464, 442.

641. Hundreds are declined like the plural of #bonus# (613): as, #ducentī#, #ducentae#, #ducenta#, _two hundred_, G. #ducentōrum# or #ducentū̆m# (462), &c.

642. The adjective #mīlle#, _thousand_, is not declined. The substantive has in the singular only N. Ac. Ab. #mīlle#, or Ab. #mīllī#; plural: N. and Ac. #mīllia# (#mīlia#), G. #mīllium# (#mīlium#), D. and Ab. #mīllibus# (#mīlibus#).

643. Ordinals, as #prīmus#, _first_, and distributives, as #bīnī#, _two each_, are declined like #bonus# (613). But distributives seldom have a singular, and often have the genitive plural #-ū̆m# (462): as, #bīnū̆m#.

THE PRONOUN.

(A.) THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUN.

644. The pronoun of the first person, #ego#, _I_, of the second person, #tū#, _thou_, and the reflexive pronoun, #suī#, #sē#, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_, are declined as follows:

+--------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-------+
| | ego, _I_ | tu, _thou_ | sui, |
| | | |_self_ |
+--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+
| | Sing. | Plur. | Sing. |Plur. | Sing. |
| | | | | |& Plur.|
+--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+
| _Nom._ | ego | nōs | tū | vōs | |
| _Gen._ | meī | nostrŭ̄m, -trī | tuī | vestrū̆m, -trī | suī |
| _Dat._ | mihĭ̄, mi | nōbīs | tibĭ̄ | vōbīs | sibī̆ |
| _Acc._ | mē | nōs | tē | vōs | sē |
| _Abl._ | mē | nōbīs | tē | vōbīs | sē |
+--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+

645. The nominatives #ego# and #tū#, and the accusatives #mē#, #tē# and #sē#, have no case ending. The last vowel of #ego# is rarely long in Plautus, long or short in Lucilius. The nominative ego has a different stem from that of its other cases, and the plurals of #ego# and #tū# have a different stem from that of the singular.

646. #meī#, #tuī#, and #suī#, which are often monosyllables in old verse, were originally the genitive of the neuter possessives, used substantively. An old genitive #mīs# is quoted, and #tīs# occurs rarely in Plautus.

647. The relation of the ending #-bīs# in #vōbīs# to #-bī̆# in #tibī̆# may be due to analogy with #illīs, illī#. #nōbīs# is formed after #vōbīs#.

648. In old Latin, the ablative is #mēd, tēd, sēd# (426), which forms are also used irrationally for the accusative. But by Terence’s time the #-d# was no longer used (143).

649. Older forms for #vestrū̆m# and #vestrī# are #vostrūm# and #vostrī#. The genitive plural was originally a genitive of the possessive: that in #-ī# being the neuter singular, that in #-ū̆m# the masculine or feminine plural. In old Latin, #nostrōrum#, #nostrārum#, #vostrōrum#, #vostrārum# also occur.

650. Emphasis is given (1.) by reduplication (189): Ac. and Ab. #mēmē#, #tētē#, rare; #sēsē#, very common. (2.) by #-te# added to the N. of #tū#: #tūte#. (3.) by #-met# added to any case but the genitive plural: as, #egomet#; but #tū# has only #tūtemet# or #tūtimet#.

651. In inscriptions, the datives MIHEI, TIBEI, and SIBEI occur, so written in verse sometimes even when the last syllable is short; and MIHE, TIBE. Plural: D. and Ab. VOBEIS. Ac. ENOS in an old hymn; SEESE (29, 1).

THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE.

652. The possessives of #ego#, #tū#, and #suī#, are #meus#, _mine_, #tuus#, _thine_, and #suus#, _his, her, its, their_ (_own_), declined like #bonus# (613), except that #meus# has #mī# in the vocative singular masculine (459); those of #nōs# and #vōs# are #noster#, _our_, and #voster#, later #vester#, _your_, declined like #aeger# (617).

653. Old forms are #tuos#, #tuom#, and #suos#, #suom# (452). In old verse #me͡us#, #me͡i#, &c., #tu͡os#, #tu͡i#, &c., #su͡os#, #su͡i#, &c., often occur. #sōs# for #suōs#, #sās# for #suās#, and #sīs# for #suīs#, are old and rare.

654. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

MEEIS, MIEIS, monosyllable; TOVAM; SVEI, SOVOM, SOVO, SVVO, SOVEIS, SVEIS, SVIEIS.

655. Emphasis is given (1.) by #-met# added to #suō#, #suā#, #suōs#, and to #mea# and #sua#, neuter plural: as, #suōmet#; (2.) by #-pte#, which is oftenest found with the ablative: as, #suōpte#.

(B.) OTHER PRONOUNS.

656. Some pronouns have a peculiar genitive singular in #-ī̆us# and dative singular in #-ī#, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike.

These are: #iste#, #ille#, #ipse#, #uter#, and their derivatives. Some other words of a pronoun character also have this form of the genitive and dative: see 618.

657. In verse, the #-ī-# of the genitive is often shortened, and always in #utriusque#; but #neutrīus# is not found with short i. In dramatic verse, the genitive singular of #iste#, #ille#, or #ipse#, is often two syllables.

658. #hīc#, is, #quī# or #quis#, and their derivatives have the genitive singular in #-ius#, thus: #huius#, #eius#, and #quoius# or #cuius#; in dramatic verse, these genitives are often one syllable. Their datives are #huic# for #hoice#, #ē̆ī# or #e͡i#, and #quoi# or #cui#.

659. Six words have a peculiar neuter nominative and accusative singular in #-d#: #id#, #illud#, #istud#, #quid#, #quod#, #aliud#, and derivatives. In manuscripts, #-t# is sometimes found for #-d#: as, #it#, #illut#, #istut#, &c.; sometimes also in inscriptions of the empire. In #hoc# for #*hod-ce# and in #istuc# and #illuc# for #*istud-ce#, #*illud-ce#, the #d# has vanished (166, 1; 171, 1).

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.

660. The demonstrative pronouns are #hīc#, _this_, _this near me_; #iste#, #istic#, _that_, _that near you_; and #ille#, #illic#, _yonder_, _that_.

661. The demonstrative pronoun #hīc#, _this_, _this near me_, is declined as follows:

662. The stem of #hīc# is #ho-#, #hā-#; to most of its cases a demonstrative #-c# for #-ce# is attached. The masculine and feminine nominative singular and nominative and accusative neuter plural take an #-i-#: #hīc# for #*ho-i-ce# (108, _a_); #haec# for #ha-i-ce# (96). #hunc#, #hanc#, are for #*hom-ce#, #*ham-ce#. For the quantity of the first syllable of #huius#, see 153, 2; of #hoc#, 171, 1.

663. Old forms with the full ending #-ce# are rare except after #-s#: Plural Ne. Acc. #haece# (Enn.); G. F. #hārumce# (Cato); also G. #hōrunc#, #hārunc# (Pl., T.); #hōsce#, D. and Ab. #hīsce# (Pl., T.). After 100 B.C., the full form #-ce# is not found, except occasionally after #-s#: #huiusce#, #hōsce#, #hāsce#, #hīsce#. Before #-ne# interrogative it is retained in the weakened form #-ci-#: as, #hīcine#. But #hīcne#, #hocne#, #huicne#, &c., are found, though rarely.

664. The nominative #hic# or #hicine# found in the dramatists and rarely later is probably for #*ho-c#, #*he-c# (103, _a_). A nominative plural feminine #haec# is found in writers of all ages. Other and rare forms are: Pl. N. M. #hīsce# (461), D. or Ab. #hībus#.

665. Other case forms of #hīc# are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. M. HEC, HIC. G. HOIVS, HVIIVS (23), HVIVS, HOIVSCE, HOIVSQVE, HVIVSQVE. D. HOICE, HOIC, HOI, HVIC, HVI. Ac. M. HONC, HOC; F. HANCE; Ne. HOCE, HVC. Ab. M. and Ne. HOCE; F. HACE, oftener than HAC in republican inscriptions; HAACE (29, 1). Loc. HEICE, HEIC. Plural: N. M. HEISCE, HEIS, or HEI, HISCE or HIS; HI, not before Augustus; Ne. N. and Ac. HAICE, HAECE. G. HORVNC. D. and Ab. HEISCE, HIBVS. Ac. F. HASCE.

666. The demonstrative pronouns #iste#, _that_, _that near you_, and #ille#, _yonder_, are declined alike, as follows:

667. The first syllable of #iste# and #ille# is often short in the dramatists. Old forms of #iste# are: N. #istus#, G. #istī#, in #istīmodī#, D. F. #istae#. The initial #i# of #iste# and of #istic# (669), is sometimes not written: as, #sta rēs# (Cic.), #stūc perīculum# (Ter.). Old forms of #ille# are: N. #olus# (81); #ollus# or #olle#, &c.: as, D. S. or N. Pl. #ollī#, D. Pl. #ollīs#. G. #illī#, in #illīmodī#, D. F. #illae#. The dramatists have #eccistam#, #eccilla#, #eccillud#, #eccillum#, #eccillam#, for #ecce istam#, &c., and #ellum#, #ellam#, for #em illum#, &c.

668. Other case forms of ille are found in inscriptions, as follows:

D. F. ILLAE. Plural: N. M. ILLEI. G. OLORVM (81). D. and Ab. OLLEIS, ILLEIS.

669. #istic# and #illic#, compounded of #iste#, #ille#, and #-ce# or #-c#, are declined alike, as follows:

670. Rare forms are: N. and Ac. Ne. #istoc#, #illoc#, G. #illīusce#, D. #illīc#, Ab. F. #istāce#, #illāce#. Plural: N. M. #illīsce# (461), #illīc#, Ac. #illōsce#, #illāsce#. Before #-ne# interrogative, #-ce# becomes #-ci-#: N. #illicine#, #istucine#, Ac. #illancine#, Ab. #istōcine#, #istācinē#. Pl. Ac. #istōscine#.

THE DETERMINATIVE PRONOUN.

671. The determinative pronoun #is#, _that_, _the aforesaid_, _the one_, is declined as follows:

672. #is# and #id# (659) are formed from a stem #-i-#, and the other parts from a stem #eo-#, #eā-#. The genitive is sometimes written in Cicero and Plautus #eiius#; for the quantity of the first syllable of #eius#, see 153, 2; for #ĕ̄i#, see 127, 3, and 127, 4.

673. In old verse, the genitive singular rarely has the first syllable short. Old and rare forms are: D. F. #eae#, Ac. M. #im# or #em#. Pl. D, and Ab. #ī̆bus#, F. #eābus# (442). In dramatic verse, #e͡um#, #e͡am#, #e͡i#, #e͡o#, #e͡a#, and #e͡i#, #e͡orum#, #e͡arum#, #e͡os#, #e͡as#, #e͡is#, are often found; also #eccum#, #eccam#, #eccōs#, #eccās#, #ecca#, for #ecce eum#, &c.

674. Other case forms of #is# are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. EIS, 124 B.C. G. EIVS, EIIVS, EIIVS or EIIVS (23). D. EIEI, 123 B.C.; EEI, IEI; EI, 123 B.C., and common in all periods. Plural: N. EEIS, EIS, IEIS, till about 50 B.C.; EEI, EI, IEI. D. and Ab. EEIS, EIEIS, IEIS, IS; after the republic, IIS, IIS.

675. A rare and old pronoun equivalent to #is# is #sum#, #sam#, accusative singular, #sōs#, accusative plural, and #sīs#, dative plural.

THE PRONOUN OF IDENTITY.

676. The pronoun of identity, #īdem#, _the same_, is declined as follows:

+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+
| | Singular. | Plural. |
+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+
| | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. |
| | | |
| _Nom._ | īdem eadem idem | eīdem } eaedem eadem |
| | | or īdem } |
| | | |
| _Gen._ | eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem | eōrundem eārundem eōrundem |
| | | |
| _Dat._ | eīdem eīdem eīdem | eīsdem } eīsdem } eīsdem } |
| | | or īsdem} or īsdem} or īsdem} |
| | | |
| _Acc._ | eundem eandem idem | eōsdem eāsdem eadem |
| | | |
| _Abl._ | eōdem eādem eōdem | eīsdem } eīsdem } eīsdem } |
| | | or īsdem} or īsdem} or īsdem} |
+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+

677. In manuscripts and editions, the plural nominative masculine is often written #iīdem#, and the dative and ablative #iīsdem#. The singular nominative masculine is rarely #eisdem# or #isdem# (Plaut., Enn.), #eidem# (Cic., Varr.), neuter #īdem# (Plaut.). In verse, #eundem#, #e͡andem#, #e͡idem#, #e͡odem#, #e͡adem#, and #e͡idem#, #e͡aedem#, #e͡orundem#, #e͡osdem#, #e͡asdem#, are often found.

678. Other case forms of #īdem# are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. M. EISDEM, 123 B.C., ISDEM, 59 B.C., both common till Caesar’s time; EIDEM; Ne. EIDEM, 71 B.C. D. IDEM. Plural: N. M. EISDEM, ISDEM, EIDEM, till Caesar’s time; IIDEM, once only. D. and Ab. ISDEM, very rarely IISDEM.

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

679. The intensive pronoun #ipse#, _himself_, stems #ipso-#, #ipsā-#, is declined like #ille# (666), but has the nominative and accusative neuter singular #ipsum#.

680. In dramatic verse, #ipse# has rarely the first syllable short, and often has the older form #ipsus#. Plautus has these forms: N. F. #eapse#, Ac. #eumpse#, #eampse#, Ab. #eōpse#, #eāpse#, equivalent to #ipsa#, &c. So #reāpse# for #rē ipsā#.

THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

(1.) #quī# AND #quis#.

681. The stem #qui-#, or #quo-#, #quā-#, is used in three ways: as a relative, _who_, _which_; as an interrogative, _who? which? what?_ as an indefinite, _any_.

682. (_a._) The relative #quī#, _who_, _which_, is declined as follows:

683. (_b._) The interrogative adjective #quī#, #quae#, #quod#, _which? what?_ is declined like the relative #quī# (682).

684. The interrogative substantive has in the nominative singular #quis#, #quid#, _who? what?_ the rest is like #quī# (682).

In old Latin, #quis# is both masculine and feminine, but a separate feminine form #quae# is used three or four times.

685. #quis# interrogative is sometimes used adjectively with appellatives: as, #quis senātor?# _what senator?_ And #quī# is sometimes used substantively: as, #quī prīmus Ameriam nūntiat?# _who is the first to bring the tidings to Ameria?_

686. (_c._) The indefinite #quis# or #quī#, _one_, _any_, has the following forms:

#quis# and #quid# masculine and neuter substantives, #quī# and #quod# adjectives; feminine singular nominative and neuter plural nominative and accusative commonly #qua#, also #quae#. The rest is like #quī# (682).

687. #quis#, #quem#, #quid#, and #quibus# come from the stem #qui-#; the other parts come from #quo-#, #quā-#. #quae# stands for an older #quai# (690). For #quid# and #quod#, see 659.

688. Old forms of the genitive singular are #quoius#, and of the dative #quoiei#, #quoiī#, or #quoi#, also in derivatives of #quī# or #quis#. A genitive plural #quōiūm# is old and rare. The dative and ablative plural is sometimes #quīs# from #quo-#, #quā-#. A nominative plural interrogative and indefinite #quēs# is rare (Pacuv.).

689. The ablative or locative is sometimes #quī#, from the stem #qui-#: as an interrogative, _how?_ as a relative, _wherewith_, _whereby_, masculine, feminine, or neuter, in old Latin sometimes with a plural antecedent; especially referring to an indefinite person, and with #cum# attached, #quīcum#; and as an indefinite, _somehow_.

690. Other case forms of #quī# or #quis# and their derivatives are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. QVEI, prevalent in republican inscriptions; also QVI; once QVE. G. QVOIVS, regularly in republican inscriptions; CVIIVS, CVIIVS, CVIIVS (23), once QVIVS (20). D. QVOIEI, QVOI; once F. QVAI. Ab. QVEI. Plural: N. M. QVEI, but after 120 B.C., occasionally QVI; QVES, indefinite; F. and Ne. QVAI. G. QVOIVM.

DERIVATIVES OF #quī# AND #quis#.

691. The derivatives of #quī# and #quis# have commonly #quis# and #quid# as substantives, and #quī# and #quod# as adjectives. Forms requiring special mention are named below:

692. #quisquis#, _whoever_, _whatever_, _everybody who_, _everything which_, an indefinite relative, has only these forms in common use: N. M. #quisquis#, sometimes F. in old Latin, Ne. N. and Ac. #quicquid# or #quidquid#, Ab. M. and Ne. as adjective #quōquō#.

Rare forms are: N. M. #quīquī#, Ac. #quemquem#, once Ab. F. #quāquā#, as adverb #quīquī#, once D. #quibusquibus#. A short form of the genitive occurs in #quoiquoimodī# or #cuicuimodī#, _of whatsoever sort_.

#aliquis# or #aliquī#, #aliqua#, once #aliquae# (Lucr.), #aliquid# or #aliquod#, _some one_, _some_; Ab. M. sometimes, Ne. often #aliquī# (689). Pl. Ne. N. and Ac. only #aliqua#; D. and Ab. sometimes #aliquīs# (668).

#ecquis# or #ecquī#, #ecqua# or #ecquae#, #ecquid# or #ecquod#, _any?_ Besides the nominative only these forms are found: D. eccui, Ac. #ecquem#, #ecquam#, #ecquid#, Ab. M. and Ne. #ecquō#. Pl. N. #ecquī#, Ac. M. #ecquōs#, F. #ecquās#.

#quīcumque#, #quaecumque#, #quodcumque#, _whoever_, _whichever_, _everybody who_, _everything which_. The #cumque# is sometimes separated from #quī# by an intervening word. An older form is #quīquomque#, &c.

#quīdam#, #quaedam#, #quiddam# or #quoddam#, _a_, _a certain_, _some one_, _so and so_; Ac. #quendam#, #quandam#. Pl. G. #quōrundam#, #quārundam#.

#quīlibet#, #quaelibet#, #quidlibet# or #quodlibet#, _any you please_.

#quisnam#, rarely #quīnam#, #quaenam#, #quidnam# or #quodnam#, _who ever? who in the world?_ Sometimes #nam quis#, &c.

#quispiam#, #quaepiam#, #quippiam#, #quidpiam# or #quodpiam#, _any_, _any one_; Ab. also #quīpiam# (689), sometimes as adverb, _in any way_.

#quisquam#, #quicquam# or #quidquam#, _anybody at all_, _anything at all_, generally a substantive, less frequently an adjective, _any at all_. There is no distinctive feminine form, and #quisquam# and #quemquam# are rarely, and in old Latin, used as a feminine adjective. Ab. also #quīquam# (689), sometimes as adverb, _in any way at all_. No plural.

#quisque#, #quaeque#, #quicque#, #quidque# or #quodque#, _each_. Sometimes #ūnus# is prefixed: #ūnusquisque#; both parts are declined. #quisque# and #quemque# are sometimes feminine. Ab. S. #quīque# (689) rare, Ab. Pl. #quīsque# (688) once (Lucr.).

#quīvīs#, #quaevīs#, #quidvīs# or #quodvīs#, _which you will_; Ab. also #quīvīs# (689).

(2.) #uter#.

693. #uter#, #utra#, #utrum#, _whether? which of the two?_ has the genitive singular #utrīus#, and the dative singular #utrī#.

The rest is like #aeger# (617). #uter# is sometimes relative, _whichsoever_, or indefinite, _either of the two_.

DERIVATIVES OF #uter#.

694. The derivatives of #uter# are declined like #uter#; they are:

#neuter#, _neither of the two_, genitive #neutrīus#, always with #ī# (657). When used as a grammatical term, _neuter_, the genitive is always #neutrī#: as, #generis neutrī#, _of neither gender_.

#utercumque#, #utracumque#, #utrumcumque#, _whichever of the two_, _either of the two_.

#uterlibet#, _whichever you please_.

#uterque#, _whichsoever_, _both_. G. always #utriusque# (657).

#utervīs#, _whichever you wish_.

#alteruter#, F. #altera utra#, Ne. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, _one or the other_, G. #alterīus utrīus#, once late #alterutrīus#, D. #alterutrī#, Ac. M. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, F. #alterutram# once (Plin.) or #alteram utram#, Ab. #alterutrō# or #alterō utrō#, F. #alterā utrā#. No Pl., except D. #alterutrīs# once (Plin.).

CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS.

695. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Int. Interrogative
Indef. Indefinite
Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c.
Rel. Relative.

THE ADVERB, THE CONJUNCTION, AND THE PREPOSITION.

I. NOUNS AS ADVERBS.

696. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases, even in the developed period of the language; with others the consciousness of their noun character was lost.

697. Three cases are used adverbially: the accusative, the ablative, and the locative.

698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative is sometimes more exactly defined by a preposition. The preposition may either accompany its usual case: as, #adamussim, admodum, īlicō#; or it may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used: as, #examussim, intereā#. Sometimes it stands after the noun: as, #parumper#, _a little while_. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recognized as such: see 710.

[Erratum:
698.
. invisible]

(1.) ACCUSATIVE.

(_a._) ACCUSATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.

699. #domum#, _homeward, home_; #rūs#, _afield_; #forās#, _out of doors_ #(*forā-); vicem#, _instead_; #partim#, _in part_; old #noenum# or #noenu#, common #nōn#, for #ne-oenum#, i.e. #ūnum#, _not one, naught, not_; #admodum#, _to a degree, very_; #adamussim, examussim#, _to a #T#_; #adfatim#, _to satiety_; #invicem#, _in turn, each other_.

700. Many adverbs in #-tim# and #-sim# denote manner (549): as, #cautim#, _warily_, #statim#, _at once_, #sēnsim#, _perceptibly, gradually_; #ōstiātim#, _door by door_, #virītim#, _man by man_, #fūrtim#, _stealthily_.

(_b._) ACCUSATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

701. Neuters: all comparative adverbs in #-ius# (361): as, #doctius#, _more learnedly_; so #minus#, _less_, #magis#, _more_ (363). #prīmum#, _first_, #secundum#, secondly, &c.; #tum#, _then_ (#to-#, _that_): #commodum#, _just in time_; #minimum#, _at least_, #potissimum#, _in preference_, #postrēmum#, _at last_, #summum#, _at most_; #versum#, _toward_, #rursum, russum, rūsum#, _back_; #facile#, _easily_, #impūne#, _scotfree_, #recēns#, _lately_, #semel#, _once_ (#simili-#), #simul#, _together_ (#simili-#). Plural: #cētera#, _for the rest_; #quia#, _because_ (#qui-#); in old Latin #frūstra#, _in vain_ (#fraud-#).

702. Feminines: #bifāriam#, _twofold_; #cōram#, _face to face_ (#com-# or #co-, *ōrā-#); #tam#, _so_ (#tā-#, _that_); #quam#, _as, how_. Plural: #aliās#, _on other occasions_.

(2.) ABLATIVE.

(_a._) ABLATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.

703. #domō#, _from home_, #rūre#, _from the country_; #hodiē#, _to-day_ (#ho-#, #diē-#), #volgō#, _publicly_, #vespere#, _by twilight_, #noctū#, _by nights_, _nights_, #lūce#, _by light_, #tempore#, _in times_, _betimes_; #sponte#, _voluntarily_, #forte#, _by chance_; #quotannīs#, _yearly_; #grātiīs# or #grātīs#, _for nothing_, #ingrātiīs# or #ingrātīs#, _against one’s will_; #īlicō#, _on the spot_ (169, 4; 170, 2), #forīs#, _out of doors_ (#*forā-#).

(_b._) ABLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

704. Many adverbs in #-ō# are formed from adjectives of time: as, #perpetuō#, _to the end_, #crēbrō#, _frequently_, #rārō#, _seldom_, #repentīnō#, _suddenly_, #sērō#, _late_, #prīmō#, _at first_. Many denote manner: as, #arcānō#, _privily_, #sēriō#, _in earnest_. Some are formed from participles: as, #auspicātō#, _with auspices taken_; #compositō#, _by agreement_. A plural is rare: #alternīs#, _alternately_.

705. Instead of #-ō#, neuter ablatives commonly have #-ē#: as, #longē#, _far_, #doctē#, _wisely_. So also superlatives: #facillimē#, _most easily_, anciently FACILVMED (362). Consonant stems have #-e#: as, #repente#, _suddenly_.

706. From pronouns some end in #-ī# (689): as, #quī#,_ how?_ indefinite, #quī#, _somehow_; #atquī#, _but somehow_; #quī-quam#, _in any way at all_.

707. Feminines: many in #-ā#: #ūnā#, _together_; #circā#, _around_; #contrā#, _against_ (#com-#, 347); #extrā#, _outside_ (#ex#, 347); in classical Latin, #frūstrā#, _in vain_ (#fraud-#). So, especially, adverbs denoting the ‘route by which:’ #hāc#, _this way_; #rēctā#, _straightway_.

(3.) LOCATIVE.

708. In #-ī#, from names of towns and a few other words: #Karthāginī#, _at Carthage_; #Rōmae#, for #Rōmāī#, _at Rome_; #domī#, _at home_; #illī#, commonly #illī-c#, _there_ (#illo-#), #istī#, commonly #istī-c#, _where you are_, #hī-c#, _here_ (#ho-#); old #sei#, common #sī#, _at that_, _in that case_, _so_, _if_; #sīc#, _so_ (#sī#, #-ce#).

709. In #-bī̆#, from some pronouns: #ibī̆#, _there_ (#i-#); #ubī̆# (for #*quobī̆#, 146), _where_; #alicubī̆#, _somewhere_; #sī-cubi#, _if anywhere_, #nē-cubi#, _lest anywhere_.

[Erratum:
708 ... #domī#, _at home_;
; missing]

OTHER ENDINGS.

710. Besides the above, other endings are also found in words of this class: as,

#-s# in #abs#, _from_, #ex#, _out of_; similarly #us-que#, _in every case_, _ever_, #us-quam#, _anywhere at all_. #-tus# has the meaning of an ablative: as, #intus#, _from within_, _within_; #antīquitus#, _from old times_, _anciently_; #funditus#, _from the bottom_, _entirely_. #-ō# denotes the ‘place to which’ in adverbs from pronoun stems: as, #eō#, _thither_; #quō#, _whither_; #illō#, or #illūc#, for #illoi-ce#, _thither_, after #hūc#; #hōc#, commonly #hūc#, perhaps for #hoi-ce# (99) _hither_. #-im# denotes the ‘place from which:’ as, #istim#, commonly #istinc#, _from where you are_; #illim#, commonly #illinc#, _from yonder_; #hinc#, _hence_; #exim#, _thereupon_; also #-de#: as, #unde#, _whence_ (#quo-#, 146), #sī-cunde#, _if from any place_, #nē-cunde#, _lest from anywhere_. #-ter#: as comparative (347): #praeter#, _further_, _beyond_, #inter#, _between_; denoting manner: #ācriter#, _sharply_; #amanter#, _affectionately_; rarely from #-o-# stems: as, #firmiter#, _steadfastly_.

CORRELATIVE ADVERBS.

711. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Int. Interrogative
Indef. Indefinite
Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c.
Rel. Relative.

II. SENTENCES AS ADVERBS.

712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,

#īlicet#, _you may go, straightway_ (#īre licet#); #scīlicet#, _you may know, obviously, of course_ (#scīre licet#); #vidē̆licet#, _you can see, plainly_ (#vidēre licet#); #nūdiustertius#, _now is the third day, day before yesterday_ (#num dius#, i.e. #diēs#, #tertius#); #forsitan#, _maybe_ (#fors sit an#); #mīrum quantum#, _strange how much, astonishingly_; #nesciō quō pactō#, #nesciō quōmodo#, _somehow or other, unfortunately_.

(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB.

713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.

THE STEM.

714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.

715. There are three MOODS, _Indicative_, _Subjunctive_, and _Imperative_.

716. There are six TENSES in the indicative, three of the present system, _Present_, _Imperfect_, and _Future_; and three of the perfect system, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_, and _Future Perfect_. The subjunctive lacks the futures; the imperative has only the present.

717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading. No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.

718. The verb has two principal stems: I. The Present stem, which is the base of the present system; II. The Perfect stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.

719. The perfect system has no passive; its place is supplied by the perfect participle with a form of #sum#, _am_, or less frequently of #fuī#, _am become_.

720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, #maereō#, _mourn_; some have only the perfect system: as, #meminī#, _remember_. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative #ferō#, _carry_, perfect indicative #tulī#, and perfect participle #lātus#; present #possum#, _can_, perfect #potuī#.

THE PERSON ENDING.

721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three PERSONS, the _First_, used of the speaker, the _Second_, of what is spoken to, and the _Third_, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.

722. There are two NUMBERS: the _Singular_, used of one, and the _Plural_, used of more than one.

723. There are two VOICES: the _Active_, indicating that the subject acts, and the _Passive_, indicating that the subject acts on himself, or more commonly is acted on by another.

724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used impersonally; the participle in this construction is neuter.

725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a reflexive or an active meaning; such are called _Deponents_: see 798.

726. The person endings are as follows:

ACTIVE VOICE.

+------------------+---------------+--------------------------+
| _Mood._ | IND. & SUB. | IMPERATIVE. |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+
| _Number._ | SING. | PLUR. | SING. | PLUR. |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+
| _First person._ | -m | -mus | _not used_ | _not used_ |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+
| _Second person._ | -s | -tis | _none_, -tō | -te, -tōte |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+
| _Third person._ | -t | -nt | -tō | -ntō |
+------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+

PASSIVE VOICE.

727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends in #-tī#, and the third person plural in #-runt# for an older #-ront#, or in #-re#. #-re# is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust; #-runt# by Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.

728. In the indicative #-m# is not used in the present (except in #sum#, _am_, and #inquam#, _quoth I_), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in #-bō#. #-s# is not used in #es# for #ess#, _thou art_, and in #ēs#, _eatest_ (171, 1).

729. In inscriptions, #-d# sometimes stands for #-t# (149, 2) in the third person singular, and sometimes #-t# is not used: as, FECID, _made_, for _fēcit_; DEDE, _gave_, for #dedēt# or #dedit#. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, 111) for #dederunt#, _gave_; EMERV, _bought_, for #ēmērunt#; once DEDERI, probably for #dedēre# (856).

730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus commonly #-re#; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in deponents; but in other tenses #-re# is preferred, especially in the future #-bere#, by Cicero, #-ris# by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is wanting; its place is supplied by a single participial form in #-minī#, which is used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike (297).

731. Deponents have rarely #-mino#, in the imperative singular: as, second person, #prōgredimino#, _step forward thou_ (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, _let him enjoy_; or #-tō# and #-ntō# for #-tor# and #-ntor#: as, #ūtitō#, _let him use_; #ūtuntō#, _let them use_. In a real passive, #-ntō# is rare: as, CENSENTO, _let them be rated_.

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:

Three Infinitives, _Present Active_ and _Passive_, and _Perfect Active_, sometimes called the _Infinitive Mood_. For the future active and passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.

The _Gerund_ and the _Gerundive_.

Two _Supines_.

Three Participles, _Present_ and _Future Active_, and _Perfect Passive_.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.

734. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a verb are the _Present Indicative Active_, _Present Infinitive Active_, _Perfect Indicative Active_, and _Perfect Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
regō, _rule_ regere rēxī rēctus
laudō, _praise_ laudāre laudāvī laudātus
moneō, _advise_ monēre monuī monitus
audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī auditus

735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the _Present Indicative_, _Present Infinitive_, and _Perfect Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. PART.
queror, _complain_ querī questus
mīror, _wonder_ mīrārī mīrātus
vereor, _fear_ verērī veritus
partior, _share_ partīrī partītus

DESIGNATION OF THE VERB.

736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, #regō#; #laudō#, #moneō#, #audiō#; or by the present infinitive active: as, #regere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, #queror#; #mīror#, #vereor#, #partior#; or #querī#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#.

737. For convenience, verbs with #-ere# in the present infinitive active are called _Verbs in_ #-ere#; those with #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, _Verbs in_ #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as _Verbs in_ #-ī#; or _Verbs in_ #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, respectively.

THEME OF THE VERB.

738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the _Theme_. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.

Thus, #reg-# in #reg-ō# is a root; while #vesti-# in #vesti-ō#, _dress_, is a noun stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun stem is only presumed: as, #audi-# in #audi-ō#.

739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.

740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, or, if deponent, in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.

Thus, #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#, are denominative; while #esse#, #dare#, (#dē#)#lēre#, #regere#, #querī#, are primitive. A few verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought to be primitive in their origin.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE VERB.

741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in #-ere#, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, mostly denominative.

742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, #ā#, #ē#, #i#, #ī#: thus, #laudās#, #monēs#, #regis#, #audīs#, sometimes called the _first_, _second_, _third_, and _fourth conjugation_ respectively.

I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.

743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called _Root Verbs_, or by some, _irregular_ (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in #-ere#, like #regō# (782).

(A.) ROOT VERBS.

_Irregular Verbs._

(_a._) WITH A PREVALENT BARE ROOT.

744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are #sum#, _am_, #dō#, _give_, _put_, and compounds; and with the root doubled, #bibō#, _drink_, #serō#, _sow_, and #sistō#, _set_.

(1.) #sum#, _am_ (#es-#, #s-#).

745. #sum#, _am_, is used only in the present system (720). The perfect system is supplied by forms of #fuī# (#fu-#).

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A Latin Grammar for Schools and CollegesChapter VI: Part 6

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