Chapter XXI: Part 21

(a.) Protasis denoting past, apodosis present action: #sī ante voluissēs, essēs; nunc sērō cupis#, Pl. _Tri._ 568, _if you had wished it before, you might be; as it is, you long too late_. #sī nōn mēcum aetātem ēgisset, hodiē stulta vīveret#, Pl. _MG._ 1320, _if she hadn’t spent her life with me, she’d be a fool to-day_. #sī tum illī respondēre voluissem, nunc rē̆ī pūblicae cōnsulere nōn possem#, _Ph._ 3, 33, _if I had chosen to answer the man then, I should not be able to promote the public interest now_. #quō quidem tempore sī meum cōnsilium valuisset, tū hodiē egērēs, nōs līberī essēmus#, _Ph._ 2, 37, _if by the way at that time my counsel had been regarded, you, sir, would be a beggar to-day and we should be free_.

(b.) Protasis and apodosis both referring to past: #ōlim sī advēnissem, magis tū tum istūc dīcerēs#, Pl. _Cap._ 871, _if I had come before, you’d have said so then all the more_. #num igitur, sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis eum suae paenitēret?# _CM._ 19, _suppose therefore he had lived to be a hundred, would he have regretted his years?_ #Indōs aliāsque sī adiūnxisset gentēs, impedimentum maius quam auxilium traheret#, L. 9, 19, 5, _if he had added the Indians and other nations, he would have found them a hindrance rather than a help in his train_.

2098. (_b._) #Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.#

#sī appellāssēs, respondisset nōminī#, Pl. _Tri._ 927, _if you had called him, he’d have answered to his name_. #nisi fūgissem, medium praemorsisset#, Pl. in Gell. 6, 9, 7, _if I hadn’t run away, he’d have bitten me in two_. #sī vēnissēs ad exercitum, ā tribūnīs vīsus essēs; nōn es autem ab hīs vīsus#; #nōn es igitur ad exercitum profectus#, _Inv._ 1, 87, _if you had come to the army, you would have been seen by the tribunes; but you have not been seen by them; therefore you have not been to the army_. #sī beātus umquam fuisset, beātam vītam usque ad rogum pertulisset#, _Fin._ 3, 76, _if he had ever been a child of fortune, he would have continued the life of bliss to the funeral pyre_. #nisi mīlitēs essent dēfessī, omnēs hostium cōpiae dēlērī potuissent#, 7, 88, 6, _unless the soldiers had been utterly exhausted, the entire force of the enemy might have been exterminated_ (2101). #quod sī Catilīna in urbe remānsisset, dīmicandum nōbīs cum illō fuisset#, _C._ 3, 17, _but if Catiline had staid in town we should have had to fight with the villain_ (2101).

2099. (_c._) #Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.#

#vocem ego tē ad mē ad cēnam, frāter tuos nisi dīxisset mihī̆ tē apud sē cēnātūrum esse hodiē#, Pl. _St._ 510, _I should like to invite you home to dinner, if my brother hadn’t told me that you were to dine with him to-day_.

2100. (_d._) #Periphrastic Apodosis.#

(a.) #sī tacuisset, ego eram dictūrus#, Pl. _Cist._ 152, _if she had held her peace, I was going to tell_ (2093). #sī P. Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī?# _Sest._ 81, _if Sestius had been slain, were you disposed to rush to arms?_ #conclāve illud, ubī̆ erat mānsūrus, sī īre perrēxisset, conruit#, _Div._ 1, 26, _the suite of rooms where he was going to spend the night, if he had pushed on, tumbled down_. #Teucrās fuerat mersūra carīnās, nī prius in scopulum trānsfōrmāta foret#, O. 14, 72, _she had gone on to sink the Trojan barks unless she had been changed into a rock_. (b.) #quem sī vīcisset, habitūrus esset impūnitātem sempiternam#, _Mil._ 84, _and if he overcame him, he would be likely to have exemption from punishment forever and ever_ (2093). #aut nōn fātō interiīt exercitus, aut sī fātō, etiam sī obtemperāsset auspiciīs, idem ēventūrum fuisset#, _Div._ 2, 21, _the destruction of his army was either not due to fate, or if to fate, it would have happened all the same, even if he had conformed to the auspices_.

[Erratum:
2100. (_d._)
(_c._)]

INDICATIVE APODOSIS.

2101. (1.) The apodosis of verbs of ability, duty, &c. (1495-1497), including the gerundive with #sum#, is often in the indicative, the imperfect taking the place of the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, and the perfect that of the pluperfect subjunctive. But the subjunctive is also found, especially #possem# rather than #poteram#.

2102. (_a._) #Apodosis in the Imperfect Indicative.#

(a.) Of present action: #quod sī Rōmae Cn. Pompēius prīvātus esset, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat mittendus#, _IP._ 50, _now if Pompey were at Rome, in private station, still he would be the man to send to this important war_. #quem patris locō, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset, colere dēbēbās#, _Ph._ 2, 99, _whom you ought to honour as a father, if you had any such thing as affection in you_.

(b.) Of past action: #quid enim poterat Heius respondēre, sī esset improbus?# _V._ 4, 16, _for what answer could Hejus have given, if he were an unprincipled man?_ #sī sordidam vestem habuissent, lūgentium Perseī cāsum praebēre speciem poterant#, L. 45, 20, 5, _if they had worn dark clothing, they might have presented the mien of mourners for the fall of Perseus_.

2103. (_b._) #Apodosis in the Perfect Indicative.#

#nōn potuit reperīre, sī ipsī sōlī quaerendās darēs, lepidiōrēs duās#, Pl. _MG._ 803, _if you assigned the search to Sol himself, he couldn’t have found two jollier girls_. #quō modo pultāre potuī sī nōn tangerem?# Pl. _Most._ 462, _how could I have knocked, if I hadn’t touched the door?_ #licitumst, sī vellēs#, Pl. _Tri._ 566, _you might have been, if you’d wished_. #sī meum imperium exsequī voluissēs, interemptam oportuit#, T. _Hau._ 634, _if you had been willing to follow my commands, she should have been dispatched_. #cōnsul esse quī potuī, nisi eum vītae cursum tenuissem ā pueritiā?# _RP._ 1, 10, _how could I have been consul unless from boyhood I had taken that line in life?_ #sī eum captīvitās in urbem pertrāxisset, Caesarem ipsum audīre potuit#, Ta. _D._ 17, _if captivity had carried him to the city, he could have heard Caesar himself_. #Antōnī gladiōs potuit contemnere, sī sīc omnia dīxisset#, J. 10, 123, _Antonius’ swords he might have scorned, if all things he had worded so_. #sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit#, L. 2, 38, 5, _if you had staid one day, you must all have died_.

2104. (2.) Other verbs also sometimes have a past indicative apodosis, usually an imperfect or pluperfect, to denote an action very near to actual performance, which is interrupted by the action of the protasis.

Naturally such a protasis generally contains an actual or a virtual negative; but positive protases are found here and there, chiefly in late writers.

2105. (_a._) #Apodosis in the Perfect Indicative.#

#paene in foveam dēcidī, nī hīc adessēs#, Pl. _Per._ 594, _I had almost fallen into a snare, unless you were here_. #nec vēnī, nisi fāta locum sēdemque dedissent#, V. 11, 112, _nor had I come, unless the fates a place and seat had given_. #pōns sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, nī ūnus vir fuisset Horātius Cocles#, L. 2, 10, 2, _the pile-bridge all but gave a path to the enemy, had it not been for one heroic soul, Horatius Cocles_.

2106. (_b._) #Apodosis in the Imperfect Indicative.#

#quīn lābēbar longius, nisi mē retinuissem#, _Leg._ 1, 52, _why, I was going to drift on still further, if I had not checked myself_. #sī per L. Metellum licitum esset, mātrēs illōrum veniēbant#, _V._ 5, 129, _if Metellus had not prevented, the mothers of those people were just coming_; here the protasis may be held to contain a virtual negative; so in the last example on this page. #castra excindere parābant, nī Mūciānus sextam legiōnem opposuisset#, Ta. _H._ 3, 46, _they were preparing to destroy the camp, had not Mucianus checked them with the sixth legion_. #sī dēstināta prōvēnissent, rēgnō imminēbat#, Ta. _H._ 4, 18, _had his schemes succeeded, he was close upon the throne_.

2107. (_c._) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Indicative.

#quīngentōs simul, nī hebes machaera foret, ūnō ictū occīderās#, Pl. _MG._ 52, _five hundred, had your glaive not blunted been, at one fell swoop you’d slain_. #praeclārē vīcerāmus, nisi Lepidus recēpisset Antōnium#, _Fam._ 12, 10, 3, _we had gained a splendid victory, if Lepidus had not taken Antony under his protection_. #quod ipsum fortūna ēripuerat, nisi ūnīus amīcī opēs subvēnissent#, _RabP._ 48, _even this boon fortune had wrenched from him, unless he had been assisted by a single friend_. #sī gladium nōn strīnxissem, tamen triumphum merueram#, L. 38, 49, 12, _if I had not drawn my sword, I had still earned my triumph_. #perierat imperium, sī Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum īra suādēbat#, Sen. _de Ira_, 1, 11, 5, _the empire had been lost, if Fabius had ventured as far as passion urged_.

2108. (3.) PERIPHRASTIC PROTASIS.

(_a._) #ac sī tibī̆ nēmō respōnsūrus esset, tamen causam dēmōnstrāre nōn possēs#, _Caecil._ 43, _and even supposing that nobody were going to answer you, still you would not be able to make the case good_ (2092). #plūribus vōs, mīlitēs, hortārer, sī cum armātīs dīmicātiō futūra esset#, L. 24, 38, 9, _I should exhort you at greater length, my men, if there was to be a tug with armed men_ (2092). (_b._) #sī domum tuam expugnātūrus eram, nōn temperāssem vīnō in ūnum diem?# L. 40, 14, 4, _if I intended to capture your house, should I not have abstained from wine for a day_ (2092)?

VARIATION OF THE PROTASIS.

2109. Instead of a conditional protasis with #sī# or #nisi#, equivalents are often used.

2110. Thus, the protasis may be coordinated (1701), or be introduced by a relative pronoun (1812), by #quod# (1843), #cum# (1859, 1860), #ubī̆# (1932), #ut# or #nē# (1963), #dum#, #dum modo#, #modo# (2003), or #quandō# (2011). Or the protasis may be intimated by #sine#, _without_, #cum#, _with_, by a participle or ablative absolute, by a wish, or otherwise: as,

(_a._) #nēmō umquam sine magnā spē immortālitātis sē prō patriā offerret ad mortem#, _TD._ 1, 32, _nobody would ever expose himself to death for his country without a well-grounded conviction of immortality_. #cum hāc dōte poteris vel mendīcō nūbere#, Pl. _Per._ 396, _with such a dowry you can e’en a beggar wed_. #Sūlla, crēdō, hunc petentem repudiāsset#, _Arch._ 25, _Sulla, I suppose, would have turned my client away, if he petitioned him_. #quae legentem fefellissent, trānsferentem fugere nōn possunt#, Plin. _Ep._ 7, 9, 2, _what would have escaped a reader can’t escape a translator_. #vīvere ego Britannicō potiente rērum poteram?# Ta. 13, 21, _as for me, could I live, if Britannicus were on the throne_ (2102)? #nisi tē salvō salvī esse nōn possumus#, _Marc._ 32, _without you safe, safe we cannot be_. #aspicerēs utinam, Sāturnia: mītior essēs#, O. 2, 435, _would thou couldst see, Saturnia; thou wouldst gentler be_.

(_b._) #habet ōrātiōnem tālem cōnsul, quālem numquam Catilīna vīctor habuisset#, _Sest._ 28, _he makes a speech--yes, and he a consul--such as a Catiline would never have made, if flushed with success_. #revereāris occursum, nōn reformīdēs#, Plin. _Ep._ 1, 10, 7, _you might well be abashed in his presence, but you would not be afraid_. #dī immortālēs mentem illī perditō ac furiōsō dedērunt ut huic faceret insidiās; aliter perīre pestis illa nōn potuit#, _Mil._ 88, _the immortal gods inspired that mad miscreant to waylay my client; otherwise, that monster could not have been destroyed_. For the use of #absque# in a coordinate protasis in Plautus and Terence, see 1701, 1421.

2111. The verb of the protasis is sometimes omitted: as in abridged sentences (1057), or when it may be easily supplied (1036).

#aut enim nēmō, aut sī quisquam, ille sapiēns fuit#, _L._ 9, _for either nobody or, if anybody, that was a wise man_. #sī ēveniet, gaudēbimus: sīn secus, patiēmur#, Pl. _Cas._ 377, _if it shall come to pass, glad shall we be; if else, we shall endure_. #mē voluisse, sī haec cīvitās est, cīvem esse mē; sī nōn, exsulem esse#, _Fam._ 7, 3, 5, _that I wished, if this is a commonwealth, to be a citizen of it; if it is not, to be an exile_. #sūmeret alicunde . . . sī nūllō aliō pactō, faenore#, T. _Ph._ 299, _he could have got it from somebody or other . . . if in no other way, on usury_ (2113).

VARIATION OF THE APODOSIS.

2112. The apodosis is sometimes represented by the accusative of exclamation (1149), or the vocative: as,

#mortālem graphicum, sī servat fidem#, Pl. _Ps._ 519, _O what a pattern creature, if he keeps his word_. #ō miserum tē, sī intellegis, miseriōrem, sī nōn intellegis, hoc litterīs mandārī#, _Ph._ 2, 54, _wretched man if you are aware, more wretched if you are not aware, that all this is put down in black and white_. #inimīce lāmnae, Crīspe Sallustī, nisi temperātō splendeat ūsū#, H. 2, 2, 2, _thou foe to bullion, Crispus Sallustius, so it shine not with tempered use_. Also the future participle in poetry and in prose from Livy on.

2113. The verb of the apodosis, or the entire apodosis, is often omitted. In the latter case an appended verb might easily be mistaken for the apodosis.

#quid sī caelum ruat?# T. _Hau._ 719, _what if the sky should fall?_ #quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī?# H. _E._ 1, 5, 12, _why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use?_ #nisi restituissent statuās, vehementer minātur#, _V._ 2, 162, _he threatens vengeance dire, if they did not put the statues back in their place_. #quae supplicātiō sī cum cēterīs cōnferātur, hoc interest#, _C._ 3, 15, _if this thanksgiving be compared with all others, there would be found the following difference_. #nōn edepol ubi terrārum sim sciō, sī quis roget#, Pl. _Am._ 336, _upon my word I don’t know where on earth I am, if anyone should ask_. #sī Valeriō quī crēdat, quadrāgintā mīlia hostium sunt caesa#, L. 33, 10, 8, _if anybody believe such a man as Valerius, there were forty thousand of the enemy slain_. A clause with #sī# or #nisi# is often used parenthetically: as, #sī placet#, #sī vidētur#, #sīs#, #sultis#, _if you please_, #sī quaeris#, _if you must know_, _in fact_, #sī dīs placet#, _please heaven_, #nisi mē fallit#, _if I am not mistaken_, &c., &c. For wishes introduced by #ō sī#, without an apodosis, see 1546.

2114. The apodosis is sometimes expanded by inserted expressions. So particularly by #vereor nē#, equivalent to #fortasse# (1958), #nōn dubitō quīn#, to #profectō# (1986), or a form of #sum# with a relative pronoun: as,

#quae cōnētur sī velim commemorāre, vereor nē quis exīstimet mē causam nōbilitātis voluisse laedere#, _RA._ 135, _if I should undertake to set forth his high and mighty schemes, possibly it might be thought that I wished to damage the cause of the conservatives_. #sī tum P. Sēstius animam ēdidisset, nōn dubitō quīn aliquandō statua huic statuerētur#, _Sest._ 83, _if Sestius had given up the ghost then, a statue would doubtless at some day have been set up in his honour_. #quod ille sī repudiāsset, dubitātis quīn ē̆ī vīs esset adlāta?# _Sest._ 62, _if he had rejected this, have you any doubt that violent hands would have been laid on him?_ #sescenta sunt quae memorem, sī sit ōtium#, Pl. _Aul._ 320, _there are a thousand things that I could tell, if I had time_.

2115. For expressions of trial, hope, or expectation, followed by a conditional protasis with #sī#, see 1777.

CONCESSIVE PROTASES.

#etsī#, #tametsī# (#tamenetsī#), #etiamsī#.

2116. #etsī#, #tametsī#, _though_, #etiamsī#, _even if_, or sometimes simple #sī#, _if_, is used to introduce a concessive protasis. The verb of the protasis is either indicative or subjunctive; but the indicative is the prevailing construction, especially with #etsī#. The apodosis often has #tamen# as an adversative correlative, even with #tametsī#.

#etsī# is rare in poetry; not in Sallust. Sometimes it is used like #quamquam# to append a fresh main sentence (2153). #tametsī# belongs chiefly to colloquial style, though Sallust often uses it; not in the Augustan poets or Tacitus. #etiamsī# is not found in Plautus or Caesar.

(_a._) #nōn vīdī eam, etsī vīdī#, Pl. _MG._ 407, _I saw her not, although I saw her_. #quō mē habeam pactō, tametsī nōn quaeris, docēbō#, Lucilius in Gell. 18, 8, 2, _I’ll tell you how I am, though you do not inquire_. #etiamsī multī mēcum contendent, tamen omnīs superābō#, _Fam._ 5, 8, 4, _though I shall have many rivals, yet I will outdo them all_. #tametsī causa postulat, tamen praeterībō#, _Quinct._ 13, _though the case calls for it, still I will let it pass_. #Caesar, etsī in hīs locīs mātūrae sunt hiemēs, tamen in Britanniam proficīscī contendit#, 4, 20, 1, _though the winter always sets in early in these parts, nevertheless Caesar made haste to proceed to Britain_. #Caesar, etsī intellegēbat, quā dē causā ea dīcerentur, Indutiomarum ad sē venīre iussit#, 5, 4, 1, _though Caesar was aware of his motives in saying so, he directed Indutiomarus to come to him_.

(_b._) #etsī taceās, palam id quidem est#, Pl. _Aul._ 418, _though you should hold your tongue, still that at least is plain_. #etsī nihil aliud Sūllae nisi cōnsulātum abstulissētis, tamen eō contentōs vōs esse oportēbat#, _Sull._ 90, _even though you had robbed Sulla of nothing but the consulship, still you ought to be satisfied with that_. #equidem, etiamsī oppetenda mors esset, in patriā māllem quam in externīs locīs#, _Fam._ 4, 7, 4, _for my part, even though death were to be faced, I should prefer it in my native land rather than abroad_.

[Erratum:
2116a ... etiamsī multī mēcum contendent,
contendent.]

CONDITIONAL COMPARISONS.

#quasi# (#quam sī#), #tamquam sī#, #ut# or #velut sī#.

2117. #sī# following a word meaning _than_ or _as_ is used with the subjunctive in conditional comparisons.

In this use, #quasi# (#quam sī# twice in Tacitus) and #tamquam sī# are found at all periods. #ut sī# is found in Terence once, in Cicero (not in the orations), once in Livy, sometimes in later writers. #velut sī# begins with Caesar; not in Cicero. #ac sī# is found once in the _Bell. Hisp._ and in late Latin.

2118. #sī# is often omitted after #tamquam#, and (from Livy on) sometimes after #velut#. After #quasi# it is sometimes inserted in Plautus, Lucretius, and late Latin. #ceu# is sometimes used, chiefly in poetry, for #tamquam sī#. The main clause often has as correlative #ita#, #sīc#, #perinde#, #proinde#, #similiter#, or #nōn secus#.

2119. The tense of the subjunctive is usually regulated by the sequence of tenses, in Cicero nearly always with #quasi# and #tamquam sī#.

#quid mē sīc salūtās quasi dūdum nōn vīderīs?# Pl. _Am._ 682, _why dost thou greet me thus as if but now thou hadst not looked on me?_ #quid ego hīs testibus ūtor, quasi rēs dubia sit?# _Caecil._ 14, _why do I employ these witnesses, as if it were a case involving doubt?_ #tamquam sī claudus sim, cum fūstīst ambulandum#, Pl. _As._ 427, _I have to take my walks with a stick, as if I were a lame man_. #tamquam extrūderētur, ita cucurrit#, _Ph._ 10, 10, _he rushed away as if he had been kicked out_. #quod absentis Ariovistī crūdēlitātem, velut sī cōram adesset, horrērent#, 1, 32, 4, _because they trembled at Ariovistus’s barbarity, absent as he was, just as if he stood before their eyes_. #mē quoque iuvat, velut ipse in parte labōris ac perīculī fuerim, ad fīnem bellī Pūnicī pervēnisse#, L. 31, 1, 1, _I feel glad myself at having finally reached the end of the Punic war, as if I had had a direct hand in the work and the danger_.

2120. The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used, even when the leading verb is in a primary tense, to mark action more distinctly as non-occurrent (2091): as,

#eius negōtium sīc velim suscipiās, ut sī esset rēs mea#, _Fam._ 2, 14, _I wish you would undertake his business, just as if it were my own affair_. #mē audiās, precor, tamquam sī mihī̆ quirītantī intervēnissēs#, L. 40, 9, 7, _listen to me, I pray you, as if you had come at a cry from me for help_. #iūs iūrandum perinde aestimandum quam sī Iovem fefellisset#, Ta. 1, 73, _as for the oath, it must be counted exactly as if he had broken one sworn on the name of Jupiter_. This is the more usual way in Cicero with #ut sī#.

2121. #quasi#, #ut#, or, from Livy on, #tamquam# or #velut#, _as if_, is sometimes used with participle constructions, nouns, and abridged expressions: as,

#quasi temere dē rē pūblicā locūtus in carcerem coniectus est#, _DN._ 2, 6, _on the ground that he had been speaking without good authority about a state matter, he was clapped in jail_. #restitēre Rōmānī tamquam caelestī vōce iussī#, L. 1, 12, 7, _the Romans halted as if bidden by a voice from heaven_. #laetī, ut explōrātā victōriā, ad castra pergunt#, 3, 18, 8, _in high spirits, as if victory were assured, they proceeded to the camp_.

2122. In old Latin, #quasi# is found a few times for the original #quam sī# after a comparative: as, #mē nēmō magis respiciet, quasi abhinc ducentōs annōs fuerim mortuos#, Pl. _Tru._ 340, _nobody will pay any more attention to me than if I had been dead two centuries_. It is also used (once in classical Latin, _CM._ 71) in periods of actual comparison, like #tamquam# (1908), with the indicative: as, #senex ille illī dīxit, quasi ego nunc tibi dīcō#, Pl. _St._ 545, _that old man said to him, as I now say to you_. For its use in figurative comparisons, see 1908, 1944. For #tamquam# introducing a reason &c., see 1909, a late usage found rarely with #quasi# and #ut#.

[Erratum:
2120 ... This is the more usual way in Cicero with #ut sī#.
#ut si#.]

CONNECTION OF SEPARATE SENTENCES OR PERIODS.

2123. Separate sentences or periods have a connective more commonly in Latin than in English. Sometimes, however, like the members of single periods, they are for special reasons put _asyndetically_ (1637).

(A.) WITHOUT A CONNECTIVE.

2124. Asyndeton is common with two or more separate sentences or periods:

2125. (_a._) To represent a series of actions as occurring at the same moment: as,

#hīc diffīsus suae salūtī ex tabernāculō prōdit; videt imminēre hostēs; capit arma atque in portā cōnsistit; cōnsequuntur hunc centuriōnēs; relinquit animus Sextium gravibus acceptīs vulneribus#, 6, 38, 2, _despairing of his life, he comes out of the tent; sees the enemy close at hand; seizes arms and takes his stand at the gate; the centurions rally round him; Sextius becomes unconscious, receiving severe wounds_.

2126. (_b._) When an occurrence is represented as consisting of many successive actions: the _Enumerative Asyndeton_: as,

#perōrāvit aliquandō, adsēdit. surrēxī ego. respīrāre vīsus est, quod nōn alius potius dīceret. coepī dīcere. usque eō animadvertī, iūdicēs, eum aliās rēs agere, antequam Chrȳsogonum nōmināvi; quem simul atque attigī, statim homō sē ērēxit, mīrārī vīsus est. intellēxī quid eum pupugisset#, _RA._ 60, _after a while he wound up, took his seat; up rose your humble servant. He seemed to take courage from the fact it was nobody else. I began to speak. I noticed, gentlemen, that he was inattentive all along till I named Chrysogonus; but the moment I touched on him, the creature perked up at once, seemed to be surprised. I knew what the rub was._

2127. (_c._) When the last sentence sums up the result of the preceding with emphasis: the _Asyndeton of Summary_: as,

#hī dē suā salūte dēspērantēs, aut suam mortem miserābantur, aut parentēs suōs commendābant. plēna erant omnia timōris et lūctūs#, Caes. _C._ 2, 41, 8, _despairing of their lives, they either bewailed their own death, or strove to interest people in their parents. In short, it was one scene of terror and lamentation._

(B.) WITH A CONNECTIVE.

2128. Separate sentences or periods may be connected: (1.) by pronominal words: (_a._) demonstrative or determinative; (_b._) relative; (2.) by conjunctions and adverbs.

(1.) PRONOMINAL WORDS.

(_a._) DEMONSTRATIVE AND DETERMINATIVE WORDS AS CONNECTIVES.

2129. #hīc# and #is# serve as connectives at the beginning of a new period. In English the equivalent word is usually placed not at the beginning as a connective, but after some words.

#Gallia est dīvīsa in partēs trēs, quārum ūnam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquītānī, tertiam Celtae. hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt#, 1, 1, 1, _Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which is occupied by Belgians, another by Aquitanians, and the third by Kelts. In language, customs, and laws these are all different from each other._ #apud Helvētiōs nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx. is M. Messālā et M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus coniūrātiōnem nōbilitātis fēcit#, 1, 2, 1, _among the Helvetians the man of highest rank was Orgetorix. In the consulship of Messala and Piso he got up a conspiracy among the nobles._ #angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur. hīs rēbus adductī cōnstituērunt ea quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent comparāre. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās biennium sibī̆ satis esse dūxērunt. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās Orgetorīx dēligitur. is sibī̆ lēgātiōnem suscēpit#, 1, 2, 5, _they thought they had a narrow territory; so they resolved in consequence to make such preparations as were necessary for a move. They considered two years ample to do this. Orgetorix is chosen to do this. He took upon himself the office of envoy._

2130. Particularly common are demonstrative words at the beginning of a new period, to show that the first action necessarily took place or was natural.

#Dionȳsius tyrannus Syrācūsīs expulsus Corinthī puerōs docēbat; usque eō imperiō carēre nōn poterat#, _TD._ 3, 27, _after his expulsion from Syracuse, the tyrant Dionysius kept school at Corinth; so incapable was he of getting along without governing_.

(_b._) RELATIVES AS CONNECTIVES.

2131. #quī# serves to connect a new period when it may be translated by a demonstrative, or when it is equivalent to #et is#, #is autem#, #is enim#, #is igitur#: as,

#perpetrāret Anicētus prōmissa. quī nihil cunctātus poscit summam sceleris#, Ta. 14, 7, _Anicetus must carry out his agreement. Without any ado he asks to have the entire management of the crime._ For other examples, see 1835.

2132. The neuter accusative #quod#, _as to that_, _as to which_, _whereas_, _now_, _so_, is used to connect a new period, especially before #sī#, #nisi#, #etsī#, #utinam# (1837): as,

#quod sī tū valērēs, iam mihī̆ quaedam explōrāta essent#, _Att._ 7, 2, 6, _whereas if you were well yourself, some points would have been clear to me before this_. #quod sī diūtius alātur contrōversia, fore utī pars cum parte cīvitātis cōnflīgat#, 7, 32, 5, _now if the dispute be kept up any longer, one half of the community would quarrel with the other_. #quod nisi mīlitēs essent dēfessī, omnēs hostium cōpiae dēlērī potuissent#, 7, 88, 6, _so if the soldiers had not been utterly spent, all the forces of the enemy might have been exterminated_.

(2.) CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

2133. The conjunctions and adverbs used to coordinate sentences are: (_a._) copulative and disjunctive; (_b._) concessive and adversative; (_c._) causal and illative.

(_a._) COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE.

#et#, #neque# or #nec#, #-que#, #atque# or #ac#, #aut#.

#et.#

2134. #et#, _and_, simply adds, as in English (1645). But it is often used in such a connection that a modification of the translation is required to bring out the sense.

2135. #et# may continue the discourse with a concessive sentence, which is to be followed by an adversative. In such cases #quidem# often stands in the concessive sentence: as,

#prīmōrēs cīvitātis eadem ōrant. et cēterī quidem movēbant minus; postquam Sp. Lucrētius agere coepit, cōnsul abdicāvit sē cōnsulātū#, L. 2, 2, 8, _the head men of the state make the same request. Now the others did not influence him much. But when Lucretius began to take steps the consul resigned his consulship._

2136. #et#, _and strange to say_, _and if you’d believe it_, introduces something unexpected: as,

#iamque trēs laureātae in urbe statuae, et adhūc raptābat Āfricam Tacfarinās#, Ta. 4, 23, _there were already three triumphal statues in Rome, and, strange to say, Tacfarinas was still harrying Africa_.

2137. #et#, _and really_, _and in fact_, _and to be sure_; in this sense it is usually followed immediately by the verb: as,

#multa quae nōn volt videt. et multa fortasse quae volt!# _CM._ 25, _one sees much that one would not. Aye, and much perhaps that one would!_

2138. #et# introducing a sentence explaining in detail a general idea before given may be translated _namely_: as,

#cōnsulēs religiō tenēbat, quod prōdigiīs aliquot nūntiātīs, nōn facile litābant. et ex Campāniā nūntiāta erant Capuae sepulchra aliquot dē caelō tācta#, L. 27, 23, 1, _the consuls were detained by scruple, because several prodigies were reported, and they could not readily obtain good omens; namely from Campania it was reported that at Capua several tombs were struck by lightning_.

2139. #et#, _and also_, _and besides_: as,

#Pūnicae quoque victōriae sīgnum octō ductī elephantī. et nōn minimum fuēre spectāculum praecēdentēs Sōsis et Moericus#, L. 26, 21, 9, _as an emblem of the Punic victory also, elephants to the number of eight marched in parade. And furthermore not the least attractive part of the pageant were Sosis and Moericus, moving at the head of the line._

2140. #et#, _and yet_, introduces a contrast or opposition: as,

#canōrum illud in vōce splendēscit etiam in senectūte, quod equidem adhūc nōn āmīsī; et vidētis annōs#, _CM._ 28, _the musical element in the voice actually improves in old age, and this I have not yet lost. And yet you see my years._

#neque# or #nec#.

2141. #nec#, _and really . . . not_, _and in fact . . . not_: as,

#magnō cum perīculō suō, quī forte patrum in forō erant, in eam turbam incidērunt. nec temperātum manibus foret, nī properē cōnsulēs intervēnissent#, L. 2, 23, 9, _it was with great personal risk to such of the fathers as happened to be in the market place, that they got into the crowd. And in fact acts of violence would have occurred, unless the consuls had made haste to interfere._

2142. #nec#, _and to be sure . . . not_: as,

#centum vīgintī līctōrēs cum fascibus secūrēs inligātās praeferēbant. nec attinuisse dēmī secūrem, cum sine prōvocātiōne creātī essent, interpretābantur#, L. 3, 36, 4, _a hundred and twenty lictors with rods displayed axes bound in them. And to be sure they explained the matter thus, that there would have been no propriety in having the axe taken out, since the officers were appointed without any appeal._

2143. #nec#, _not . . . either_, _nor either_, _neither_: as,

#eō annō vīs morbī levāta. neque ā pēnūriā frūmentī perīculum fuit#, L. 4, 25, 6, _that year the violence of the plague grew less. Nor was there any danger from lack of grain either._

2144. #nec#, _but . . . not_: as,

#missī tamen fētiālēs. nec eōrum verba sunt audīta#, L. 4, 30, 14, _however the fetials were sent. But they were not listened to._

#-que.#

2145. #-que#, _and likewise_: as,

#huic duōs flāminēs adiēcit. virginēsque Vestae lēgit#, L. 1, 20, 2, _to this god he assigned two special priests. And he likewise chose maids for Vesta._

2146. #-que#, _and in fact_, _and so_, _and in general_: as,

#tum quoque male pugnātum est. obsessaque urbs foret, nī Horātius esset revocātus#, L. 2, 51, 2, _then also there was an unsuccessful engagement. And in fact Rome would have been besieged, unless Horatius had been recalled._

#atque# or #ac#.

2147. #atque#, _and besides_, _and more than that_, _and actually_: as,

#ex quō efficitur animantem esse mundum. atque ex hōc quoque intellegī poterit in eō inesse intellegentiam, quod certē est mundus melior quam ūlla nātūra#, _DN._ 2, 32, _from which it follows that the universe is alive. And more than that, we can see that it has sense from the following circumstance, that the universe is certainly superior to any element of the universe._

2148. #atque#, _and so_, _and consequently_: as,

#impedior religiōne quōminus expōnam quam multa P. Sēstius sēnserit. atque nihil dīcō praeter ūnum#, _Sest._ 8, _I am prevented by scruples from setting forth how much Sestius was aware of. And so I will only say one thing._

#aut.#

2149. #aut# is used to add a new sentence in the sense of #aliōquī#, _or else_, _otherwise_, or as if #nisi#, _unless_, preceded: as,

#omnia bene sunt ē̆ī dīcenda, aut ēloquentiae nōmen relinquendum est#, _DO._ 2, 5, _he must be able to speak well on all subjects, or else he must waive the name of an eloquent man_.

(_b._) CONCESSIVE AND ADVERSATIVE.

2150. A new concessive period is introduced by #sānē#, #quidem#, #omnīnō#, _to be sure_, or #fortasse#, _perhaps_: as,

#Plīnius et Cluvius nihil dubitātum dē fidē praefectī referunt. sānē Fabius inclīnat ad laudēs Senecae#, Ta. 13, 20, _Pliny and Cluvius say that there was no doubt about the loyalty of the prefect. Fabius, it must be admitted, is always inclined to eulogize Seneca._ #id fortasse nōn perfēcimus; cōnātī quidem saepissimē sumus#, _O._ 210, _perhaps we have not attained to it; still we have very often made the attempt_.

2151. A new adversative sentence is introduced by #autem#, _again_, #sed#, #vērum#, _but_, #vērō#, _but_, _indeed_, #at#, _but_, or #tamen#, #nihilō minus#, _nevertheless_.

These words when used to connect sentences have the same meaning as when used to connect the parts of a sentence (1676).

2152. #atquī#, rarely #atquīn#, _and yet_, _but_, is used chiefly in dialogue. It introduces a strong objection, sometimes in the form of a conditional protasis. From Cicero on, it is sometimes found after a question, to introduce an earnest denial.

#nōn sum apud mē :: atquī opus est nunc quom maxumē ut sīs#, T. _Ph._ 204, _I’m all abroad :: but that’s just exactly where you must n’t be now_. #nōn vereor condiscipulōrum nē quis exaudiat :: atquī cavendum est#, _Leg._ 1, 21, _I’m not afraid of being overheard by any of my fellow-students :: and yet you must be on your guard_. #sine veniat. atquī sī illam digitō attigerit ūnō, oculī īlicō ecfodientur#, T. _Eu._ 739, _let him come on. But if he lays a finger on the maid, we’ll scratch his eyes out on the spot._ #quid vērō? modum statuārum habērī nūllum placet? atquī habeātur necesse est#, _V._ 2, 144, _what? is there, think you, to be no end to your statues? Yet there must be._

2153. #quamquam#, #etsī#, #tametsī#, _though_, and #nisi#, _but_, are sometimes used to coordinate a new period, correcting the preceding: as,

#carēre sentientis est, nec sēnsus in mortuō, nē carēre quidem igitur in mortuō est. quamquam quid opus est in hōc philosophārī?# _TD._ 1, 88, _foregoing requires a sentient being, and there is no sensation in a dead man; therefore there is no foregoing either in a dead man. And yet what is the use of philosophizing over this?_ #utram mālīs vidē; etsī cōnsilium quod cēpī rēctum esse sciō#, T. _Hau._ 326, _of these two states choose which you will; though I am sure my plan’s the right one_. #cūr ego nōn adsum? tametsī hoc minimē tibī̆ deest#, _Fam._ 2, 7, 2, _why am I not with you? though this is the very last thing you need_. #spērābam dēfervisse adulēscentiam: ecce autem dē integrō! nisi quidquid est, volō hominem convenīre#, T. _Ad._ 152, _I hoped his youthful passion had cooled down; yet here it is afresh! But be it what it may, I want to see the fellow_.

(_c._) CAUSAL AND ILLATIVE.

2154. #nam#, #enim#, _for_, or #namque#, #etenim#, _for you see_, introduces a new period which gives the reason of the foregoing: as,

#quā quidem ex rē hominum multitūdō cōgnōscī potuit: nam minus hōrīs tribus mūnītiōnem perfēcērunt#, 5, 42, 4, _and from this by the way their numbers could be gauged; for they made a breastwork in less than three hours_. #quem meminisse potestis: annō enim ūndēvīcēsimō post eius mortem hī cōnsulēs factī sunt#, _CM._ 14, _you can remember him: for the present consuls were created only nineteen years after his death_.

2155. The originally asseverative meaning of #nam# appears, even in the classical period, in colloquial language: as, #tibī̆ ā mē nūlla ortast iniūria :: nam hercle etiam hoc restat#, T. _Ad._ 189, _I’ve ne’er done you a wanton wrong :: aye verily that’s still to come_. In old Latin, it sometimes introduces a question: as, #nam quae haec anus est?# T. _Ph._ 732, _why, who’s this old woman?_ Frequently it introduces an explanation or illustration, and, from Cicero on, a remark or question made in passing: as, #sīc enim sēsē rēs habet: nam Odyssīa Latīna est sīc tamquam opus Daedalī#, _Br._ 71, _the case stands thus: the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus_ (1908). #vīvō Catōne multī ōrātōrēs flōruērunt: nam A. Albīnus#, _Br._ 81, _many orators flourished in Cato’s lifetime: for example, Albinus_. #nam quid dē aedīle loquar?# _Sest._ 95, _for why speak of the aedile?_ #enim# does not differ essentially in use from #nam#; for its meaning in old Latin, see 1688. #namque# is rare until Livy, and usually (always in old Latin) stands before a vowel. #etenim# is common only in classical Latin.

2156. For #quippe#, _why_, often used as a coordinating word, see 1690.

2157. #proinde# or #proin#, _therefore_, _so_, introduces a command or direction based upon the foregoing: as,

#ōrātiōnem spērat invēnisse sē, quī differat tē: proin tū fac apud tē ut siēs#, T. _Andr._ 407, _he trusts he’s found some phrase wherewith he may confound you: so see you have your wits about you_. #frūstrā meae vītae subvenīre cōnāminī. proinde abīte, dum est facultās#, 7, 50, 6, _in vain ye try to save my life. So away, while ye have the power._ #iam undique silvae et sōlitūdō magna cōgitātiōnis incitāmenta sunt. proinde cum vēnābere, licēbit pugillārēs ferās#, Plin. _Ep._ 1, 6, 2, _then again the surrounding woods and the loneliness are powerful stimulants to meditation. So when you go hunting, you can take a note book with you._

2158. A conclusion is denoted by #ergō#, #itaque# or #igitur#, _therefore_, _so_, introducing a new period: as,

#nihil est praestantius deō; ab eō igitur mundum necesse est regī. nūllī igitur est nātūrae subiectus deus. omnem ergō regit ipse nātūram#, _DN._ 2, 77, _nothing is more excellent than god. Therefore the universe must be governed by him. Therefore god is in no respect subject to nature. Consequently he rules all nature himself._ For the position of these words in their clauses, see 1688; for #ergō igitur# and #itaque ergō#, 1689. For #hinc#, #inde#, #eō#, #ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#, as coordinating words, see 1691.

AFFIRMATIVE COORDINATION.

2159. A new sentence affirmative of a foregoing is often introduced by an emphatic #sīc# or #ita#.

These words often introduce a general truth which is deduced from the first statement.

#vīsne igitur tē īnspiciāmus ā puerō? sīc opīnor; ā prīncipiō ōrdiāmur#, _Ph._ 2, 44, _would you like to have us look into your record from boyhood? Yes, I think it would be well; let us begin at the beginning._ #quī dīligēbant hunc, illī favēbant. sīc est volgus: ex vēritāte pauca, ex opīniōne multa aestimat#, _RC._ 29, _everybody who loved him, smiled on the other man. Yes, that is always the way of the world: it seldom judges by truth, often by hearsay._

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

THE INFINITIVE.

2160. The infinitive is in its origin a verbal substantive.

2161. The present infinitive active is an ancient dative, closely resembling in meaning and use the English infinitive with _to_. It originally marked action merely in a general way, without indication of voice or tense. In virtue of this original timeless character, the present often represents action which is really past or future; in such cases the time must be inferred from the context.

2162. The present infinitive active gradually approached the character of a verb, and the original substantive nature being forgotten, it was supplemented by a passive, and by forms for completed and for future action, active and passive.

2163. The infinitive has furthermore two other properties of the verb: (_a._) it is modified by an adverb, not by an adjective; and (_b._) it is followed by the construction of its verb.

OLD AND POETICAL USE OF THE INFINITIVE.

THE INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE.

2164. The infinitive denotes purpose: (_a._) when loosely added to a substantive in old Latin, (_b._) with verbs of motion, #eō#, #veniō#, #currō#, #mittō#, in old or poetical Latin, and (_c._) in the combination #dō bibere#, _give to drink_, in old, colloquial, or poetical Latin: as,

(_a._) #occāsiō benefacta cumulāre#, Pl. _Cap._ 423, _a chance to pile up kindnesses_. Parallel with a gerund: #summa ēlūdendī occāsiōst mihi nunc senēs et Phaedriae cūram adimere argentāriam#, T. _Ph._ 885, _I’ve now a splendid chance the greybeards of eluding and Phaedria to rescue from his money cares_. (_b._) #recurre petere rē recentī#, Pl. _Tri._ 1015, _run back to get it ere it is too late_. #voltisne eāmus vīsere?# T. _Ph._ 102, _do you think we’d better go to call?_ #parasītum mīsī nudiusquārtus Cāriam petere argentum#, Pl. _Cur._ 206, _my parasite I sent four days ago to Caria, to fetch the cash_. #nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere#, Lucr. 3, 895, _nor shall thy children dear come running kiss on kiss to snatch_. #nōn nōs ferrō Libycōs populāre penātīs vēnimus#, V. 1, 527, _we are not come with steel to harry Libya’s hearths_. (_c._) #bibere dā usque plēnīs cantharīs#, Pl. _Per._ 821, _keep giving on to drink with brimming bowls_. #bibere# is thus used by Plautus, Terence, Cato, and Livy, and by Cicero once with #ministrō#. In classical prose, purpose is expressed by the subjunctive with #ut# or a relative pronoun, or by a gerund or gerundive with #ad# or #causā#.

2165. In poetry, the infinitive of purpose is used with synonymes of #dō# also, and with verbs of leaving, taking away, taking up, &c.

#huic lōrīcam dōnat habēre#, V. 5, 259, _on him a corselet he bestows to wear_. #trīstitiam et metūs trādam protervīs in mare Crēticum portāre ventīs#, H. 1, 26, 1, _sadness and fears I’ll to the wanton winds consign, to sweep into the Cretic sea_. #quis sibi rēs gestās Augustī scrībere sūmit?# H. _E._ 1, 3, 7, _who takes it on himself Augustus’ deeds to pen?_ #quem virum aut hērōa lyrā vel ācrī tībiā sūmis celebrāre?# H. 1, 12, 1, _what hero or what demigod dost thou take up, to ring his praises on the rebec or the piercing pipe?_

THE INFINITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

2166. The infinitive is sometimes used with adjectives, chiefly by poets of the Augustan age, and late prose writers, often in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

#indoctum iuga ferre nostra#, H. 2, 6, 2, _not taught our yoke to bear_. #avidī committere pugnam#, O. 5, 75, _hot to engage in fight_. #sōlī cantāre perītī Arcades#, V. _E._ 10, 32, _Arcadians alone in minstrelsy are skilled_. #vitulus niveus vidērī#, H. 4, 2, 59, _a bullock snow-white to behold_, i.e. #vīsū# (2274). These infinitives are of different kinds, some of them resembling a complementary infinitive, others a gerund or gerundive construction, the supine in #-tū# (#-sū#), &c., &c.

THE ORDINARY USE OF THE INFINITIVE.

2167. The infinitive is ordinarily used either as object or as subject of a verb.

(A.) THE INFINITIVE AS OBJECT.

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.

2168. The present infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of certain kinds of verbs which imply another action of the same subject: as,

#prō Pompēiō ēmorī possum#, _Fam._ 2, 15, 3, _I could die the death for Pompey_ (1495). #quid habēs dīcere?# _Balb._ 33, _what have you to say?_ #scīre volēbat#, _V._ 1, 131, _he wanted to know_. #hoc facere dēbēs#, _RabP._ 7, _you ought to do this_. #Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat#, 4, 17, 1, _Caesar had resolved to cross the Rhine_. #fugā salūtem petere contendērunt#, 3, 15, 2, _they tried to save themselves by flight_. #num negāre audēs?# _C._ 1, 8, _do you dare deny it?_ #vereor dīcere#, T. _Andr._ 323, _I am afraid to tell_. #num dubitās id facere?# _C._ 1, 13, _do you hesitate to do that?_ #mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī#, 1, 7, 1, _he makes haste to leave Rome_. #Dīviciācus Caesarem obsecrāre coepit#, 1, 20, 1, _Diviciacus began to entreat Caesar_. #Dolābella iniūriam facere persevērat#, _Quint._ 31, _Dolabella persists in doing wrong_. #illī pecūniam pollicērī nōn dēsistunt#, 6, 2, 1, _these people did not stop offering money_. #diem ēdictī obīre neglēxit#, _Ph._ 3, 20, _he failed to keep the day named in the edict_. #īrāscī amīcīs nōn temere soleō#, _Ph._ 8, 16, _I am not apt to get provoked with friends without just cause_. #illī rēgibus pārēre didicerant#, _Ph._ 3, 9, _the men of old were trained to bow the knee to kings_ (1615). #dextram cohibēre mementō#, J. 5, 71, _remember that you keep hands off_.

2169. The verbs or verbal expressions which are supplemented by an infinitive are chiefly such as mean _can_, _will_ or _wish_, _ought_, _resolve_, _endeavour_, _dare_, _fear_, _hesitate_, _hasten_, _begin_, _continue_, _cease_, _neglect_, _am wont_, _learn_, _know how_, _remember_, _forget_, _seem_. The infinitive in this combination contains the leading idea. For the occasional use of the perfect infinitive with some of these verbs, see 2223.

Some of the commonest of these verbs are #possum#, #queō#, #nequeō#; #volō#, #nōlō#, #mālō#, #cupiō#, #studeō#; #dēbeō#; #cōgitō#, #meditor#, #statuō#, #cōnstituō#, #dēcernō#, #parō#; #cōnor#, #nītor#, #contendō#; #audeō#; #vereor#; #cunctor#, #dubitō#, #festīnō#, #mātūrō#, #īnstituō#, #coepī#, #incipiō#, #pergō#, #persevērō#, #dēsinō#, #dēsistō#, #omittō#, #supersedeō#, #neglegō#, #nōn cūrō#; #soleō#, #adsuēscō#, #cōnsuēscō#; #discō#, #sciō#, #nesciō#, #recordor#, #meminī#, #oblīvīscor#; #videor#.

2170. The infinitive is also used with many verbal expressions equivalent to the above verbs, such as #habeō in animō#, #cōnsilium est#, #certum est#, #parātus sum#, &c., &c., or with #parātus# alone, #adsuēfactus#, &c., &c. Furthermore, in poetry and late prose, the place of many of the above verbs is often taken by livelier or fresher synonymes, such as #valeō# for #possum#, from Lucretius on, #ardeō#, _burn_, for #volō#, #cupiō#, or #absiste#, #fuge#, #parce#, &c., for #nōlī# (1584), &c., &c.

2171. A predicate noun used in the construction of the complementary infinitive, is put in the nominative: as,

#Aelius Stōicus esse voluit#, _Br. 206_, _Aelius wanted to be a Stoic_. #esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat#, S. _C._ 54, 6, _he chose to be good rather than seem good_.

THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE.

2172. A very common form of a dependent sentence is that known as the _Accusative with the Infinitive_.

Thus, of the two coordinate sentences #sciō: iocāris tū nunc#, Pl. _Most._ 1081, _I know: you are jesting now_, the second may be put in a dependent form, the two sentences blending into one: #sciō iocārī tē nunc#, _I know you to be jesting now_.

2173. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative.

Thus, in #eum vident#, _they see him_, #eum# is the object of #vident# (1134). If #sedēre# is added, #eum vident sedēre#, _V._ 5, 107, _they see him sit_, or _they see that he is sitting_, #eum# is at the same time the object of #vident# and the subject of #sedēre#. But the accusative by degrees becoming detached from the main verb, and closely interlocked with the infinitive, the combination is extended to cases where the main verb is intransitive or passive.

2174. A predicate noun referring to a subject accusative is itself put in the accusative: as,

#tē esse arbitror puerum probum#, Pl. _Most._ 949, _I think you are a good boy_. #nēminem vīvum capī patiuntur#, 8, 35, 5, _they do not allow anybody to be made prisoner alive_ (2198).

VERBS OF PERCEIVING, KNOWING, THINKING, AND SAYING.

2175. The accusative with the infinitive is used with active verbs or verbal expressions of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying: as,

#patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs?# _C._ 1, 1, _you don’t feel that your plots are all out?_ #huic fīlium scīs esse?# T. _Hau._ 181, _you are aware that this man has a son?_ #Pompēiōs cōnsēdisse terrae mōtū audīvimus#, Sen. _NQ._ 6, 1, 1, _we have heard that Pompei has been swallowed up by an earthquake_, 63 A.D., 17 years before its utter destruction. #saepe audīvī inter ōs atque offam multa intervenīre posse#, Cato in Gell. 13, 18 (17), 1, _I have often heard ‘’twixt cup and lip there’s many a slip.’_ #dīcit montem ab hostibus tenērī#, 1, 22, 2, _he says the hill is held by the enemy_. #dīxtin dūdum illam dīxisse, sē expectāre fīlium?# T. _Hec._ 451, _didn’t you say a while ago the woman said that she was looking for her son?_

Some of the commonest of these verbs are: (_a._) #audiō#, #animadvertō#, #sentiō#, #videō#. (_b._) #accipiō#, #intellegō#, #sciō#, #nesciō#. (_c._) #arbitror#, #cēnseō#, #cōgitō#, #crēdō#, #exīstimō#, #meminī#, #opīnor#, #putō#, #recordor#, #suspicor#. (_d._) #adfirmō#, #āiō#, #dēmōnstrō#, #dīcō#, #disputō#, #doceō#, #fateor#, #nārrō#, #negō#, #nūntiō#, #ostendō#, #prōmittō#, #scrībō#, #sīgnificō#, #spērō#, #trādō#. (_e._) #rūmor est#, #nōn mē fugit#, #certus sum#, #nōn nescius sum#, &c., &c. Also occasionally verbs used in the sense of _think_ or _say_, as #mittō#, _send word_, and substantives or pronouns expressing a thought or judgement.

2176. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes introduced by a neuter pronoun, or by #sīc# or #ita#: as, #illud negābis, tē dē rē iūdicātā iūdicāvisse?# _V._ 2, 81, _will you deny this, that you sate in judgement on a matter that was already decided?_ #sīc accēpimus, nūllum bellum fuisse#, _V._ 5, 5, _we have been told this, that there was not any war_. Sometimes by an ablative with #dē#: as, #dē hōc Verrī dīcitur, habēre eum perbona toreumata#, _V._ 4, 38, _about this man report is made to Verres that he had some choice bits of embossed work_.

2177. (1.) Passive verbs of this class are commonly used personally in the third person of the present system, with the subject, and the predicate noun, if used, in the nominative: as,

#hī centum pāgōs habēre dīcuntur#, 4, 1, 4, _these people are said to have a hundred cantons_. #nūlla iam exīstimantur esse iūdicia#, _V. a. pr._ 43, _there are thought to be no courts of law any longer_. #pōns prope effectus nūntiābātur#, Caes. _C._ 1, 62, 3, _the bridge was reported to be well-nigh done_.

2178. Such personal passives are much more common in the writers of Cicero’s day than in old Latin. Particularly so #arguō#, #audiō#, #cōgnōscō#, #comperiō#, #concēdō#, #dēfendō#, #dēmōnstrō#, #dīcō#, #doceō#, #excūsō#, #exīstimō#, #inveniō#, #iūdicō#, #līberō#, #memorō#, #negō#, #nūntiō#, #ostendō#, #postulō#, #putō#, #reperiō#, #trādō#.

2179. (2.) With the first or second person the personal construction is rare: as, #quod nōs bene ēmisse iūdicātī sumus#, _Att._ 1, 13, 6, _that we are thought to have made a good bargain_. #cum inveniāre improbissimā ratiōne esse praedātus#, _V._ 4, 3, _when you prove to have been robbing most abominably_. But with #videor#, _seem_, the personal construction is the rule in all three persons, and in the perfect system as well as the present.

2180. (3.) In the perfect system, and also usually in the gerundive construction (2246), verbs of this class are commonly impersonal: as,

#trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse#, _TD._ 5, 114, _the tradition is that Homer was blind_. #ubī̆ tyrannus est, ibī̆ dīcendum est nūllam esse rem pūblicam#, _RP._ 3, 43, _wherever there is an absolute ruler, there we must maintain there is no commonwealth_.

2181. (4.) With some verbs of this class, the impersonal construction is preferred even in the present system. Thus, commonly #intellegitur#, _it is understood_, as impersonal; regularly in classical Latin #crēditur#; with a dative in Cicero and Caesar #dīcitur#, #nūntiātur#. The impersonals #cernitur#, #fertur#, #memorātur#, #prōditur#, #vidētur#, are rare.

2182. The personal construction is sometimes extended to other verbs or verbal expressions, especially in poetry: as, #colligor#, O. _A._ 2, 6, 61, _I am inferred_, for #colligitur#. #nōnnūllīs magistrātūs veniēbant in suspīciōnem nōs dēmorātī esse#, Lentulus in _Fam._ 12, 15, 5, _the magistrates were suspected by some of having delayed us_ (1491).

2183. With verbs of thinking and saying the subject accusative is sometimes omitted.

(_a._) Oftenest thus #mē# #nōs#, #tē# #vōs#, or #sē#: as, #stultē fēcisse fateor#, i.e. #mē#, Pl. _B._ 1013, _I own I’ve acted like a fool_. #cōnfitēre vēnisse#, i.e. #tē#, _RA._ 61, _confess you came_. #quae imperārentur facere dīxērunt#, i.e. #sē#, 2, 32, 3, _they said they would do as ordered_ (2221). Often the future without #esse#: as, #refrāctūrōs carcerem minābantur#, i.e. #sē#, L. 6, 17, 6, _they threatened to break the jail open_, (_b._) Less frequently an accusative of #is#: as, #oblītum crēdidī#, i.e. #eum#, _Fam._ 9, 2, 1, _I imagined he had forgotten_. Such omissions are common in old Latin, Cicero, Caesar, Livy, and in poetry.

2184. When the accusative is not expressed, a predicate noun is sometimes put in the nominative, chiefly in poetry, in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

#phasēlus ille quem vidētis, hospitēs, ait fuisse nāvium celerrimus#, Cat. 4, 1, _the clipper you see yonder, friends, says she was once the fleetest of the fleet_. #uxor invictī Iovis esse nescīs#, H. 3, 27, 73, _thou knowest not thou art the bride of the unconquerable Jove_. Similarly with verbs of emotion (2187): as, #gaudent esse rogātae#, O. _AA._ 1, 345, _they are glad to have been asked_. #gaudent perfūsī sanguine frātrum#, V. _G._ 2, 510, _they’re glad to have been imbued with brothers’ blood_.

VERBS OF ACCUSING.

2185. The verbs of accusing, #arguō# and #īnsimulō#, take the accusative with the infinitive like verbs of saying: as,

#cīvīs Rōmānōs necātōs esse arguō#, _V._ 5, 149, _my accusation is that Romans have been slain_. #occīdisse patrem Sex. Rōscius arguitur#, _RA._ 37, _Roscius is charged with the murder of his father_. #īnsimulāre coepērunt Epicratem litterās pūblicās corrūpisse#, _V._ 2, 60, _they began to accuse Epicrates of having falsified records of state_.

VERBS OF HOPING, PROMISING, AND THREATENING.

2186. The accusative with the future infinitive is used with verbs of hoping, promising, and threatening: as,

#id sēsē effectūrōs spērābant#, 7, 26, 2, _they hoped to carry it out_. #pollicentur sēsē ē̆ī dēditūrōs#, 5, 20, 2, _they volunteer to surrender to him_. But sometimes the present infinitive alone: see 2236.

VERBS OF EMOTION.

2187. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes used with verbs of joy, grief, surprise, or wonder: as,