Chapter X: Part 10

#tū mē amās, ego tē amō#, Pl. _Most._ 305, _thou art in love with me, I’m in love with thee_. #nox erat et caelō fulgēbat lūna serēnō inter minōra sīdera#, H. _Epod._ 15, 1, _’twas night, and in a cloudless sky, bright rode the moon amid the lesser lights_. #ā tē petō, mē dēfendās#, _Fam._ 15, 8, _I ask it of you, protect me_.

1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members have parts in common: as,

#valēbant precēs et lacrimae#, _Mil._ 34, _prayers and tears had weight_, compound subject, for #valēbant precēs et valēbant lacrimae#. #rogat ōratque tē#, _RA._ 144, _he begs and entreats you_, compound predicate, for #rogat tē ōratque tē#. #arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1, _arms and the man I sing_, compound object, for #arma canō virumque canō#. #diū atque ācriter pugnātum est#, 1, 26, 1, _there was long and sharp fighting_, for #diū pugnātum est atque ācriter pugnātum est#.

[Errata:
1057 ... _he begs and entreats you_,
. for ,
#arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1
V 1, 1]

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

1058. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one which consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: as,

#centuriōnēs praemittit# (main sentence), #quī locum idōneum castrīs dēligant# (subordinate sentence), 2, 17, 1, _he sends some officers ahead to select a suitable spot for the camp_, #nunc scio# (main sentence), #quid sit Amor# (subordinate sentence), V. _E._ 8, 43, _now, now I know what Eros is_. #ā tē petō# (main sentence), _ut mē dēfendās_ (subordinate sentence), _Fam._ 15, 7, _I ask it of you that you protect me_.

1059. Several sentences are often subordinate to one and the same main sentence, and subordinate sentences may in their turn be main sentences to other subordinate sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence _b_ is subordinate to _A_, and _c_ to _Ab_: (_c._) #quālis esset nātūra montis#, (_b._) #quī cōgnōscerent#, (_A._) #mīsit#, 1, 21, 1, _he sent some people to see what the character of the hill was_.

1060. Subordinate sentences may be coordinated with each other, as well as main sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence, _b_ and _b_ are both subordinate to _A_, but coordinate with each other: (_A._) #hīs rēbus fiēbat#, (_b._) #ut et minus lātē vagārentur# (_b._) #et minus facile fīnitimīs bellum īnferre possent#, 1, 2, 4, _so it came to pass that, in the first place, they did not roam round much, and secondly, they could not so easily make aggressive war on their neighbours_.

1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is called a _Protasis_; the main sentence which completes the thought is called an _Apodosis_: as,

#quom vidēbis# (protasis), #tum sciēs# (apodosis), Pl. #B.# 145, _when thou see’st, then thou’lt know_. #ut sēmentem fēceris# (protasis), #ita metēs# (apodosis), _DO._ 2, 261, _as a man soweth, so shall he reap_. #sī sunt dī# (protasis), #beneficī in hominēs sunt# (apodosis), _Div._ 2, 104, _if there are gods, they are kind to men_.

AGREEMENT.

(A.) OF THE VERB.

1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: as,

#praedia mea tū possidēs, ego aliēnā misericordiā vīvō#, _RA._ 145, _you, sir, hold my estates, it is by the compassion of other people that I am supported_. #Rhodanus fluit#, 1, 6, 2, _the Rhone flows_. #nōs, nōs, dīcō apertē, cōnsulēs dēsumus#, _C._ 1, 3, _it is ourselves, yes, ourselves, I will speak without reserve, the consuls, who fail in our duty_. #vōs vōbīs cōnsulite#, 7, 50, 4, _do you look out for yourselves_. #diffūgēre nivēs#, H. 4, 7, 1, _scattered and gone are snows_.

1063. With a compound subject, two constructions are admissible, as follows.

1064. (1.) With two or more singular subjects, the verb is often in the plural: as,

(_a._) Without connectives: persons: #iīsdem ferē temporibus fuērunt C. Cotta, P. Sulpicius, Q. Varius, Cn. Pompōnius#, _Br._ 182, _in about the same times lived Cotta, Sulpicius, Varius, and Pomponius_. Things: #fidēs Rōmāna, iūstitia imperātōris in forō et cūriā celebrantur#, L. 5, 27, 11, _the chivalrous principle of Rome and the square dealing of her captain are trumpeted in market place and council hall_. (_b._) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #ex hīs Cotta et Sulpicius facile prīmās tulērunt#, _Br._ 182, _of these Cotta and Sulpicius indisputably bore the palm_. Things: #nox et amor vīnumque nihil moderābile suādent#, O. _Am._ 1, 6, 59, _darkness and love and wine to nothing governable tempt_. #cum senātus populusque Rōmānus pācem comprobāverint#, L. 37, 45, 14, _when the senate and the people of Rome sanction peace_. (_c._) With #et . . . et#: persons: #et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus iīs temporibus fuērunt#, _Fam._ 4, 6, 1, _both Maximus and Paullus lived in such times_. Things: #utrōsque et laudis cupiditās et timor īgnōminiae excitābant#, 7, 80, 5, _both of these eagerness for glory in the first place and secondly fear of disgrace spurred on_.

1065. The plural is sometimes demanded by the meaning of the verb: as, #iūs et iniūria nātūrā dīiūdicantur#, _Leg._ 1, 44, _right and wrong are naturally distinguished from each other_.

1066. (2.) Often, however, with two or more singular subjects, the verb is put in the singular: as,

(_a._) Without connectives: persons: #tum Gorgiās, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Hippiās in magnō honōre fuit#, _Br._ 30, _at that time Gorgias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, and Hippias were in high renown_. Things: #persuāsit nox, amor, vīnum, adulēscentia#, T. _Ad._ 470, _the witchery was night, flirtation, wine, and youth_. (_b._) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #cūr Lȳsiās et Hyperīdēs amātur?# _Br._ 68, _why is a Lysias and a Hyperides idolized?_ Things: #Gallōs ā Belgīs Matrona et Sēquana dīvidit#, 1, 2, 1, _the Matrona and Sequana cut off the Gauls from the Belgians_. #senātus populusque Rōmānus voluit#, L. 21, 40, 3, _senate and people of Rome ordained_. (_c._) With #et . . . et#: persons: #illam ratiōnem et Pompēius et Flaccus secūtus est#, _Flacc._ 32, _that rule both Pompey and Flaccus followed_. Things: #tālis senātōrum et dignitās et multitūdō fuit#, _Ph._ 13, 13, _both the position and number of the senators was such_.

1067. With two or more singular subjects denoting things, and making a compound idea, a singular verb is very common, agreeing either with the subjects taken as a unit, or with the nearest: as,

(_a._) #cum tempus necessitāsque postulat, dēcertandum manū est#, _Off._ 1, 81, _when the emergency requires, we must fight it out by hand_. #tanta laetitia ac grātulātiō fuit#, L. 10, 26, 4, _so great was the demonstration of joy_. (_b._) #Cingetorīgī prīncipātus atque imperium est trāditum#, 6, 8, 9, _the headship and command was assigned to Cingetorix_.

1068. (3.) With mixed subjects, singular and plural, the verb may likewise be either plural or singular: as,

(_a._) #vīta mors, dīvitiae paupertās omnīs hominēs permovent#, _Off._ 2, 37, _life and death, riches and poverty, tell much on everybody_. (_b._) #quantō in perīculō et castra et legiōnēs et imperātor versārētur#, 2, 26, 5, _in what imminent peril camp and legions and commander were involved_. #hōc mihī̆ et Peripatēticī et Acadēmīa concēdit#, _Ac._ 2, 113, _this point both Peripatetics and Academy grant me_.

1069. The plural is sometimes used with a singular subject limited by an ablative with #cum#, _with_: as, #Syrus cum illō vostrō cōnsusurrant#, T. _Hau._ 473, _Syrus and yon man of yours are whispering together_. #Bocchus cum peditibus postrēmam Rōmānōrum aciem invādunt#, S. _I._ 101, 5, _Bocchus with the infantry falls on the rereward line of the Romans_. Cicero commonly uses a singular verb in this combination, Caesar has the plural once only.

1070. (4.) When the subjects are connected by #nec . . . nec#, #aut#, or #aut . . . aut#, the verb is likewise either plural or singular: as,

(_a._) #neque multitūdō hostium neque tēlōrum vīs arcēre impetum eius virī potuērunt#, L. 26, 5, 17, _neither the numbers of the enemy nor the shower of missiles could arrest the onslaught of that intrepid soul_. #sī quid Sōcratēs aut Aristippus fēcerint#, _Off._ 1, 148, _if a Socrates or an Aristippus had done anything_. (_b._) #neque pēs neque mēns satis suom officium facit#, T. _Eu._ 729, _nor foot nor mind its duty doth aright_. #sī Sōcratēs aut Antisthenēs dīceret#, _TD._ 5, 26, _if a Socrates or an Antisthenes should say it_.

1071. Collectives have usually a singular verb. But the plural is sometimes used, especially when the subject is separated from its verb, or is to be supplied from a preceding clause: as,

#cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent#, 2, 6, 3, _when such a throng were throwing stones_. #is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs exīrent#, 1, 2, 1, _this person succeeded in inducing the community to leave their territory_.

1072. The verb sometimes agrees with an appositive explaining the subject, or with a substantive in the predicate: as,

(_a._) #flammae lātē fūsae, certiōris clādis indicium, prōgredī longius prohibuit#, L. 10, 43, 11, _wide-spread flames, sign of a surer disaster, prevented a further advance_. When #urbs#, #oppidum#, #cīvitās#, or the like, is added to plural names of places, the predicate usually agrees with the appellative: as, #Coriolī oppidum captum#, L. 2, 33, 9, _Corioli town was taken_. (_b._) #amantium īrae amōris integrātiōst#, T. _Andr._ 555, _lovers’ tiffs are love’s renewal_. #summa omnium fuērunt ad mīlia CCCLXVIII#, 1, 29, 3, _the grand total was about three hundred and sixty-eight thousand_. The verb regularly agrees with the predicate substantive when the subject is an infinitive: as, #contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae#, _Par._ 51, _for a man to be content with his own estate is the greatest possible riches_.

1073. The verb sometimes agrees with a substantive introduced by such words as #quam#, #quantum#, #nisi#, or #praeterquam#: as, #quis illum cōnsulem nisi latrōnēs putant?# _Ph._ 4, 9, _who but brigands think that man a consul?_ So also a predicate adjective or participle: as, #mihī̆ nōn tam cōpia quam modus quaerendus est#, _IP._ 3, _I must aim not so much at comprehensiveness as at moderation_.

1074. A speaker in referring to himself sometimes uses the first person plural, as a more modest form of expression: as, #Molōnī dedimus operam#, _Br._ 307, _we attended Molo’s instruction_, i.e. I. Similarly #nōs# in all its cases for #ego#, &c., and #noster#, &c., for #meus#, &c.

1075. The singular imperative #age# is sometimes used in addressing more than one, particularly in old Latin: as, #age licēminī#, Pl. _St._ 221, _come, people, give a bid_. #age igitur intrō abīte#, Pl. _MG._ 928, _come then go in_. Similarly, #cave dīrumpātis#, Pl. _Poen._ 117, _mind you don’t break it off_. Similarly #ain#.

1076. If the subjects are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second or the third, and the second to the third: as,

#sī tū et Tullia, lūx nostra, valētis, ego et suāvissimus Cicerō valēmus#, _Fam._ 14, 5, 1, _if you and Tullia, our sunbeam, are well, darling Cicero and I are well_. But sometimes in contrasts the verb agrees with the nearest person: as, #quid indicat aut ipse Cornēlius aut vōs?# _Sull._ 54, _what information does Cornelius himself give, or you people?_

[Errata:
1066a ... _senate and people of Rome ordained_.
line-end hyphen in or-/dained invisible
1071 ... But the plural is sometimes used,
used.
1072a ... plural names of places,
places.
1074 ... form of expression: as, #Molōnī dedimus operam#
as.]

(B.) OF THE NOUN.

(1.) THE SUBSTANTIVE.

1077. A substantive which explains another substantive referring to the same thing is put in the same case.

This applies to the substantive used as attribute, appositive, or predicate. The two substantives often differ in gender or number, or both. (_a._) Attribute: #tīrōne exercitū#, _Fam._ 7, 3, 2, _with a raw army_. #ā mīmā uxōre#, _Ph._ 2, 20, _from an actress-wife_. #mendīcōs hominēs#, Pl. _St._ 135, _beggar-men_. #oculī hominis histriōnis#, _DO._ 2, 193, _the eyes of an actor man_. #nēminī hominī#, Pl. _As._ 466, _to no human being_. #servom hominem#, T. _Ph._ 292, _a servant man_. #hominēs sīcāriōs#, _RA._ 8, _professional bravoes_. (_b._) Appositive: #quid dīcam dē thēsaurō rērum omnium, memoriā?# _DO._ 1, 18, _what shall I say of that universal storehouse, the memory?_ #duo fulmina nostrī imperī, Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs#, _Balb._ 34, _the two thunderbolts of our realm, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius_. (_c._) Predicate: #īra furor brevis est#, H. _E._ 1, 2, 62, _wrath is a madness brief_. #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, _Ph._ 11, 16, _Dolabella having been voted a public enemy_. Some apparent exceptions will be noticed from time to time hereafter.

1078. Mobile substantives take also the gender and number of the masculines or feminines they explain: as,

#stilus optimus dīcendī magister#, _DO._ 1, 150, _pen is the best professor of rhetoric_. #vīta rūstica parsimōniae magistra est#, _RA._ 75, _country life is a teacher of thrift_. #fluviōrum rēx Ēridanus#, V. _G._ 1, 482, _Eridanus, of rivers king_. #et genus et fōrmam rēgīna pecūnia dōnat#, H. _E._ 1, 6, 37, _both birth and shape the almighty dollar gives_. #ut omittam illās omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās#, _DO._ 1, 13, _to say nothing of the great originator of all intellectual pursuits, Athens_.

1079. A substantive explaining two or more substantives, is put in the plural: as,

#foedus inter Rōmam Lāvīniumque urbēs renovātum est#, L. 1, 14, 3, _the treaty between the cities of Rome and Lavinium was renewed_. #Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs#, _Balb._ 34, _the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius_.

1080. A plural subject, expressed or implied, is sometimes defined by a singular word, which is generally a collective or distributive: as,

#ut ambō exercitūs suās quisque abīrent domōs#, L. 2, 7, 1, _so that both armies went back to their respective homes_. #uterque eōrum ex castrīs exercitum ēdūcunt#, Caes. _C._ 3, 30, 3, _they bring their army out of camp, each of them_. #heus forās exīte hūc aliquis#, Pl. _E._ 398, _hallo, you boys, come out of doors here, somebody_. #alius alium percontāmur#, Pl. _St._ 370, _we ask of one another_. #cum accidisset ut alter alterum vidērēmus#, _Fin._ 3, 8, _when it came to pass that we each saw the other_. The verb sometimes agrees with the defining singular: as, #quandō duo cōnsulēs, alter morbō, alter ferrō periisset#, L. 41, 18, 16, _since the two consuls had died, one a natural death, the other by the sword_.

1081. A substantive in the accusative or nominative is sometimes in apposition to a thought or clause: as,

#manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae#, Ta. 1, 27, _shaking their fists, a provocation to quarrel_. #pars ingentī subiēre feretrō, trīste ministerium#, V. 6, 222, _a part put shoulder to the mighty bier, a service sad_. #nec Homērum audiō, quī Ganymēdēn ab dīs raptum ait propter fōrmam; nōn iūsta causa cūr Lāomedontī tanta fieret iniūria#, _TD._ 1, 65, _nor will I lend an ear to Homer, who asserts that Ganymede was carried off by the gods for his beauty; no just reason for doing Laomedon such injustice_.

[Errata:
1077 ... (_a._) ... _DO._ 1, 18
_DO_ 1
... (_b._)
_Balb._ 34
_Balb_ 34]

(2.) THE ADJECTIVE.

1082. An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, agrees with its substantive in number, gender, and case: as,

#vir bonus#, H. _Ep._ 1, 16, 40, _a good man_, #bona uxor#, Pl. _MG._ 684, _a good wife_, #oleum bonum#, Cato, _RR._ 3, _good oil_. #Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs#, 1, 1, 1, _Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts_. #et variae volucrēs nemora āvia pervolitantēs āera per tenerum liquidīs loca vōcibus opplent#, Lucr. 2, 145, _and motley birds, in pathless woods that flit through lither sky, fill space with carols clear_.

1083. An adjective or participle, either attributive or predicate, sometimes takes the number and gender of the persons or things implied in the substantive: as,

(_a._) #concursus populī mīrantium quid rē̆ī esset#, L. 1, 41, 1, _a gathering of the public, wondering what was the matter_. (_b._) #pars subeuntium obrutī, pars cōnfīxī#, Ta. _H._ 2, 22, _a part of those who came up were crushed, a part were run through_. #Samnītium caesī tria mīlia ducentī#, L. 10, 34, 3, _of the Samnites were slain three thousand two hundred_.

1084. (1.) An attributive adjective referring to several substantives is commonly expressed with one only, generally with the first or the last: as,

#rēs erat multae operae et labōris#, 5, 11, 5, _it was a job that required much work and trouble_. #semper amāvī ingenium, studia, mōrēs tuōs#, _O._ 33, _I have always admired your ability, your scholarly tastes, and your character_. In lively style, the adjective is often used with every substantive.

1085. Two or more attributive adjectives in the singular connected by a conjunction may belong to a plural substantive: as,

#circā portās Collīnam Ēsquilīnamque#, L. 26, 10, 2, _about the gates, the Colline and the Esquiline_. But the substantive may also be in the singular: as, #inter Ēsquilīnam Collīnamque portam#, L. 26, 10, 1, _between the Esquiline and the Colline gate_.

1086. The combined idea of a substantive with an attributive adjective may be qualified by one or more adjectives: as,

#nāvīs longās trīgintā veterēs#, L. 27, 22, 12, _thirty old men-of-war_. #prīvāta nāvis onerāria māxima#, _V._ 5, 136, _a very large private freighting vessel_. #āter aliēnus canis#, T. _Ph._ 706, _a strange black dog_.

1087. (2.) A predicate adjective or participle referring to two or more substantives is usually in the plural; its gender is determined as follows:

1088. (_a._) If the substantives denote persons of the same gender, that gender is used; if they denote persons of different gender, the masculine is used: as,

#venēnō absūmptī Hannibal et Philopoemēn#, L. 39, 52, 8, _it was by poison that Hannibal and Philopoemen were taken off_. #quam prīdem pater mihī̆ et māter mortuī essent#, T. _Eu._ 517, _how long my father and my mother had been dead_.

1089. (_b._) If the substantives denote things, and are of different genders, the neuter plural is used; also commonly when they are feminines denoting things: as,

#mūrus et porta dē caelō tācta erant#, L. 32, 29, 1, _the wall and town-gate had been struck by lightning_. #īra et avāritia imperiō potentiōra erant#, L. 37, 32, 13, _hot blood and greed proved stronger than authority_.

1090. (_c._) If the substantives denote both persons and things, either the gender of the substantives denoting persons is used, or the neuter. The gender of the substantives denoting things is very rarely used: as,

#et rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī#, L. 21, 50, 11, _the king too and the king’s fleet set sail in his company_. #inimīca inter sē līberam cīvitātem et rēgem#, L. 44, 24, 2, _that a free state and a monarch were irreconcilable things_. #Dolopas et Athamāniam ēreptās sibī̆ querēns#, L. 38, 10, 3, _complaining that the Dolopians and Athamania were wrested from him_.

1091. When the verb is attached to the nearest only of two or more subjects, a predicate participle or adjective naturally takes the gender of that substantive: as, #ibī̆ Orgetorīgis fīlia atque ūnus ē fīliīs captus est#, 1, 26, 5, _there the daughter of Orgetorix and one of the sons too was made prisoner_. #ut brāchia atque umerī līberī esse possent#, 7, 56, 4, _so that their arms and shoulders might be unhampered_.

1092. The ablative singular #absente# is used once each by Terence and Afranius with a plural substantive: #absente nōbīs#, T. _Eu._ 649, _while we were out_.

1093. A neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes used as a substantive in the predicate (1101): as,

#trīste lupus stabulīs#, V. _E._ 3, 80, _a baleful thing the wolf for folds_. #quod ego fuī ad Trāsumennum, id tū hodiē#, L. 30, 30, 12, _what I was myself at Trasumene, that you are today_.

1094. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively takes the number and gender of the substantive it represents; the case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,

#erant peditēs, quōs dēlēgerant; cum hīs in proeliīs versābantur; ad eōs sē recipiēbant; hī concurrēbant#, 1, 48, 5, _there were foot-soldiers whom they had picked out; with these men they kept company in action; upon them they would fall back; these people would always rally_. #Hippiās glōriātus est ānulum quem habēret, pallium quō amictus, soccōs quibus indūtus esset, sē suā manū cōnfēcisse#, _DO._ 3, 127, _Hippias bragged he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped; and the slippers which he had on_.

1095. Sometimes, however, the number and gender of these pronouns are determined by the sense, and not by the form of the substantive represented: as,

#equitātum omnem praemittit, quī videant#, 1, 15, 1, _he sends all the horse ahead, for them to see_. #hīc sunt quīnque minae. hoc tībī̆ erus mē iussit ferre#, Pl. _Ps._ 1149, _here are five minae; this my master bade me bring for thee_. #Domitius Massiliam pervenit atque ab iīs receptus urbī praeficitur#, Caes. _C._ 1, 36, 1, _Domitius arrived at Massilia, and was received by the people and put in charge of the town_. #ad hirundinīnum nīdum vīsast sīmia adscēnsiōnem ut faceret admōlīrier; neque eās ēripere quībat inde#, Pl. _R._ 598, _up to a swallow-nest methought an ape did strive to climb; nor could she snatch the nestlings thence_; the #eās# refers to #hirundinēs#, implied in #hirundinīnum#.

1096. A pronoun representing two or more substantives sometimes takes the number and gender of the nearest. But usually it is plural, and its gender is determined like that of an adjective (1087).

1097. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively is generally attracted to the number and gender of a predicate substantive in its own clause: as,

#haec est nōbilis ad Trāsumennum pūgna#, L. 22, 7, 1, _such is the far-famed fight at Trasumene_, 217 B.C. #ista quidem vīs est#, Suet. _Iul._ 82, _now that I call an outrage_, Caesar’s dying words, 44 B.C. But with a negative, sometimes the neuter: as, #nec sopor illud erat#, V. 3, 173, _nor was that sleep_.

1098. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun in agreement with a substantive is often equivalent to a genitive limiting the substantive: as,

#hōc metū vagārī prohibēbat#, 5, 19, 2, _by fear of this he stopped the prowling round_. #is pavor perculit Rōmānōs#, L. 21, 46, 7, _the panic occasioned by this demoralized the Romans_. #quā spē adductī#, 4, 6, 4, _impelled by the hope of this_.

[Erratum:
1097 ... #haec est nōbilis ad Trāsumennum pūgna#
text unchanged: word generally spelled “pugna” (see endnote on
first edition)]

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

(A.) USE OF THE NOUN.

NUMBER AND GENDER.

1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes used in a collective sense.

This singular is generally a military designation: as, #mīles#, #eques#, #pedes#, #hostis#, #Rōmānus#, #Poenus#. But other substantives and adjectives are occasionally thus used.

1100. A substantive or adjective denoting a person is often used in the singular as representative of a class, particularly when two persons are contrasted: as,

#sī tabulam dē naufrāgiō stultus adripuerit, extorquēbitne eam sapiēns?# _Off._ 3, 89, _if a fool has seized a plank from a wreck, will the sage twitch it away?_

1101. The neuter singular of certain adjectives is used as an abstract substantive.

These adjectives have commonly stems in #-o-#, and are often used in the partitive genitive (1250). The nominative is rare, also the accusative and ablative, except in prepositional constructions. Such are: #bonum#, #malum#; #rēctum#, #prāvum#; #decōrum#, #indecōrum#; #honestum#; #vērum#, #falsum#; #iūstum#, #iniūstum#; #aequum#; #ambiguum#; #rīdiculum#. #ūtile#, #ināne#, #commūne#, #īnsīgne#, #simile#, &c.

1102. Certain adjectives, which originally agreed with an appellative denoting a thing, have dropped the appellative and become substantives.

Such are: #Āfricus#, sc. #ventus#; #Āfrica#, sc. #terra#; #calda#, sc. #aqua#; #cānī# sc. #capillī#; #circēnsēs#, sc. #lūdī#; #decuma#, sc. #pars#; #fera#, sc. #bēstia#; #hīberna#, sc. #castra#; #merum#, sc. #vīnum#; #nātālis#, sc. #diēs#; #patria#, sc. #terra#; #praetexta#, sc. #toga#; #summa#, sc. #rēs#; #trirēmis#, sc. #nāvis#, and many others.

1103. Certain adjectives denoting relationship, friendship, hostility, connection, or age, may be used in both numbers as substantives.

Such are: (_a._) #adfīnis#, #cōgnātus#, #cōnsanguineus#, #gentīlis#, #necessārius#, #propīnquus#; (_b._) #adversārius#, #amīcus#, #inimīcus#, #familiāris#, #hostis#, #intimus#, #invidus#, #socius#, #sodālis#; (_c._) #contubernālis#, #manipulāris#, #vīcīnus#; (_d._) #adulēscēns#, #aequālis#, #iuvenis#, #senex#.

1104. The masculine plural of many adjectives is used substantively to denote a class.

Such are: #bonī#, _the good_, _the well-disposed_, _conservatives_, _patriots_, _our party_; #improbī#, _the wicked_, _the dangerous classes_, _revolutionists_, _anarchists_, _the opposite party_; #doctī#, #indoctī#; #piī#, #impiī#, and the like.

1105. Proper names of men are used in the plural to denote different persons of the same name, or as appellatives to express character, oftenest good character: as,

#duo Metellī, Celer et Nepōs#, _Br._ 247, _the two Metelluses, Celer and Nepos_. #quid Crassōs, quid Pompēiōs ēvertit?# J. 10, 108, _what overthrew a Crassus, Pompey what?_ i.e. men like Crassus and Pompey.

1106. The neuter plural of adjectives of all degrees of comparison is very often used as a substantive.

Such adjectives are usually in the nominative or accusative, and may have a pronoun, a numeral, or an adjective, agreeing with them. In English the singular is often preferred. Such are: #bona#, #mala#; #vēra#, #falsa#; #haec#, _this_; #omnia#, _everything_; #haec omnia#, _all this_, &c., &c.

1107. Names of countries are sometimes used in the plural when the country consists of several parts which are called by the same name as the whole country: as, #Galliae#, _the Gauls_; #Germāniae#, _the Germanies_.

1108. Material substantives are often used in the plural to denote different sorts of the substance designated, its constituent parts, or objects made of it: as,

#aera#, _lumps of bronze_, _bronzes_, _coppers_. #aquae#, _water in different places_, _medicinal springs_. #cērae#, _pieces of wax_, _tablets_, _wax masks_, _waxworks_. #marmora#, _kinds of marble_, _blocks of marble_, _works of marble_. #nivēs#, _snowflakes_, _snowdrifts_, _snowstorms_, _repeated snows_. #spūmae#, _masses of foam_. #sulpura#, _lumps of sulphur_. #vīna#, _wines_, _different kinds of wine_.

1109. Abstract substantives are often used in the plural to denote different kinds or instances of the abstract idea, or an abstract idea pertaining to several persons or things: as,

#sunt domesticae fortitūdinēs nōn īnferiōrēs mīlitāribus#, _Off._ 1, 78, _there are cases of heroism in civil life fully equal to those in war_. #tē cōnscientiae stimulant maleficiōrum tuōrum#, _Par._ 18, _you are tormented by pricks of conscience for your sins_. #propter siccitātēs palūdum#, 4, 38, 2, _because the swamps were dry everywhere_.

1110. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical convenience: as, #advēnisse familiārēs dīcitō#, Pl. _Am._ 353, _say that the people of the house are come_, the plural #familiārēs# denoting one person. #Priamī dum rēgna manēbant#, V. 2, 22, _while Priam’s realms still stood_. #externōs optāte ducēs#, V. 8, 503, _choose captains from a foreign strand_, i.e. Aeneas.

CASE.

1111. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the secondary.

1112. The principal cases are the nominative and the accusative. The principal cases, which have more complete inflections than the secondary, express the two chief relations of the noun in the sentence, those of the subject and of the object. The secondary cases are used to express subordinate or supplementary relations.

THE NOMINATIVE.

1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predicate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nominative occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).

THE NOMINATIVE OF TITLE.

1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles, or headings: as,

L · CORNELIVS · CN · F · CN · N · SCIPIO, CIL. I, 34, on a tomb, _Lucius Cornelius Scipio, son_ (#fīlius#) _of Gnaeus, grandson_ (#nepōs#) _of Gnaeus_. LABYRINTHVS HIC HABITAT MINOTAVRVS, CIL. IV, 2331, on a plan of the Labyrinth scratched by a Pompei schoolboy, _The Maze. Here lives Minotaur_. PRIVATVM PRECARIO ADEITVR, CIL. I, 1215, _Private Grounds. No Admittance without leave_. #Themistoclēs, Neoclī fīlius, Athēniēnsis#, N. 2, 1, _Themistocles, son of Neocles, of Athens_.

1115. The title proper of a book is often put in the genitive, dependent on #līber# or #librī#: as, #Cornēlī Tacitī Historiārum Liber Prīmus#, _Tacitus’s Histories, Book First_. Or prepositional expressions are used: as, #M. Tullī Cicerōnis dē Fātō Liber#, _Cicero, Fate, in One Book_. #Cornēlī Tacitī ab Excessū dīvī Augustī Liber Prīmus#, _Tacitus’s Roman History from the Demise of the sainted Augustus, Book First_.

1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence for some other case: as, #Gabīniō cōgnōmen ‘Cauchius’ ūsurpāre concessit#, Suet. _Cl._ 24, _he allowed Gabinius to take the surname ‘Cauchius;’_ (compare #Catō quasi cōgnōmen habēbat Sapientis#, _L._ 6, _Cato had the virtual surname of the Wise_). #‘Marsya’ nōmen habet#, O. 6, 400, _it has the name of ‘Marsyas;’_ (compare #nōmen Dānuvium habet#, S. _Fr._ 3, 55, _it has the name Danube_), #resonent mihi ‘Cynthia’ silvae#, Prop. 1, 18, 31, _let woods reecho ‘Cynthia’ for me_; (compare #tū, Tītyre, fōrmōsam resonāre docēs Amaryllida silvas#, V. _E._ 1, 4, _thou, Tityrus, dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis Fair_).

THE NOMINATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,

#fortūnae fīlius, omnēs#, H. _S._ 2, 6, 49, _‘the child of Fortune,’ all_ exclaim. This nominative is often accompanied by an interjection, such as #ecce#, #ēn#, #heu#, #ō#, #prō#, #vāh#: as, #ēn Priamus#, V. 1, 461, _lo, Priam here_. #ō fēstus diēs#, T. _Eu._ 560, _oh day of cheer_. For #eccilla#, see 667.

THE VOCATIVE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PROPER.

1118. The vocative nominative is used when a person or thing is addressed: as,

#quō usque tandem abūtēre, Catilīna, patientiā nostrā?# _C._ 1, 1, _in heaven’s name, how long, Catiline, wilt trifle with our patience?_ #valēte, dēsīderia mea, valēte#, _Fam._ 14, 2, 4, _good bye, my absent loves, good bye_. Instead of a proper name, an emphatic #tū# is often used: as, #advorte animum sīs tū#, Pl. _Cap._ 110, _just pay attention, sirrah, please_.

1119. Masculine stems in #-o-# commonly use the special form for the second person singular called the vocative: as,

#urbem, urbem, mī Rūfe, cole#, _Fam._ 2, 12, 2, _stick to town, dear Rufus, yes, to town_. But the vocative nominative is sometimes used even of #-o-# stems: as, #audī tū, populus Albānus#, L. 1, 24, 7, _hear thou, the people of Alba_.

1120. Poets use the vocative nominative or vocative proper very freely, sometimes for liveliness, but often simply in place of other cases not allowed by the metre: as,

#ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā#, H. _S._ 1, 5, 24, _our faces and our hands, Feronia, in thy stream we wash_. #occiderat Tatius, populīsque aequāta duōbus, Rōmule, iūra dabās#, O. 14, 805, _now dead was Tatius, and to peoples twain thou gavest, Romulus, impartial laws_. #longum tibi, Daedale, crīmen#, O. 8, 240, _a lasting stigma, Daedalus, to thee_. In these three examples, #Fērōniae#, #Rōmulus#, and #Daedalō# would be impossible. In poetry, the vocative is particularly common in questions.

1121. Nominative forms and vocative forms are often combined: as, #dulcis amīce#, H. _E._ 1, 7, 12, _sweet friend_. #mī vir#, Pl. _Am._ 716, _my husband_. #Iāne pater#, J. 6, 394, _thou father Janus_.

1122. In verse the vocative is occasionally used even in the predicate: as, #quō moritūre ruis?# V. 10, 811, _whither, on death intent, fliest thou?_ #quibus, Hector, ab ōrīs exspectāte venīs?# V. 2, 282, _out of what limboes, Hector, dost thou gladly welcomed come?_

1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by #ō#, but only in impassioned addresses: as, #ō fortūnāte adulēscēns#, _Arch._ 24, _oh thou thrice blest youth_; also by #prō# in addresses to gods, by #eho# and #heus# in calls on men. Rarely by #au#, #ehem#, #hem#, #ē̆heu#, #eia# or #heia#, #iō#.

[Erratum:
1120 ... #ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā#,
final , missing]

THE ACCUSATIVE.

1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by the accusative are all of one general kind; but they vary somewhat, according to the nature of the verb.

1125. I. With most verbs, the accusative either (_a._) denotes that which is affected or apprehended, or is produced by the action of the verb (1132); or, less frequently (_b._) it repeats the meaning of the verb in the form of a substantive (1140).

Such accusatives, called accusatives of the _Object_, are never attended by a preposition, and become nominative in the passive construction.

1126. II. With some verbs, the accusative denotes (_a._) extent or duration (1151); with others it denotes (_b._) aim of motion (1157).

Both these accusatives sometimes have their places taken by a prepositional expression, or by an adverb; in the passive construction, they are not convertible into a nominative, but remain accusative.

1127. Two or even three accusatives are sometimes used with one and the same verb: see 1167-1174.

1128. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from the verb, with which it originally stood, and used with a noun or a preposition.

1129. (1.) With substantives, the accusative is rare; it is used (_a._) in a few attributive expressions, chiefly old set forms, and rarely to denote (_b._) aim of motion.

Thus (_a._) the predicative #id aetātis#, in #id aetātis iam sumus#, _we are now of that age_, becomes attributive in #hominēs id aetātis#, _people of that age_. And (_b._) as #domum#, _home_, is used with the verb #redeō#, _go back_, so also rarely with the substantive #reditiō#, _a return_.

1130. With adjectives, the accusative is commonly that of extent: so with #altus#, _high_, #lātus#, _wide_, and #longus#, _long_, sometimes with #crassus#, _thick_.

Thus, in #eōs surculōs facitō sint longī pedēs bīnōs#, _see that the scions be two feet long_, the accusative #pedēs#, which belongs with the predicate #sint longī#, may be used with the attributive adjective #longus# alone, thus: #surculī longī pedēs bīnōs#, _scions two feet long_.

1131. (2.) The accusative is used with many prepositions: see 1410.

[Erratum:
1130 ... and #longus#, _long_
#longus#.]

I. THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE OBJECT.

1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative: as,

(_a._) #oppida sua omnia incendunt#, 1, 5, 3, _they set all their towns afire_. #cōnspexit adrāsum quendam#, H. _E._ 1, 7, 49, _he spied a man all shaven and shorn_. (_b._) #duās fossās perdūxit#, 7, 72, 3, _he made two trenches_. This accusative, is, as may be seen above, either (_a._) receptive, i.e. existing independently of the action of the verb, and only affected or apprehended by it; or (_b._) of product, i.e. produced by the action of the verb.

1133. Verbs thus used with an object are said to be _used transitively_. Such verbs may also be used intransitively, that is without an object, when stress is put on the action merely: thus,

(_a._) Transitively: #tū mē amās, ego tē amō#, Pl. _Most._ 305, _thou lovest me, and I love thee_. #nova dīruunt, alia aedificant#, S. _C._ 20, 12, _they pull down new structures, and build up others_. (_b._) Intransitively: #amō#, Pl. _B._ 511, _I’m in love_. #dīruit, aedificat#, H. _E._ 1, 1, 100, _it pulleth down, it buildeth up_.

1134. Some verbs, in addition to the accusative, often take an infinitive also: thus, #eum vident sedēre#, _V._ 5, 107, _they see him sit, they see that he is sitting_. Here the accusative #eum#, originally the object, _they see him_, becomes at the same time the subject of the new statement appended, #sedēre#, _sit_, thus giving rise to the construction known as the _accusative with the infinitive_.

1135. Instead of the proper accusative of the object, another accusative is sometimes substituted, denoting the ultimate result: as,

#rūpēre viam#, L. 2, 50, 10, _they broke a path_, i.e. _they broke_ through the obstacles, and so made _a path_. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, _and strike a covenant_, i.e. _strike_ a victim, and so make _a covenant_.

1136. In Plautus, #quid tibī̆# with a substantive of action in #-tiō# and #est#, has an accusative like a verb used transitively: as, #quid tibī̆ hanc cūrātiōst rem?# Pl. _Am._ 519, _what business hast thou with this?_

1137. Many verbs ordinarily used intransitively, particularly verbs of motion, have a transitive use when compounded with a preposition.

Such prepositions are, #ad#, #circum#, #ex#, #in#, #ob#, #per#, #prae#, #praeter#, #trāns#, and some others: as, #plūrēs paucōs circumsistēbant#, 4, 26, 2, _a good many took their stand round a few_. #Caesar omnem agrum Pīcēnum percurrit#, Caes. _C._ 1, 15, 1, _Caesar runs over the whole Picene territory_. #praeterīre nēmō pristrīnum potest#, Pl. _Cap._ 808, _no man can pass the mill_. #flūmen trānsiērunt#, 4, 4, 7, _they crossed the river_.

1138. A few verbs with a transitive use, have, when compounded with #circum# and #trāns#, besides the accusative of the object, a second accusative of the thing to which the preposition refers: as, #istum circumdūce hāsce aedīs#, Pl. _Most._ 843, _take that man round this house_. #Caesar funditōrēs pontem trādūcit#, 2, 10, 1, _Caesar takes the slingers over the bridge_. #trānsfer līmen aureolōs pedēs#, Cat. 61, 166, _over the threshold put thy little golden foot_. In the passive, the accusative connected with the preposition is sometimes retained: as, #Apollōniam praetervehuntur#, Caes. _C._ 3, 26, 1, _they sail by Apollonia_.

1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes have a transitive use with an accusative: as,

(_a._) #lūget senātus, maeret equester ōrdō#, _Mil._ 20, _the senate is in mourning, the equestrian order betrays its sadness_. (_b._) #mātrōnae eum lūxērunt#, L. 2, 7, 4, _the married women wore mourning for him_. #maereō cāsum eius modī#, _Fam._ 14, 2, 2, _I cannot help showing my grief over a misfortune of such a kind_. #quid mortem congemis ac flēs#, Lucr. 3, 934, _why dost thou death bewail and weep?_ Such verbs are #fleō#, _weep_, #gemō#, _wail_, #lāmentor#, #queror#, _bewail_, #doleō#, _am distressed_, #lūgeō#, _mourn_, #maereō#, _betray sadness_. Similarly, #horreō#, _shudder_, #reformīdō#, _am in dread_, #fastīdiō#, _feel disdain_, #rīdeō#, _laugh_, &c., &c. The object is oftener a thing than a person, and passive constructions are rare, and mostly confined to poetry.

[Errata:
1135 ... _they broke a path_, i.e. _they broke_ through the obstacles,
and so made _a path_. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, _and strike
a covenant_, i.e.
_punctuation as printed:_
they broke a path_, i.e _they broke_ through the obstacles.
and so made _a path_. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, _and strike
a covenant_, i.e]

THE EMPHASIZING OR DEFINING ACCUSATIVE.

1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusative of kindred derivation added.

(_a._) Seldom without an adjective: as, #dum vītam vīvās#, Pl. _Per._ 494, _as long as life thou liv’st_, i.e. as long as you ever live and breathe. #quōrum maiōrum nēmō servitūtem servīvit#, _T._ 29, _of whose ancestors not one has served servitude_, i.e. been a regular slave. #vidē nē facinus faciās#, _Fin._ 2, 95, _mind you don’t do a deed_, i.e. a misdeed. (_b._) Commonly with an adjective: as, #scelestam servitūtem serviunt#, Pl. _Cu._ 40, _a wicked servitude they serve_. #facinus memorābile fēcistis#, L. 24, 22, 16, _you have done a deed well worth mentioning_. #mīrum atque īnscītum somniāvī somnium#, Pl. _R._ 597, _a strange and silly dream dreamed I_.

1141. The verb sometimes has an accusative of kindred meaning, but of different derivation: as,

#ut vīvās aetātem miser#, Pl. _Am._ 1023, _that thou mayst live thy days in woe_. #nōn pugnāvit ingēns Īdomeneus Sthenelusve sōlus dīcenda Mūsīs proelia#, H. 4, 9, 19, _not towering Idomeneus nor Sthenelus alone has battles fought for Muses to rehearse_.

1142. The neuter singular accusative of a descriptive adjective is used, particularly by the poets, to denote manner: as,

#magnum clāmat#, Pl. _MG._ 823, _he’s bellowing big_. #suāve locus vōcī resonat conclūsus#, H. _S._ 1, 4, 76, _sweet to the voice the pent-up place rings back_. #suāve rubēns hyacinthus#, V. _E._ 3, 63, _sweet-blushing hyacinth_. #cūr tam cernis acūtum?# H. _S._ 1, 3, 26, _why dost thou see so sharp?_ The plural is not so common: as, #asper, acerba tuēns#, Lucr. 5, 33, V. 9, 794, _rough, staring savageness_.

1143. Some verbs of smell and of taste have an accusative defining what the smell or the taste is: as, #pāstillōs Rūfillus olet, Gargōnius hīrcum#, H. _S._ 1, 2, 27, _of lozenges Rufillus smells, Gargonius of the goat_. #doctrīnam redolet puerīlem#, _DO._ 2, 109, _it smacks of A B C studies_. #nōn omnēs possunt olere unguenta exōtica#, Pl. _Most._ 42, _not every man can of imported ointments reek_. #meliōra unguenta sunt quae terram quam quae crocum sapiunt#, Cic. in Plin. _NH._ 17, 5, 3, 38, _essences that smell of earth are better than those that smell of saffron_.

1144. Any verb or verbal expression may be defined in a general way by the neuter accusative of a pronoun or of an enumerative word: as,

#id gaudeō#, T. _Andr._ 362, _I’m glad of that_. #id maestast#, Pl. _R._ 397, _she’s mournful over this_. #id prōdeō#, T. _Eu._ 1005, _I’m coming out for this_. #cētera adsentior Crassō#, _DO._ 1, 35, _on all the other points I agree with Crassus_. So also #quod#, _for which_, _on account of which_, #aliquid#, #quicquam#, #nihil#, &c., &c., and particularly #quid#, _why_, _in what respect_, _wherein_, _what_, or _what ... for_: as, #quid vēnistī#, Pl. _Am._ 377, _why art thou come?_ #quid tibī̆ obstō#, _RA._ 145, _wherein do I stand in your way?_

1145. The accusative of an appellative is rarely used adverbially: as, #magnam partem ex iambīs nostra cōnstat ōrātiō#, _O._ 189, _our own speech is made up a great deal of iambs_. #maximam partem lacte vīvunt#, 4, 1, 8, _they live on milk the most part_, i.e. _chiefly_. Prepositional expressions are commoner: as, #magnā ex parte#, 1, 16, 6, _principally_. For #vicem#, _instead of_, _for_, or _like_, see the dictionary.

1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a substantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, #ōrātiōnēs aut aliquid id genus#, _Att._ 13, 12, 3, _speeches or something that kind_. #aucupium omne genus#, Cat. 114, 3, _fowling of every kind_. #nūgās hoc genus#, H. _S._ 2, 6, 43, _small talk--this kind_. #hoc genus in rēbus#, Lucr. 6, 917, _in matters of this kind_. #cum id aetātis fīliō#, _Clu._ 141, _with a son of that age_. Similarly #diēs quīndecim supplicātiō#, 2, 35, 4, _a fortnight thanksgiving_.

[Erratum:
1144 ... So also #quod#, _for which_,
_for which_.]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE PART CONCERNED.

1147. Poets use the accusative to express the part concerned, especially a part of the human body: as,

#tremit artūs#, Lucr. 3, 489, V. _G._ 3, 84, _he shivers in his limbs_. #tremis ossa pavōre#, H. _S._ 2, 7, 57, _thou tremblest in thy bones with fear_. #viridī membra sub arbutō strātus#, H. 1, 1, 21, _stretching--his limbs--beneath an arbute green_. #ōs umerōsque deō similis#, V. 1, 589, _in face and shoulders like a god_.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE THING PUT ON.

1148. The accusative is used with reflexive verbs in poetry to denote the thing put on: as,

#comantem Androgeī galeam induitur#, V. 2, 391, _Androgeus’ high-haired helm he dons_. #exuviās indūtus Achillī#, V. 2, 275, _clad in Achilles’ spoils_. Rarely to denote the thing taken off: as, #priōrēs exuitur vultūs#, St. _Th._ 10, 640, _she doffs her former looks_.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

1149. The accusative is used in exclamations, sometimes merely to call attention to something, but generally with a predicate to express a judgment with emphasis.

(_a._) In calling attention, #ecce# or #em# is used in old Latin: as, #ecce mē#, Pl. _MG._ 663, _behold, your humble servant_. #em Dāvom tibī̆#, T. _Andr._ 842, _there, Davos sir_. For #ellum#, #eccillum#, &c., see 667 and 673. Also, from Cicero on, #ēn#: as, #ēn quattuor ārās#, V. _E._ 5, 65, _see, altars four_. (_b._) In emphatic judgments sometimes the accusative alone: as, #fortūnātum Nīcobūlum#, Pl. _B._ 455, _lucky man that Nicobulus_. #testīs ēgregiōs#, _Cael._ 63, _mighty fine witnesses_; sometimes with an interjection: as, #ō imperātōrem probum#, Pl. _B._ 759, _oh what a good commander_; rarely so with #ēcastor#, #edepol#, #eugē#, _bravo_, #heu#, #īlicet#, _all’s up_, #ē̆heu#. Interrogatively: #hancine impudentiam?# V. 5, 62, _possible, shamelessness like this?_

1150. The accusative is used in excited orders, appeals, and questions, without any verb expressed, or even distinctly felt: as, #Tiberium in Tiberim#, Suet. _Tib._ 75, _Tiberius to the Tiber_. #dī vostram fidem#, T. _Andr._ 716, _ye gods your help_. #prō fidem, Thēbānī cīvēs#, Pl. _Am._ 376, _oh help_, or _murder, ye citizens of Thebes_. So with #unde#, #quō#, and #quandō#, often followed by #mihī̆# or #tibī̆#: as, #quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī?# H. _E._ 1, 5, 12, _why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use?_

II. THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME, AND OF AIM OF MOTION.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME.

1151. Extent of space or duration of time is denoted by the accusative: as,

(_a._) #mīlia passuum XX prōcēdit#, 5, 47, 1, _he pushes on twenty miles_. #trīduī viam prōgressī#, 4, 4, 4, _having advanced three days journey_. #aggerem lātum pedēs CCCXXX, altum pedēs LXXX exstrūxērunt#, 7, 24, 1, _they built up a mound three hundred and thirty feet wide, and eighty feet high_ (1130). (_b._) #mātrōnae annum lūxērunt#, L. 2, 7, 4, _the married women wore mourning a year_. #ūndēvīgintī annōs nātus erat#, _Br._ 229, _he was nineteen years old_. #secūtae sunt continuōs complūrēs diēs tempestātēs#, 4, 34, 4, _there followed a good many days a succession of storms_. #triennium vagātī#, 4, 4, 2, _having led a nomad life three years_. #ūnum diem supplicātiō habita est#, L. 10, 47, 7, _a thanksgiving was held one day_. #diēs quīndecim supplicātiō#, 2, 35, 4, _a fortnight thanksgiving_ (1129). Sometimes #per# is added: as, #lūdī per decem diēs factī sunt#, _C._ 3, 20, _games were celebrated ten days long_.

1152. The idea of traversing is sometimes not expressed: as, #mīlia passuum tria ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit#, 1, 22, 5, _he pitches camp three miles away from their camp_. #quadringentōs inde passūs cōnstituit sīgna#, L. 34, 20, 4, _four hundred paces from there he set up the standards_. See 1399.

1153. With #absum# and #distō#, the ablative of amount of difference is sometimes used (1393): as, #certior factus est Ariovistī cōpiās ā nostrīs mīlibus passuum quattuor et XX abesse#, 1, 41, 5, _he was informed that Ariovistus’s troops were four and twenty miles away from ours_. If the place is not mentioned from which distance is reckoned, #ab# or #ā# is sometimes used before the expression of distance: as, #positīs castrīs ā mīlibus passuum XV#, 6, 7, 3, _pitching camp fifteen miles away_.

1154. The accusative is used with #abhinc#, _ago_: as, #quaestor fuistī abhinc annōs quattuordecim#, _V._ 1, 34, _you were a quaestor fourteen years ago_. Rarely the ablative (1393): as, #quō tempore? abhinc annīs XV#, _RC._ 37, _when? fifteen years ago_; and once or twice with #abhinc#, meaning _before_ (1393): as, #comitiīs abhinc diēbus trīgintā factīs#, _V._ 2, 130, _the election having been held thirty days before_.

1155. The accusative singular is used with ordinals, to show the number of days, months, or years since a particular event, including the day, month, or year of the event itself: as, #quod annum iam tertium et vīcēsimum rēgnat#, _IP._ 7, _the circumstance that he has now been on the throne two and twenty years_.

1156. The accusative in some pronominal expressions and adverbs passes over from ‘time through which’ to a loose ‘time at which’: as, #id temporis#, _RA._ 97, _at that time_. #hoc noctis#, Pl. _Am._ 163^b, _at this time of night_. #tum#, _then_, #num#, #nunc#, _now_, #nunc ipsum#, Pl. _B._ 940, _Att._ 10, 4, 10, _this very minute_, #commodum#, _just in time_. For the locative ablative exceptionally used to denote duration, see 1355.

[Errata:
1151a ... 4, 34, 4
4, 34. 4
1154 ... _RC._ 37
_RC,_]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE AIM OF MOTION.

1157. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote the aim with expressions of motion: as,

#Labiēnus Lutetiam proficīscitur#, 7, 57, 1, _Labienus starts for Lutetia_. #Leucadem vēnimus#, _Fam._ 16, 9, 1, _we came to Leucas_. #nocturnus introitus Zmyrnam#, _Ph._ 11, 5, _the entrance into Smyrna by night_ (1129). Plautus uses #Accherūns# a few times like a town name: as, #vīvom mē accersunt Accheruntem mortuī#, _Most._ 509, _the dead are taking me to Acheron alive_.

1158. With singular names of towns and little islands, Plautus has the accusative alone twenty times, and twenty times with #in#; Terence has, including #Lēmnum#, _Ph._ 567, and #Cyprum#, _Ad._ 224, 230, the accusative alone six times, and twice with #in#, #in Lēmnum#, _Ph._ 66, and #in Cyprum#, _Ad._ 278. Plural town names never have #in#.

1159. An appellative #urbem# or #oppidum# accompanying the accusative of a town name is usually preceded by #in# or #ad#: as, #ad urbem Fī̆dēnās tendunt#, L. 4, 33, 10, _they make for the city of Fidenae_. #Iugurtha Thalam pervēnit, in oppidum magnum#, S. _I._ 75, 1, _Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a large town_.

1160. When merely ‘motion towards’ or ‘nearness’ is meant, #ad# is used: as, #trēs viae sunt ad Mutinam#, _Ph._ 12, 22, _there are three roads to Mutina_. #mīles ad Capuam profectus sum#, _CM._ 10, _I went to the war as a private, to the region round about Capua_.

1161. Proper names of countries are also sometimes put in the accusative in poetry, to denote aim of motion: as, #abiīt Ālidem#, Pl. _Cap._ 573, _he went away to Elis_. So in prose also, #Aegyptus# in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus: as, #Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur#, Ta. 2, 59, _Germanicus sets out for Egypt_. Rarely and in poetry names of peoples: as, #sitientīs ībimus Āfrōs#, V. _E._ 1, 64, _to thirst-parched Afrians we shall go_. In general the accusative of country names is preceded by #in# or #ad#, as are also appellatives regularly in prose; but in poetry, even appellatives without a preposition are common.

1162. (2.) The accusatives #domum#, #rūs#, and #forās#, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(_a._) #eō domum#, Pl. _Mer._ 659, _I’m going home_. #equitēs domum contendērunt#, 2, 24, 4, _the cavalry hurried home_. #domum reditiōnis spē sublātā#, 1, 5, 3, _the hope of a return home being out of the question_ (1129). (_b._) #rūs ībō#, T. _Eu._ 216, _I shall go out of town_. (_c._) #effūgī forās#, T. _Eu._ 945, _I ran out of doors_.

1163. The singular #domum# is always retained by Caesar, even when two or more separate persons or parties are spoken of. Plautus, Sallust, and Nepos, have the plural #domōs# once each, and Cicero and Livy use it occasionally.

1164. The accusative #domum# or #domōs# sometimes has an attribute, usually a possessive pronoun: as, #domum suam quemque revertī#, 2, 10, 4, _for every man to go back to his home_. #alius alium domōs suās invītant#, S. _I._ 66, 3, _they invite each other to their homes_. #aurum domum rēgiam comportant#, S. _I._ 76, 6, _they bring all the gold to the house royal_. #cum domum rēgis dēvertissēs#, _D._ 17, _when you went to stay at the king’s palace_. The preposition #in# is sometimes used when the attribute is a genitive or a possessive pronoun, and commonly when it is any adjective but a possessive pronoun.

1165. (3.) In old Latin, #exsequiās# and #īnfitiās# are also used with #eō#, and sometimes #malam crucem# and #malam rem#, though these last more commonly have #in#: as,

#exsequiās Chremētī īre#, T. _Ph._ 1026, _to go to Chremes’s funeral_. #ut eās malam crucem#, Pl. _Men._ 328, _that thou mayst get thee to the accursed cross_. Later writers, as Nepos, Livy, and Quintilian, use #īnfitiās eō# again, and, from Sallust on, #vēnum eō# and #vēnum dō# sometimes occur for #vēneō# and #vēndō#.

1166. With the accusative in #-tum# (or #-sum#), called the supine, the idea of ‘aim’ passes over into that of ‘purpose:’ as #mīlitātum abiīt#, T. _Hau._ 117, _he’s gone away a soldiering_ (2270).

[Erratum:
1157 ... _the entrance into Smyrna by night_ (1129).
final . missing]

TWO ACCUSATIVES COMBINED.

OBJECT AND PREDICATE.

1167. Many verbs may take two accusatives, an object and a predicate.

Such are verbs signifying _make_, _keep_, _choose_, _name_ or _call_, _have_, _think_, _recognize_ or _find_, _show oneself_, &c., &c.: as, #longiōrem mēnsem faciunt#, _V._ 2, 129, _they make the month longer_. #eum certiōrem faciunt#, 5, 37, 7, _they let him know_. #Ancum Mārcium rēgem populus creāvit#, L. 1, 32, 1, _the people made Ancus Marcius king_. #mē cēpēre arbitrum#, T. _Hau._ 500, _they’ve chosen me as referee_. #Duellium ‘Bellium’ nōmināvērunt#, _O._ 153, _Duellius they named ‘Bellius.’_ #vīcīnam Capreīs insulam ‘Aprāgopolim’ appellābat#, Suet. _Aug._ 98, _the island next to Capreae he called ‘the Castle of Indolence.’_ #conlēgās adiūtōrēs habēbat#, _Sest._ 87, _he had his colleagues as assistants_. #tē sapientem exīstimant#, _L._ 6, _they consider you a sage_. #quem virum P. Crassum vīdimus#, _CM._ 61, _what a man we saw in Crassus_. #sevērum mē praebeō#, _C._ 4, 12, _I show myself stern_. In the passive both the object and the predicate become nominatives: as, #Caesar certior factus est#, 3, 19, 5, _Caesar was informed_.

1168. In the sense of _consider as equivalent to_, #dūcō# and #habeō#, less frequently #putō#, have the ablative with #prō#. Other constructions with these and the above verbs may be found in the dictionary.

PERSON AND THING.

1169. (1.) Some verbs of teaching and hiding, demanding and questioning, may take two accusatives, one of a person and one of a thing.