Chapter IX: Part 9

This suffix is attached to a root or to a form of the present stem after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #nūntiātum#, _to report_, #nūntiātū#, _in reporting_, stem #nūntiātu-#. Many of the commonest verbs have no supine: as, #sum#, #eō#, #ferō#; #regō#, #emō#, #tegō#; #amō#, #dēleō#, #doceō#, &c., &c.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

901. The present participle stem is formed by adding #-nt-# or #-nti-#, nominative #-ns#, to the present stem: as,

#dāns#, _giving_, stems #dant-#, #danti-#; #regēns#, #capiēns#; #laudāns#, #monēns#, #audiēns#.

902. The adjective #sontem# (accusative, no nominative), which was originally the participle of #sum#, has #o# before the suffix, and #absēns# and #praesēns# have #e#; the participle of #eō# has #ē# in the nominative singular, otherwise #u#, #iēns#, #euntis#, &c. #n# rarely drops before #-s# (63): as, LIBES (inscr.), #exsultās# (Enn.), #animās# (Lucr.).

903. Some adjectives which were originally present participles have no verb: as, #clēmēns#, _merciful_, #ēlegāns#, _choice_, #ēvidēns#, _clear_, #frequēns#, _thick_, #petulāns#, _wanton_, #recēns#, _fresh_, #repēns#, _sudden_, &c., &c. For #potēns#, _powerful_, see 922.

FUTURE PARTICIPLE.

904. The future participle suffix is #-tūro-#, nominative #-tūrus#, #-tūra#, #-tūrum#, which is often changed to #-sūro-#, nominative #-sūrus#, #-sūra#, #-sūrum# (912).

This suffix is added to a theme after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #rēctūrus#, _going to guide_; #laudātūrus#, _going to praise_.

905. Some future participles have a different formation from that of the perfect participle: as, #mortuus#, _dead_, #moritūrus#; see also in the dictionary #arguō#, #fruor#, #orior#, #ruō#, #secō#. And some verbs have two forms of the future participle: as, #āgnōscō#, #īgnōscō#, #hauriō#, #iuvō#, #pariō#. Some verbs which have no perfect participle have a future participle: as, #acquiēscō#, #appāreō#, #ardeō#, #caleō#, #careō#, #doleō#, #ēsuriō#, #fugiō#, #haereō#, #incidō#, #iaceō#, #-nuō#, #parcō#, #rauciō#, #recidō#, #sonō#, #stō#, #valeō#.

PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

906. The perfect participle suffix is #-to-#, nominative #-tus#, #-ta#, #-tum#, which is often changed to #-so-#, nominative #-sus#, #-sa#, #-sum# (912).

907. The perfect participle was originally active as well as passive, and some participles have retained the active meaning: as,

#adultus#, _grown up_; #ēmersus#, _rising out from_; #exōsus#, #perōsus#, _hating bitterly_; #placitus#, _engaging_; #iūrātus#, _sworn_, #coniūrātus#, _conspiring_; #prānsus#, _having lunched_, #cēnātus#, _having dined_, #pōtus#, _drunk_, &c. The perfect participles of deponents are usually active, but sometimes passive: as, #meditātus#, _having studied_, or _studied_. Many verbs are not accompanied by a perfect participle (811), particularly verbs in #-ēre#, with a parallel adjective in #-idus# (287). Intransitive verbs have usually only the neuter. A perfect active participle #meminēns# is said to have been used twice (Plaut., Laev.).

908. The perfect participle is formed in one of two separate ways:

909. (1.) From a theme consisting of a root; in this way the participles of most verbs in #-ere# and #-ēre# are formed: as,

#gestus#, _carried_, #aptus#, _fit_, #solūtus#, _loosed_ (142), #iūnctus#, _joined_ (831), #sparsus#, _sprinkled_ (170, 3); #doctus#, _taught_.

910. In some consonant root participles of verbs in #-ere#, #-āre#, or #-ēre#, which have the suffix #-u-# in the perfect stem (873), the #-to-# is preceded by a short #i#: as, #genitus#, _born_ (971-976); #domitus#, _tamed_ (993); #monitus#, _warned_ (1003, 1004, 1009). In old Latin, #e# occurs: as, MERETA (41); #e# is retained in #vegetus#, _sprightly_. One participle has #-tuo-#: #mortuus#, _dead_.

911. Some verbs in #-āre# have participles from consonant roots: as, #frictus#, _rubbed_, #fricō#, #fricāre#; see 993. Also some in #-īre#: as, #fartus#, _stuffed_ (170, 3), #farciō#, #farcīre#; #fultus#, _propped_, #fulciō#, #fulcīre#; see 1011-1015, and 1017, 1019, 1020.

912. Roots in #-d-# and #-t-# change #-to-# to #-so-#, before which the dentals change to #s# (159). After long vowels, nasals, and liquids the double #ss# is simplified to #s#: as, #fossus#, _dug_, but #dīvīsus#, _divided_; #vorsus# or #versus#, _turned_. The suffix #-so-# is also found with some roots in #-l-#, #-m-#, or #-r-# and a few others: as, #pulsus# (159).

913. (2.) From a theme in long #ā# or in long #ī#; in this way participles are regularly formed from denominatives in #-āre# or #-īre# respectively: as,

#laudātus#, _praised_; #audītus#, _heard_.

914. A few perfect participles of verbs in #-ere# are formed from a presumed theme in long #ī#, or long #ē#, or from one in long #ū#: as, #petītus#, _aimed at_; #exolētus#, _grown out_; see 967-970; #tribūtus#, _assigned_; see 947, 948.

915. (1.) Many perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a short root vowel (135, 1): as,

#adspectus#, _beheld_; #captus#, _taken_; #coctus#, _cooked_; #commentus#, _devising_; #cultus#, _tilled_; #dictus#, _said_, verb #dīcō#; #ductus#, _led_, #dūcō#; #factus#, _made_; #fossus#, _dug_; #gestus#, _carried_; #inlectus#, _allured_; #questus#, _complaining_; #raptus#, _seized_; #tersus#, _neat_; #textus#, _woven_; #vorsus#, _turned_.

916. (2.) Some perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a long root vowel, sometimes even when the vowel of the parallel present stem is short (135, 1; 122, _f_): as,

#fīxus#, _fastened_, verb #fīgō#; #-flīctus#, _dashed_, #-flīgō#; #pāstus#, _fed_, #pāscō#; #pollūctus#, _offered up_, #pollūceō#; #scrīptus#, _written_, _scrībō_; #-cāsus#, _fallen_, #cadō#. Also #āctus#, _driven_, #agō#; #vīsus#, _seen_, #videō#; #frūctus#, _enjoying_, #fruor#; #lēctus#, _culled_, #legō#; #pīctus#, _painted_, #pingō#; #rēctus#, _ruled_, #regō#; #ēsus#, _eaten_, #edō#; #strūctus#, _piled_, #struō#; #tēctus#, _covered_, #tegō#; #ūnctus#, _anointed_, #unguō#; #frāctus#, _broken_, #frangō#; #pāctus#, _fixed_, #pangō#. Furthermore, #iūnctus#, _joined_, #iungō#; #sānctus#, _hallowed_, #sanciō# (831); also, #fūnctus#, _having performed_, #fungor#.

917. (1.) Most perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a long root vowel: as,

#lātus#, _borne_ (169, 1); #nātus#, _born_; #-plētus#, _filled_; #trītus#, _worn_; #nōtus#, _known_; #sūtus#, _sewed_. So also an isolated #rūtus#, in the law phrase #rūta caesa#, or #rūta et caesa#, _diggings and cuttings_, i.e. _minerals and timber_.

918. (2.) Ten perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a short root vowel; they are:

citus, datus, _hurried_, _given_
itum, ratus, _gone_, _thinking_
-rutus, satus, _fallen_, _planted_
situs, status, _lying_, _set_
litus, quitus, _besmeared_, _been able_

919. As #citus#, so always #percitus# and #incitus# (once #incītus#, doubtful); usually #concitus#, rarely #concītus#; #excitus# and #excītus# equally common; always #accītus#. #ambītus# always has long #ī# (763). #āgnitus#, _recognized_, #cōgnitus#, _known_, and the adjectives #inclutus# or #inclitus#, _of high renown_, and #putus#, _clean_, have a short root vowel. For #dēfrūtum#, #dēfrutum#, see 134, 1.

LIST OF VERBS

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS.

920. I. The principal parts of root verbs and of verbs in #-ere# are formed in a variety of ways and are best learned separately for every verb (922-986).

921. II. The principal parts of verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre#, are usually formed as follows:

laudō, _praise_ laudāre laudāvī laudātus
moneō, _advise_ monēre monuī monitus
audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī audītus

For other formations, see 989-1022.

I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.

(A.) ROOT VERBS.

922. Root verbs have their principal parts as follows:

sum, _am_ esse ---- ----
----, _become_, _get_, _am_ fore fuī ----

For #fuam#, &c., #forem#, &c., #fore#, see 750. #fuī#, &c., serves as the perfect system of #sum#.

pos-sum, _can_ pos-se ---- ----
----, _can_ ---- potuī ----

#potuī#, &c., serves as the perfect system of #possum#. Of the present system of #potuī#, only #potēns#, _powerful_, is used, and only as an adjective.

dō, _give_, _put_ dare dedī datus

For compounds, see 757.

bibō, _drink_ bibere bibī pōtus

So the compounds, with the reduplication preserved in the perfect system (860).

serō, _sow_ serere sēvī satus

Compounds have #i# for #a# in the perfect participle: as, #cōn-situs#.

sistō, _set_ sistere -stitī, status
rarely stitī
inquam, _quoth I_ ---- inquiī once ----
eō, _go_ īre iī, itum, -itus
very rarely īvī
queō, _can_ quīre quīvī quitus
ne-queō, _can’t_ ne-quīre ne-quīvī ne-quitus
edō, _eat_ ēsse ēdī ēsus
volō, _will_, velle voluī ----
_wish_, _want_
nōlō, _won’t_ nōlle nōluī ----
mālō, _like better_ mālle māluī ----
ferō, _carry_ ferre (tulī) (lātus)

For #tulī#, old #tetulī#, and #lātus#, see 780; for the perfect of #re-ferō#, 861.

(B.) VERBS IN #-ere#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

923. (1 _a_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a reduplicated perfect stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

924. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

canō, _make music_ canere cecinī (cantātus)

For #con-cinō#, #oc-cinō#, and #prae-cinō#, see 971 and 823.

tendō, _stretch_ tendere tetendī tentus

For #tennitur# (Ter.), #dis-tennite# (Plaut.), see 166, 4; late participle #tēnsus#. Compounds have #-tendī# (860) and #-tentus#. But sometimes #ex-tēnsus#, and in late writers, #dē-tēnsus#, #dis-tēnsus#, #os-tēnsus#, and #re-tēnsus#.

925. (_b._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

pangō, _fix_ pangere pepigī, _agreed_ pāctus

In meaning, the perfect #pepigī# corresponds to #pacīscor#; #pānxit#, _made_, _set in verse_ (Enn.), #pānxerit#, _set_ (Col.), #pēgit# (Pac.), #pēgerit# (Cic.), _fixed_, once each. For #com-pingō# and #im-pingō#, see 938.

pungō, _punch_ pungere pupugī pūnctus

For #com-pungō# and #ex-pungō#, see 954 and 823.

tangō, _touch_ tangere tetigī tāctus

In old Latin: #tagō# (Turp.), #tagit#, #tagam# (Pac.). Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #con-tingō#, #con-tingere#, #con-tigī# (860), #con-tāctus#; in old Latin: #at-tigās# (Plaut., Ter., Acc., Pac.), #at-tigat# (Pac.), #at-tigātis# (Plaut., Pac.).

926. (_c._) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).

tollō, _take off_ tollere (sus-tulī) (sub-lātus)

As the perfect and perfect participle of #tollō# are appropriated by #ferō#, #tollō# takes those of #sus-tollō#. The original perfect is #tetulī# (860).

927. (_d._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

discō, _learn_ discere didicī ----
poscō, _demand_ poscere poposcī ----

For #poposcī#, see 855. For #-didicī# and #-poposcī#, see 860.

928. (_e._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

pariō, _bring forth_ parere peperī partus

For forms in #-īre#, see 791. #com-periō#, 1012; #re-periō#, 1011.

929. (1 _b_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a reduplicated perfect stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, is #-sus# (912).

930. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

cadō, _fall_ cadere cecidī -cāsus

Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #oc-cidō#, #oc-cidere#, #oc-cidī# (860), #oc-cāsus#. Rarely #e# in the present and perfect systems (Enn., Lucr., Varr.): as, #ac-cedere#, #ac-cedisset# (109). For the perfect of #re-cidō#, see 861.

caedō, _fell_, _cut_ caedere cecīdī caesus

Compounds have #ī# for #ae#: as, #ac-cīdō#, #ac-cīdere#, ac-cīdī (860), #ac-cīsus#.

parcō, _spare_ parcere pepercī ----

#pepercī#, &c. (regularly in Cic., Caes., Hor., Ov., Mart.; Nep. once; also Plaut. twice, Ter. once). Old #parsī#, &c. (Plaut. 8, Cato, Ter., Nov., Nep., once each); once #parcuit# (Naev.). Compounds: #com-perce# (Plaut.), #con-parsit# (Ter.), #in-perce#, #im-percitō#, #re-percis# (Plaut.), #re-parcent# (Lucr.).

pendō, _weigh_, _pay_ pendere pependī pēnsus

931. (_b._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

tundō, _pound_ tundere tutudī not used tūnsus

For the perfect of #re-tundō#, see 861; other compounds have the perfect #-tudī# (861), but once #con-tūdit# (Enn.). Perfect participle, #tūsus# (Plin., Mart.); compounds: #con-tūnsus# (Plin.), #con-tūsus# (Cato, Varr., Caes., Lucr., Sal., Verg., &c.); #ob-tūnsus# (Plaut., Verg., Liv., Sen.), #op-tūsus#, #ob-tūsus# (Lucr., Sen., Quintil., Tac.); #per-tūssus# (Plaut.), #per-tūsus# (Cato, Lucr., Liv., Sen., &c.); #re-tūnsus# (Plaut., Verg.), #re-tūsus# (Cic., Lucr., Hor.); #sub-tūsus# (Tib.).

932. (_c._) With the present stem in #-r{o|e-}#, or #-l{o|e-}# (833).

currō, _run_ currere cucurrī cursum

For perfect of compounds, see 860.

fallō, _cheat_ fallere fefellī falsus

Compound #re-fellō#, #re-fellere#, #re-fellī# (860), #----#.

pellō, _push_ pellere pepulī pulsus

For the perfect of #re-pellō#, see 861. Other compounds have #-pulī# (860).

933. (1 _c_.) The following verbs in #-ere# are without the reduplication (861):

934. (_a._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

findō, _split apart_ findere -fidī, rarely fidī fissus
scindō, _rend_ scindere -scidī, rarely scidī scissus

935. (_b._) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).

per-cellō, _knock down_ per-cellere per-culī per-culsus

936. (2 _a_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

937. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

agō, _drive_ agere ēgī āctus

Real compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #ab-igō#, #ab-igere#, #ab-ēgī#, #ab-āctus#; but #per-agō# retains #a#. #cōgō# and #dēgō# are contracted: #cōgō#, #cōgere#, #co-ēgī#, #co-āctus#; #dēgō#, #dēgere#, #----#, #----#.

emō, _take_, _buy_ emere ēmī emptus

#co-emō# retains #e# in the present system, and usually #inter-emō# and #per-emō#; other compounds have #-imō#. For #cōmō#, #dēmō#, #prōmō#, and #sūmō#, see 952.

----, _strike_ ---- īcī ictus

Forms of the present system are #īcit# (Plaut., Lucr.), #īcitur# (Plin.), #īcimur# (Lucr.).

legō, _pick up_, _read_ legere lēgī lēctus

Compounds with #ad#, #inter#, #nec-#, #per#, #prae#, and #re-#, have #-legō# in the present system, others #-ligō#. For #dī-ligō#, #intel-legō#, #neg-legō#, see 952.

938. (_b._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

com-pingō, _fix together_ com-pingere com-pēgī com-pāctus

A compound of #pangō# (925, 823).

frangō, _smash_ frangere frēgī frāctus

Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #cōn-fringō#, #cōn-fringere#, #cōn-frēgī#, #cōn-frāctus#.

im-pingō, _drive in_ im-pingere im-pēgī im-pāctus

A compound of #pangō# (925, 823). So also #op-pēgī#.

linquō, _leave_ linquere līquī -lictus
rumpō, _burst_ rumpere rūpī ruptus

So the compounds. But Plautus has #con-rumptus# and #dir-rumptus#.

vincō, _conquer_ vincere vīcī victus

939. (_c._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

pavēscō, _get afraid_ pavēscere ex-pāvī ----

940. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

capiō, _take_ capere cēpī captus

Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #in-cipiō#, #in-cipere#, #in-cēpī#, #in-ceptus#. In the present system, #e# is rare: as, #re-cepit# (Lucr.); #u# is frequent in old Latin.

coepiō, _begin_ rare coepere once coepī coeptus

See 812-814.

faciō, _make_ facere fēcī factus

For #fac#, see 846; for passive, 788. Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #ef-ficiō#, #ef-ficere#, #ef-fēcī#, #ef-fectus#.

fugiō, _run away_ fugere fūgī ----
iaciō, _throw_ iacere iēcī iactus

Compounds have #-iciō# (104, _c_), #-icere#, #-iēcī#, #-iectus#: as, #ē-iciō#, #ē-icere#, #ē-iēcī#, #ē-iectus#. In old Latin the present system has rarely #-ieciō#; #-iecere#. #dis-siciō# is sometimes used (Lucr., Verg.) for #dis-iciō#.

941. (2 _b_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912).

942. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

cūdō, _hammer_ cūdere -cūdī -cūsus

943. (_b._) With reduplication and #{-o|e-}# in the present stem (829).

sīdō, _settle_ sīdere sīdī, -sīdī, -sēdī -sessus

944. (_c._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

fundō, _pour_ fundere fūdī fūsus

945. (_d._) With the present stem in #-s{o|e-}# for #-t{o|e-}# (835).

vīsō, _go to see_ vīsere vīsī ----

946. (_e._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

fodiō, _dig_ fodere fōdī fossus

For forms in #-īre#, see 791.

947. (2 _c_.) The following verbs in #-ere# (367) with the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (837, 840), have the perfect stem in #-u-# or in #-v-# of the theme (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

acuō, _sharpen_ acuere acuī acūtus
adjective
arguō, _make clear_ arguere arguī argūtus
rare
con-gruō, _agree_ con-gruere con-gruī ----
ex-uō, _doff_ ex-uere ex-uī ex-ūtus
im-buō, _give a smack of_ im-buere im-buī im-būtus
ind-uō, _don_ ind-uere ind-uī ind-ūtus
in-gruō, _impend_ in-gruere in-gruī ----
luō, _pay_, _atone for_ luere luī -lūtus, _washed_
metuō, _fear_ metuere metuī metūtus
once
-nuō, _nod_ -nuere -nuī ----
pluit, _it rains_ pluere pluit, plūvit ----
ruō, _tumble down_ ruere ruī -rutus
so-lvō, _loose_ so-lvere so-lvī so-lūtus
spuō, _spit_ spuere -spuī ----
statuō, _set_ statuere statuī statūtus

Compounds have #i# for #a# throughout: as, #cōn-stituō#, #cōn-stituere#, &c.

volvō, _roll_ volvere volvī volūtus
suō, _sew_ suere -suī sūtus
tribuō, _assign_ tribuere tribuī tribūtus

948. Two verbs in #-ere# with the present stem in #-nu{o|e-}# (833), have the perfect stem in #-nu-# (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

minuō, _lessen_ minuere minuī minūtus
sternuō, _sneeze_ sternuere sternuī ----

949. (3.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a root ending in two consonants (866), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

950. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829); most have a nasal (831).

-cendō, _light_ -cendere -cendī -cēnsus
-fendō, _hit_ -fendere -fendī -fēnsus
mandō, _chew_ mandere mandī
once mānsus
pandō, _open_ pandere pandī passus, pānsus

For #dis-pennite# (Plaut.), see 166, 4. #dis-pandō#, #dis-pendō#, has perfect participle #dis-pessus# (Plaut., Lucr.), #dis-pānsus# (Lucr., Plin., Suet.).

pre-hendō, _seize_ pre-hendere pre-hendī pre-hēnsus

Rarely #prae-hendō#; but very often #prēndō#, #prēndere#, #prēndī#, #prēnsus#.

scandō, _climb_ scandere -scendī -scēnsus

Compounds have #e# for #a# throughout: as, #dē-scendō#, #dē-scendere#, &c.

vorrō, verrō, _sweep_ vorrere, -vorrī, -verrī vorsus, versus
verrere
vortō, vertō, _turn_ vortere, vortī, vertī vorsus, versus
vertere

951. (_b._) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).

vollō, vellō, _tear_ vollere, vellere vollī, vellī volsus, vulsus

Late perfect #vulsī# (Sen., Luc.); #-vulsī# (Laber., Col., Sen., Luc.).

[Errata:
925 ... For #com-pingō# and #im-pingō#
#com-pingo#
930. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}#
#{o-|e-}#
(829).
(829.)
(Enn., Lucr., Varr.)
Enn. Lucr.,
937 ... Compounds with #ad#, #inter#, #nec-#, #per#, #prae#
#per#. #prae#
938 ... com-pingō, _fix together_
com-pingo]

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.

952. (1 _a_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (867), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

953. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

carpō, _nibble_, _pluck_ carpere carpsī carptus

Compounds have #e# for #a#: as, #dē-cerpō#, #dē-cerpere#, #dē-cerpsī#, #dē-cerptus#.

com-būrō, _burn up_ com-būrere com-bussī com-būstus
cōmō, _put up_ cōmere cōmpsī cōmptus

Compound of #com-# and #emō# (937, 823). See also #dēmō#, #prōmō#, #sūmō#.

coquō, _cook_ coquere coxī coctus
dēmō, _take away_ dēmere dēmpsī dēmptus
dīcō, _say_ dīcere dīxī dictus

For #dīc#, see 846.

dī-ligō, _esteem_ dī-ligere dī-lēxī dī-lēctus

Compound of #dis-# and #legō# (937, 823). See also #intel-legō# and #neg-legō#.

dūcō _lead_ dūcere dūxī ductus

For #dūc#, #ē-dūc#, see 846.

-flīgō, _smash_ -flīgere -flīxī -flīctus

Of the simple verb, #flīgit# occurs (L. Andr.), #flīgēbant# (Lucr.), and #flīgī# (L. Andr., Acc.).

gerō, _carry_ gerere gessī gestus
intel-legō, _understand_ intel-legere intel-lēxī intel-lēctus
neg-legō, _disregard_ neg-legere neg-lēxī neg-lēctus

In the perfect system very rarely #intel-lēgī# and #neg-lēgī# (862, 823).

nūbō, _veil_, nūbere nūpsī nūpta
_marry (a man)_
prōmō, _take out_ prōmere prōmpsī prōmptus
regō, _guide_, _rule_ regere rēxī rēctus

In the present system, #con-rigō# and #ē-rigō#; commonly #por-rigō#, sometimes #porgō#; rarely #sur-rigō#, commonly #surgō#; always #pergō#.

rēpō, _creep_ rēpere rēpsi ----
scalpō, _dig_ scalpere scalpsī scalptus
scrībō, _write_ scrībere scrīpsī scrīptus
sculpō, _carve_ sculpere sculpsī sculptus
struō, _build up_ struere strūxī strūctus
sūgō, _suck_ sūgere sūxī suctus
sūmō, _take up_ sūmere sūmpsī sūmptus
tegō, _cover_ tegere tēxī tēctus
trahō, _drag_ trahere trāxī tractus
ūrō, _burn_ ūrere ussī ustus
vehō, _cart_ vehere vēxī vectus
vīvō, _live_ vīvere vīxī ----

954. (_b._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

cingō, _gird_ cingere cīnxī cīnctus
com-pungō, _prick over_ com-pungere com-pūnxī com-pūnctus

A compound of #pungō# (925, 823).

ē-mungō, _clean out_ ē-mungere ē-mūnxī ē-mūnctus
ex-pungō, _prick out_ ex-pungere ex-pūnxī ex-pūnctus

A compound of #pungō# (925, 823).

fingō, _mould_ fingere fīnxī fīctus
iungō, _join_ iungere iūnxī iūnctus
pingō, _paint_ pingere pīnxī pīctus
plangō, _beat_ plangere plānxī plānctus
stinguō, _poke_, _poke out_ stinguere -stīnxī -stīnctus
stringō, _peel_, _graze_ stringere strīnxī strīctus
tingō, _wet_ tingere tīnxī tīnctus
unguō, _anoint_ unguere ūnxī ūnctus

Sometimes #ungō#, #ungere#, &c., in the present system.

955. (_c._) With the present stem in #-n{o|e-}# (833).

temnō, _scorn_ temnere (con-tempsī) (con-temptus)

956. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

ad-liciō, _lure_ ad-licere ad-lexī ----
in-liciō, _inveigle_ in-licere in-lexī in-lectus
pel-liciō, _lead astray_ pel-licere pel-lexī pel-lectus
-spiciō, _spy_ -spicere -spēxī -spectus

Forms of the simple verb are old and rare: as, #specitur#, #spicit#, #spece# (Plaut.), #specimus# (Varr.), #spiciunt# (Cato), #spēxit# (Naev., Enn.).

957. (1 _b_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (867), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):

958. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

cēdō, _move along_ cēdere cessī cessus
claudō, _shut_ claudere clausī clausus

Sometimes #clūdō#, #clūdere#, #clūsī#, #clūsus#. Compounds have #ū# for #au# throughout.

dī-vidō, _separate_ dī-videre dī-vīsī dī-vīsus
fīgō, _pin_ fīgere fīxī fīxus,
twice fīctus
fluō, _flow_ fluere flūxī fluxus
adjective
laedō, _hurt_ laedere laesī laesus

Compounds have #ī# for #ae# throughout: as, #in-līdō#, #in-līdere#, &c.

lūdō, _play_ lūdere lūsī lūsus
mittō, _send_ mittere mīsī missus
mergō, _dip_, _duck_ mergere mersī mersus
plaudō, _clap_ plaudere plausī plausus

Also #ap-plaudō#, #ap-plaudere#, &c. Other compounds have usually #ō# for #au# throughout: as, #ex-plōdō#, &c.; but #ex-plaudō# (Lucr.).

premō, _squeeze_ premere pressī pressus

Compounds have #i# for #e# in the present system: as, #com-primō#, &c.

rādō, _scrape_ rādere rāsī rāsus
rōdō, _gnaw_ rōdere rōsī rōsus
spargō, _scatter_ spargere sparsī sparsus

Compounds usually have #e# for #a# throughout: as, #cōn-spergō#, &c.

trūdō, _shove_ trūdere trūsī trūsus
vādō, _go_ vādere -vāsī -vāsus

959. (_b._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

algēscō, _get cold_ algēscere alsī ----
ardēscō, _flame out_ ardēscere arsī (ex-arsī) ----
lūcēscō, _grow light_ lūcēscere -lūxī ----

Sometimes in the present system #lūcīscō#, #lūcīscere#, &c.

frīgēscō, _grow cold_ frīgēscere -frīxī ----
vīvēscō, _get alive_ vīvēscere (re-vīxī) ----

In composition, also #re-vīvīscō#, #re-vīvīscere#.

960. (_c._) With the present stem in #-t{o|e-}# (835).

flectō, _turn_ flectere flexī flexus
nectō, _bind together_ nectere nexī, nexuī nexus

Perfect system rare: #nexit# (Lucil., Acc.); #nexuit#, #ad-nexuerant# (Sall.).

pectō, _comb_ pectere pexī pexus
once

961. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

quatiō, _shake_ quatere -cussī quassus

Compounds drop the #a# (111, _a_): as, #in-cutiō#, #in-cutere#, #in-cussī#, #in-cussus#.

[Errata:
954 ... nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
final . missing
956 ... #spiciunt# (Cato), #spēxit# (Naev., Enn.).
text unchanged: error for spexit?]

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.

962. (2 _a_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-v-#, preceded by a long vowel of the root (869), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

963. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

terō, _rub_ terere trīvī trītus

Perfect infinitive once in pentameter verse (823) #at-teruisse# (Tib.).

964. (_b._) With the present stem in #-n{o|e-}# (833).

cernō, _sift_, cernere crēvī, certus, -crētus
_separate_, _see_ _decided_
linō, _besmear_ linere lēvī, litus
rarely līvī

In the present system some forms in #-īre# are used by late writers.

sinō, _leave_, _let_ sinere sīvī situs

Perfect system forms of #sinō# and #dē-sinō# in #-v-# are: #sīvī# (Plaut., Ter., Cic.); #dē-sīvit# (Sen.), #sīvistis# (Cic.), once each; #sīverīs# (Plaut., Cato), #dē-sīverit# (Cato, Gell.), #sīverint# (Plaut., Curt.), #sīvisset# (Cic., Liv.). Much oftener without #-v-#: as, #dē-siī# (Sen.), #sīstī# (Plaut., Cic.); #dē-sīstī# often, #siit# once (Ter.), #dē-siit# (Varr., Sen., &c.), #dē-sīt# (Mart., &c.), #dē-siimus# (Lent.), #dē-sīmus# (893), #sīstis#; #dē-siērunt# (Cic., Liv.); #dē-sierat#, #dē-sierit# (Cic.); #dē-sīssem#, &c., #sīsset#, #sīssent#, #dē-sīsse#. For #sīrīs#, &c., see 893; for #pōnō#, 972.

spernō, _spurn_ spernere sprēvī sprētus
sternō, _strew_ sternere strāvī strātus

965. (_c._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

crēscō, _grow_ crēscer crēv crētus
nōscō, _get to know_ nōscere nōvī nōtus
adjective

Compounds: #ī-gnōscō#, #ī-gnōvī#, #ī-gnōtum#; #ā-gnōscō#, #ā-gnōvī#, #ā-gnitus#; #cō-gnōscō#, #cō-gnōvī#, #cō-gnitus#; #dī-nōscō#, #dī-nōvī#, rarely #dī-gnōscō#, #dī-gnōvī#, #----#; #inter-nōscō#, #inter-nōvī#, #----#. Old passive infinitive GNOSCIER (inscr. 186 B.C.).

pāscō, _feed_ pāscere pāvī pāstus
scīscō, _enact_ scīscere scīvī scītus

966. (2_b_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-v-#, preceded by the long vowel of a presumed denominative stem (870), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

967. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

petō, _aim at_ petere petīvī petītus

In the perfect, sometimes #petiī# (Cic., Ov., Liv., Val. Fl., Plin. _Ep._), PETIEI (inscr.), #petī# late (Sen., Stat.); #petiit# (Cic., Hor., Tac., Suet.), #petīt# (Verg., Ov., Phaedr., Sen., Luc., Suet.), #petiisse# (Verg., Hor., Ov., Val. Fl., Stat.).

quaerō, _inquire_ quaerere quaesīvī quaesītus

Compounds sometimes retain #ae# in old Latin, but usually have #ī# for #ae# throughout: as, #con-quīrō#, #con-quīrere#, &c.

968. (_b._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

ab-olēscō, _vanish away_ ab-olēscere ab-olēvī ----
ad-olēscō, _grow up_ ad-olēscere ad-olēvī ad-ultus
con-cupīscō, _hanker for_ con-cupīscere con-cupīvī con-cupītus
-dormīscō, _fall asleep_ -dormīscere -dormīvī ----
ex-olēscō, _grow out_ ex-olēscere ex-olēvī ex-olētus
in-veterāscō, _get set_ in-veterāscere in-veterāvī ----
obs-olēscō, obs-olēscere obs-olēvī obs-olētus
_get worn out_ adj.
quiēscō, _get still_ quiēscere quiēvī quiētus
adjective
re-sipīscō, _come to_ re-sipīscere re-sipīvī ----
suēscō, _get used_ suēscere suēvī suētus
vesperāscit, _gets dusk_ vesperāscere vesperāvit ----

969. (_c._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

cupiō, _want_ cupere cupīvī cupītus

Once with a form in #-īre# (791), #cupīret# (Lucr.).

sapiō, _have a smack_ sapere sapīvī ----

Compounds have #i# for #a#: as, #re-sipiō#, &c.

970. (_d._) With the present stem in #-ss{o|e-}# (375).

ar-cēssō, _send for_ ar-cēssere ar-cēssīvī ar-cēssītus

Sometimes #ac-cersō#, &c.; infinitive rarely #ar-cēssīrī# or #ac-cersīrī#.

capēssō, _undertake_ capēssere capēssīvī ----
facēssō, _do_, _make off_ facēssere facēssīvī facēssītus

Perfect system rare: #facēssierīs# or #facēsserīs# (Cic.), #facēssīsset# (Tac.).

in-cēssō, _attack_ in-cēssere in-cēssīvī ----
lacēssō, _provoke_ lacēssere lacēssīvī lacēssītus

[Erratum:
967 ... (Verg., Ov., Phaedr., Sen., Luc., Suet.)
Verg, Ov.,]

PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.

971. (3.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (873), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#; in some participles #-tus# is preceded by a short #i#, thus, #-itus# (910):

972. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

alō, _bring up_ alere aluī altus,
rarely alitus
colō, _till_, colere coluī cultus
_stay round_, _court_
con-cinō, _chime with_ con-cinere con-cinuī ----

A compound of #canō# (924, 823). See also #oc-cinō# and #prae-cinō#.

cōn-sulō, _consult_ cōn-sulere cōn-suluī cōn-sultus
depsō, _knead_ depsere depsuī depstus
fremō, _growl_ fremere fremuī ----
gemō, _groan_ gemere gemuī ----
molō, _grind_ molere moluī molitus
oc-cinō, _sing ominously_ oc-cinere oc-cinuī ----

Once with reduplication, #oc-cecinerit# (Liv.).

oc-culō, _hide_ oc-culere oc-culuī oc-cultus
pīsō, pīnsō, _bray_ pīsere, pīnsere pīnsuī, pīsīvī pistus

Once (818, 847) #pīnsībant# (Enn.). Perfect once #pīnsuī# (Pomp.), once (823, 893) #pīsiērunt# (Varr.). Perfect participle often #pīnsītus# (Col.), once #pīnsus# (Vitr.).

pōnō, _place_ pōnere po-suī po-situs

A compound of #po-# and #sinō# (964). Perfect in old Latin #po-sīvī# (893); #po-suī# is first used by Ennius (875). Perfect participle in verse sometimes, #po-stus#, #-po-stus#; inf. #inposīsse# (Plaut.).

prae-cinō, _play before_ prae-cinere prae-cinuī ----
serō, _string_ serere -seruī sertus
stertō, _snore_ stertere (dē-stertuī) ----
strepō, _make a racket_ strepere strepuī ----
texō, _weave_ texere texuī textus
tremō, _quake_ tremere tremuī ----
vomō, _throw up_ vomere vomuī ----

973. (_b._) With reduplication and #{-o|e-}# in the present stem (829).

gignō, _beget_ gignere genuī genitus

Present sometimes also without reduplication, #genit#, &c. (Varr., Lucr.).

974. (_c._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

ac-cumbō, _lie by_ ac-cumbere ac-cubuī ac-cubitus

So also #in-cumbō#; #dis-cumbō# has #dis-cubuī#, #dis-cubitum#. Compounds with #dē#, #ob#, #prō#, #re-#, and #sub#, have #-cubuī#, #----#.

975. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

ē-liciō, _coax out_ ē-licere ē-licuī ē-licitus
rapiō, _seize_ rapere rapuī raptus

Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present and perfect systems, and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #ē-ripiō#, #ē-ripere#, #ē-ripuī#, #ē-reptus#. Old Latin has #u# in #dē-rupier# and in #sub-rupiō#, #sub-rupere#, #sub-rupuī#, #sub-ruptus#; shortened forms are: #surpuit#, #surpuerit# (Plaut.), #surpit# (Plaut. prol.), #surpere# (Lucr.), #surpite#, #surpuerat# (Hor.). For #sub-repsit# (Plaut.), see 887.

976. (_e._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (835); for #com-pēscuī#, see 855.

acēscō, _get sour_ acēscere -acuī ----
alēscō, _grow up_ alēscere (co-aluī) (co-alitus)
ārēscō, _dry up_ ārēscere -āruī ----
calēscō, _get warm_ calēscere -caluī ----
candēscō, _get white_ candēscere -canduī ----
cānēscō, _get grey_ cānēscere cānuī ----
clārēscō, _get bright_ clārēscere clāruī ----
com-pescō, _check_ com-pescere com-pescuī ----
con-ticēscō, con-ticēscere con-ticuī ----
_get all still_

Also in the present system, #con-ticīscō#, #con-ticīscere#, &c.

crēbrēscō, _get common_ crēbrēscere -crēbruī ----
crūdēscō, _wax bad_ crūdēscere (re-crūduī) ----
-dolēscō, _get pained_ -dolēscere -doluī ----
dūrēscō, _get hard_ dūrēscere dūruī ----
ē-vīlēscō, _get cheap_ ē-vīlēscere ē-vīluī ----
fervēscō, _boil up_ fervēscere -ferbuī, -fervī ----
flōrēscō, _blossom out_ flōrēscere -flōruī ----
horrēscō, _bristle up_ horrēscere -horruī ----
languēscō, _get weak_ languēscere languī ----
latēscō, _hide away_ latēscere -lituī ----
liquēscō, _melt_ liquēscere (dē-licuī) ----
madēscō, _get moist_ madēscere maduī ----
marcēscō, _pine away_ marcēscere (ē-marcuī) ----
mātūrēscō, _ripen_ mātūrēscere mātūruī ----
nigrēscō, _get black_ nigrēscere nigruī ----
nōtēscō, _get known_ nōtēscere nōtuī ----
ob-mūtēscō, _get still_ ob-mūtēscere ob-mūtuī ----
ob-surdēscō, _get deaf_ ob-surdēscere ob-surduī ----
oc-callēscō, _get hard_ oc-callēscere oc-calluī ----
pallēscō, _grow pale_ pallēscere palluī ----
pūtēscō, _get soaked_ pūtēscere pūtuī ----
rigēscō, _stiffen up_ rigēscere riguī ----
rubēscō, _redden_ rubēscere rubuī ----
sānēscō, _get well_ sānēscere -sānuī ----
senēscō, _grow old_ senēscere -senuī ----
stupēscō, _get dazed_ stupēscere (ob-stupuī) ----

Also #op-stipēscō# or #ob-stipēscō#, #op-stipuī# or #ob-stipuī#.

tābēscō, _waste away_ tābēscere tābuī ----
tepēscō, _get lukewarm_ tepēscere tepuī ----
-timēscō, _get scared_ -timēscere -timuī ----
torpēscō, _get numb_ torpēscere torpuī ----
tremēscō, _quake_ tremēscere (con-tremuī) ----

Also in the present system, #con-tremīscō#, #con-tremīscere#, &c.

tumēscō, _swell up_ tumēscere -tumuī ----
valēscō, _get strong_ valēscere -valuī ----
vānēscō, _wane_ vānēscere (ē-vānuī) ----

[Errata:
972. (_a._)
. invisible
Once (818, 847) #pīnsībant#
pīnsībart
976 ... for #com-pēscuī#, see 855.
final . missing]

DEPONENTS IN #-ī#.

977. (1.) The following deponents in #-ī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#, except #morior#, which has #-tuus#:

978. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

fruor, _enjoy_ fruī frūctus
loquor, _speak_ loquī locūtus
queror, _complain_ querī questus
sequor, _follow_ sequī secūtus

979. (_b._) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).

fungor, _get quit_ fungī fūnctus

980. (_c._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

apīscor, _lay hold of_ apīscī aptus

Compounds have #i# and #e# for #a#: as, #ad-ipīscor#, #ad-ipīscī#, #ad-eptus#.

com-minīscor, _devise_ com-minīscī com-mentus
ex-pergīscor, _stretch myself_, ex-pergīscī ex-per-rēctus
_wake_

Perfect participle rarely #ex-pergitus# (Lucil., Lucr.).

nancīscor, _get_ nancīscī nactus, nānctus
nāscor, _am born_ nāscī nātus
ob-līvīscor, _forget_ ob-līvīscī ob-lītus
pacīscor, _bargain_ pacīscī pactus

Compounds: #dē-pecīscor#, #dē-pecīscī#, #dē-pectus#; #com-pectus#.

pro-ficīscor, _start on_ pro-ficīscī pro-fectus
ulcīscor, _avenge_ ulcīscī ultus

981. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

morior, _die_ morī mortuus
orior, _rise_ orīrī ortus
potior, _master_ potīrī potītus

For forms in #-īrī# of these three verbs, see 791. For #potīrī#, twice #potī# (Enn., Pac.).

982. (2.) The following deponents in #-ī# have the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

983. (_a._) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).

lābor, _tumble down_ lābī lapsus
nītor, _rest on_ nītī nīsus, nīxus
ūtor, _use_ ūtī ūsus

984. (_b._) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).

dē-fetīscor, _get tired out_ dē-fetīscī dē-fessus

985. (_c._) With the present stem in #-t{o|e-}# (835).

am-plector, _hug round_ am-plectī am-plexus
com-plector, _hug up_ com-plectī com-plexus

986. (_d._) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).

gradior, _step_ gradī gressus
patior, _suffer_ patī passus

Compounds of these two verbs have #e# for #a#: as, #ad-gredior#, #per-petior#, #per-pessus#; for forms of #-gredior# in #-īrī#, see 791.

[Erratum:
978. (_a_.)
(_a_).]

II. DENOMINATIVE VERBS.

987. Most verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre# (or in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, and #-īrī#), are denominatives.

988. Some primitives from vowel roots have the form of denominatives in the present system, or throughout; and some verbs with a denominative present system have the perfect and perfect participle formed directly from a root.

(1.) VERBS IN #-āre#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

989. (1.) The following verb in #-āre# has a reduplicated perfect stem (859):

stō, _stand_ stāre stetī ----

For #-stitī#, see 860. The compound #prae-stō# has rarely the perfect participle #prae-stātus# (Brut., Plin.), and #prae-stitus# (Liv.).

990. (2.) The following verbs in #-āre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

iuvō, _help_ iuvāre iūvī iūtus
once

In the perfect system, #iuverint#, #adiuverō#, and #adiuverit# occur once each in Catull., Enn., Plaut., and Ter.; see 891. Perfect participle usual only in the compound #ad-iūtus#.

lavō, _bathe_ lavāre lāvī lautus

Forms in #-ere# are very common in the present tense (820): #lavis# (Plaut., Hor.), #lavit# (Plaut., Lucr., Catull., Verg., Hor.), #lavimus# (Hor.), #lavitur# (Val. Fl.), #lavitō# (Cato), #lavere# often, #lavī# (Pomp.). Perfect participle often #lōtus# in writers of the empire; supine, #lautum#, #lavātum#.

[Erratum:
990 ... once each in Catull., Enn., Plaut., and Ter.;
and Ter;]

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.

991. (1_a_.) Two verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #-ā-# of the root:

flō, _blow_ flāre flāvī flātus
nō, _swim_ nāre nāvī ----

992. (1_b_.) Most verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a form of the present stem in long #-ā-#: as,

laudō, _praise_ laudāre laudāvī laudātus
līberō, _free_ līberāre līberāvī līberātus
nōminō, _name_ nōmināre nōmināvī nōminātus
spērō, _hope_ spērāre spērāvī spērātus

PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.

993. (2.) The following verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-u# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#; in some participles, #-tus# is preceded by a short #i#, thus, #-itus# (910):

crepō, _rattle_ crepāre crepuī (in-crepitus)

Forms of the perfect system in #-v-# (823) are: #in-crepāvit# (Plaut.), #dis-crepāvit# (Varr.), #in-crepārit# (Suet.).

cubō, _lie_ cubāre cubuī ----

Forms of the perfect system in #-v-# (823) are: #ex-cubāverant# (Caes.), #cubāris# (Prop.), #in-cubāvēre# (Plin.), #cubāsse# (Quintil.). Compound perfect participle #in-cubitus# (Plin.).

domō, _tame_ domāre domuī domitus
ē-necō, _murder_ ē-necāre ē-necuī ē-nectus

The simple verb has #necāvī#, #necātus#; twice #necuit# (Enn., Phaedr.). #ē-necō# sometimes has #i# for #e# in the present and perfect system; once (823) #ē-nicāvit#, and once (887) #ē-nicāssō# (Plaut.); perfect participle also #ē-necātus# (Plin.).

fricō, _rub down_ fricāre fricuī frictus

Perfect participle also #fricātus# (Vitr.), #cōn-fricātus# (Varr., Plin.), #dē-fricātus# (Catull., Col., Plin.), #īn-fricātus# (Col., Plin.), #per-fricātus# (Vitr., Plin.).

micō, _quiver_ micāre micuī ----

So the compounds; except #dī-micō#, #dī-micāvī#, #dī-micātum#; twice in pentameter verse (823) #dī-micuisse# (Ov.).

-plicō, _fold_ -plicāre -plicuī -plicitus

A few forms of the present system of the simple verb occur. In the perfect and perfect participle usually #-plicāvī#, #-plicātus#; but sometimes #ap-plicuī# (Cic. once, Tib., Ov., Liv., Sen., &c.); #com-plicuī# (Sen.), #ex-plicuī# (Verg., Hor., Liv., Sen., &c.), #im-plicuī# (Verg., Tib., Ov., Sen., &c.); #ap-plicitus# (Col., Quintil., Plin. _Ep._), #ex-plicitus# (Caes., Sen., Plin. _Ep._), #im-plicitus# (Plaut., Cic., Liv.); once #re-plictus# (Stat.).

secō, _cut_ secāre secuī sectus

The compound with #ex# sometimes has #i# for #e#; once (823) #exicāveris# (Cato).

sonō, _sound_ sonāre sonuī ----

Also (820) #sonit#, #sonunt# (Enn., Acc.), #sonere# (Acc., Lucr.); #re-sonunt# (Enn.). Perfect (823) #re-sonārint# (Hor.), #re-sonāvit# (Man.), #sonātūrus# (Hor.).

tonō, _thunder_ tonāre tonuī (at-tonitus)

Once (820) #tonimus# (Varr.). Perfect participle once #in-tonātus# (Hor.).

vetō, _forbid_ vetāre vetuī vetitus

In old Latin, #votō#, &c. (143). Perfect once (823) #vetāvit# (Pers.).

[Erratum:
993 ... #re-sonāvit# (Man.), #sonātūrus# (Hor.).
final . missing]

DEPONENTS IN #-ārī#.

994. There are many deponents in #-ārī#, with the perfect participle in #-ātus#: as,

hortor, _exhort_ hortārī hortātus

For the primitive #fārī#, _speak_, and compounds, see the dictionary.

(2.) VERBS IN #-ēre#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

995. (1.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a reduplicated perfect stem (859), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):

mordeō, _bite_ mordēre momordī morsus

The compound #prae-mordeō# has once (823) #prae-morsisset# (Plaut.).

pendeō, _am hung_ pendēre pependī ----

The compound #prō-pendeō# has the perfect participle #prō-pēnsus#.

spondeō, _covenant_ spondēre spopondī spōnsus

For #dē-spondī# and #re-spondī#, see 860; rarely #dē-spopondī# (Plaut.).

tondeō, _shear_ tondēre -totondī, -tondī tōnsus

For #dē-tondunt# (Varr.), see 821. Perfect only in the compounds #at-tondī# and #dē-tondī# (860); once #dē-totonderat# (Varr.), and perhaps #dē-totondit# (Enn.).

996. (2_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

caveō, _look out_ cavēre cāvī cautus
faveō, _am friendly_ favēre fāvī ----
foveō, _warm_, _cherish_ fovēre fōvī fōtus
moveō, _move_ movēre mōvī mōtus

For short forms in the perfect system, particularly in compounds, see 891.

voveō, _vow_ vovēre vōvī vōtus

997. (2_b_.) Three verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

sedeō, _sit_ sedēre sēdī -sessus

Real compounds have #i# for #e# in the present system: as, #ob-sideō#, &c. Compounds with #dis-#, #prae#, and #re-# have no perfect participle.

strīdeō, _grate_ strīdēre strīdī ----

Often with a present system in #-ere# (821).

videō, _see_ vidēre vīdī vīsus

998. (3.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem ending in two consonants (866), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):

ferveō, _boil_ fervēre fervī, ferbuī ----

Sometimes with forms in #-ere# (821) in verse. The perfect system is rare.

prandeō, _lunch_ prandēre prandī prānsus

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.

999. (1_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

augeō, _increase_ augēre auxī auctus
in-dulgeō, _am kind_ in-dulgēre in-dulsī ----
lūceō, _beam_ lūcēre lūxī ----
lūgeō, _mourn_ lūgēre lūxī ----
torqueō, _twist_ torquēre torsī tortus

1000. (1_b_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):

algeō, _feel cold_ algēre alsī ----
ardeō, _blaze_ ardēre arsī ----
cō-nīveō, _wink and blink_ cō-nīvēre cō-nīxī, cō-nīvī ----

The perfects #cō-nīxī# (Turp.), #cō-nīvī# (Crass.), occur once each.

fulgeō, _flash_ fulgēre fulsī ----

Forms of the present in #-ere# (821) occur in verse: #fulgit# (Pomp., Lucil., Lucr.), #fulgere# (Pac., Acc., Lucil., Lucr., Verg.); #ef-fulgere# (Verg., Claud.).

haereō, _stick_ haerēre haesī ----
iubeō, _order_ iubēre iussī iussus

In old Latin, IOVBEO, after IOVSI (IVSI); later #iussī#, #iussus#, after #iubeō#.

maneō, _stay_ manēre mānsī mānsum
mulceō, _stroke_ mulcēre mulsī mulsus
adjective

Perfect participle #per-mulsus# rare (Cornif., Varr.).

mulgeō, _milk_ mulgēre mulsī mulsus once
rīdeō, _laugh_ rīdēre rīsī -rīsus
suādeō, _advise_ suādēre suāsī suāsus
tergeō, _wipe_ tergēre tersī tersus

For forms in #-ere# in the present, as #tergit#, &c. (Varr., Prop., Stat., Col.), see 821.

turgeō, _am swelling_ turgēre tursī once ----

Of the perfect system, #turserat# (Enn.).

urgeō, _push_ urgēre ursī ----

[Erratum:
999 ... lūgeō, _mourn_
lūgeo]

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.

1001. (1_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #-ē-# of the root:

dē-leō, _wipe out_ dē-lēre dē-lēvī dē-lētus
fleō, _weep_ flēre flēvī flētus
neō, _spin_ nēre nēvī ----

For #neunt# (Tib.), see 837.

-pleō, _fill_ -plēre -plēvī -plētus

1002. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), preceded by long #-ī-#, and the perfect participle in #-tus#, preceded by short #-i-# of the root:

cieō, _set a going_ ciēre cīvī citus

Somewhat defective; also with a form in #-īre# (821). For the perfect participle of compounds, see 919.

1003. (1_c_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-itus# (910):

ab-oleō, _destroy_ ab-olēre ab-olēvī ab-olitus

PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.

1004. (2_a_.) Most verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#, which is usually preceded by a short #i# (910): as,

doceō, _teach_ docēre docuī doctus
habeō, _have_ habēre habuī habitus

So also #post-habeō#; other compounds have #i# for #a#: as, #pro-hibeō#, #pro-hibēre#, #pro-hibuī#, #pro-hibitus#; twice contracted, #prōbet#, #prōbeat# (Lucr.). Compounds with #dē# and #prae# are regularly contracted, #dēbeō#, #praebeō#, &c.: but in Plautus once #de-hibuistī#, and regularly #prae-hibeō#, &c., throughout.

mereō, _earn_ merēre meruī meritus

Often deponent (800): #mereor#, #merērī#, #meritus#.

misceō, _mix_ miscēre miscuī mixtus, mistus

The present stem is an extension of the suffix #-sc{o|e-}# (834); #-sc-# of the present runs over into the perfect.

moneō, _advise_ monēre monuī monitus
placeō, _am pleasing_ placēre placuī placitus

So the compounds #com-placeō# and #per-placeō#; #dis-pliceō# has #i# for #a# throughout.

taceō, _hold my tongue_ tacēre tacuī tacitus
adjective

The compound #re-ticeō# has #i# for #a# and no perfect participle.

teneō, _hold_ tenēre tenuī -tentus

Compounds have #i# for #e# in the present and perfect: as, #dē-tineō#, #dē-tinuī#, #dē-tentus#.

terreō, _scare_ terrēre terruī territus
torreō, _roast_ torrēre torruī tostus

1005. (2_b_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

cēnseō, _count_, _rate_ cēnsēre cēnsuī cēnsus

1006. (3.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and no perfect participle (907):

arceō, _check_ arcēre arcuī ----

The compounds #co-erceō# and #ex-erceō# have #e# for #a#, and perfect participles #co-ercitus# and #ex-ercitus#.

caleō, _am warm_ calēre caluī ----
candeō, _glow white_ candēre canduī ----
careō, _have not_ carēre caruī ----
doleō, _ache_ dolēre doluī ----
egeō, _need_ egēre eguī ----

The compound #ind-igeō#, #ind-igēre#, #ind-iguī#, #----#, has #i# for #e#.

ē-mineō, _stick out_ ē-minēre ē-minuī ----
flōreō, _bloom_ flōrēre flōruī ----
horreō, _bristle up_ horrēre horruī ----
iaceō, _lie_ iacēre iacuī ----
lateō, _lie hid_ latēre latuī ----
liceō, _am rated_ licēre licuī ----
liqueō, _am melted_ liquēre licuī ----
madeō, _am soaked_ madēre maduī ----
niteō, _shine_ nitēre nituī ----
noceō, _am hurtful_ nocēre nocuī ----
oleō, _smell_ olēre oluī ----

For forms in #-ere# in the present system, see 821.

palleō, _look pale_ pallēre palluī ----
pāreō, _wait on_, _am obedient_ pārēre pāruī ----
pateō, _am open_ patēre patuī ----
rigeō, _am stiff_ rigēre riguī ----
sileō, _am silent_ silēre siluī ----
sorbeō, _suck up_ sorbēre sorbuī ----

The perfect system of the simple verb is rare: #sorbuit#, #sorbuerint# (Plin.); also (823) #sorpsit# (Val. Max.); #ab-sorbeō# and #ex-sorbeō# have #-sorbuī#; but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.), #ex-sorpsī# (Sen.).

studeō, _am eager_ studēre studuī ----
stupeō, _am dazed_ stupēre stupuī ----
timeō, _fear_ timēre timuī ----
valeō, _am strong_ valēre valuī ----
vigeō, _feel strong_ vigēre viguī ----

1007. For #audeō#, #gaudeō#, and #soleō#, see 801; for #lubet# or #libet#, #licet#, #miseret#, #oportet#, #paenitet#, #piget#, #pudet#, #taedet#, see 815 and 816.

[Errata:
1004 ... but in Plautus once #de-hibuistī#
printed as shown: expected form #dē-hibuistī#
1006 ... but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.)
macron invisible]

DEPONENTS IN #-ērī#.

1008. (1_a_.) The following deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-tus#:

reor, _reckon_, _think_ rērī ratus

1009. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-ērī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#, which is preceded by a short #i# (910):

liceor, _bid_ licērī licitus
misereor, _pity_ miserērī miseritus

Perfect participle also #misertus# (Val. Max., Sen., Curt.). Active forms are: #miserēte#, #miserērent# (Enn.), #misereās# (Ter.), #miseret# (Lucr.), #miserent# (Val. Fl.). Passive forms are sometimes used impersonally (724): as, #miserētur#, &c.

tueor, _look to_, _protect_ tuērī tuitus late

Forms in #-ī# also occur in verse (821). As perfect participle, generally #tūtātus#.

vereor, _am awed at_ verērī veritus

1010. (2.) One deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

fateor, _confess_ fatērī fassus

Compounds have #i# and #e# for #a#: as, #cōn-fiteor#, #cōn-fessus#.

(3.) VERBS IN #-īre#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

1011. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has a reduplicated perfect stem (861), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

re-periō, _find_ re-perīre re-pperī re-pertus

1012. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has no reduplication in the perfect stem, and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

com-periō, _find out_ com-perīre com-perī com-pertus

As deponent: #com-periar# (Ter.), #com-perior# (Sall., Tac.).

1013. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

veniō, _come_ venīre vēnī ventum, -ventus

For #ē-venunt#, #ē-venat#, #ē-venant#, #ad-venat#, #per-venat#, see 822.

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.

1014. (1.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

farciō, _stuff_ farcīre farsī fartus

Compounds have usually #e# for #a# throughout.

fulciō, _prop_ fulcīre fulsī fultus
hauriō, _drain_ haurīre hausī haustus

A perfect subjunctive #haurierint# is quoted from Varro (823).

saepiō, _hedge in_ saepīre saepsī saeptus
sanciō, _hallow_ sancīre sānxī sānctus
adjective

Perfect participle rarely #sancītus# (Lucr., Liv.). A pluperfect #sancierat# is quoted from Pomponius Secundus (823).

sarciō, _patch_ sarcīre sarsī sartus
vinciō, _bind_ vincīre vīnxī vīnctus

1015. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

sentiō, _feel_ sentīre sēnsī sēnsus

The compound with #ad# is generally deponent (800).

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.

1016. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #ī# of the root:

sciō, _know_ scīre scīvī scītus

1017. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

sepeliō, _bury_ sepelīre sepelīvī sepultus

1018. (1_c_.) Most verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a form of the present stem in long #-ī-#: as,

audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī audītus

PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.

1019. (2.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

am-iciō, _don_ am-icīre am-icuī am-ictus

Perfect rare: once #am-icuī# (Brut.), once #am-ixī# (Varr.).

ap-eriō, _open_ ap-erīre ap-eruī ap-ertus
op-eriō, _cover over_ op-erīre op-eruī op-ertus
saliō, _leap_ salīre saluī ----

Compounds have #i# for #a# throughout: as, #īn-siliō#. A perfect system in #-v-# (823, 893), as #ex-silīvī#, occurs in late writers (Col., Sen., Plin., &c.).

DEPONENTS IN #-īrī#.

1020. (1_a_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#:

ex-perior, _try_ ex-perīrī ex-pertus
op-perior, _wait for_ op-perīrī op-pertus

Perfect participle once #op-perītus# (Plaut.).

1021. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-ītus#:

blandior, _am agreeable_ blandīrī blandītus
largior, _shower_ largīrī largītus
mentior, _tell lies_ mentīrī mentītus
mōlior, _work hard_ mōlīrī mōlītus
partior, _share_ partīrī partītus
sortior, _draw lots_ sortīrī sortītus

1022. (2.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

mētior, _measure_ mētīrī mēnsus
ōrdior, _begin_ ōrdīrī ōrsus

PART SECOND [decoration] SENTENCES

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS.

1023. A SENTENCE is a thought expressed by means of a verb. The SUBJECT is that which is spoken of. The PREDICATE is that which is said of the subject.

1024. A SIMPLE SENTENCE is one which has only one subject and one predicate.

Thus, #Rhodanus fluit#, _the Rhone flows_, is a simple sentence: the subject is #Rhodanus# and the predicate is #fluit#.

1025. The sentence may be _declarative_, stating a fact, _exclamatory_, crying out about something, _interrogative_, asking a question, or _imperative_, giving a command.

THE SUBJECT.

1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words having the value of a substantive.

1027. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

1028. The subject may be expressed, or may be merely indicated by the person ending.

1029. (1.) With the first or the second person, the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun (#ego# #tū#, #nōs# #vōs#) only when somewhat emphatic, or in an indignant question. Otherwise the verb of the first or second person is not attended by a personal pronoun: as, #eram#, _I was_, #erās#, _thou wert_.

1030. The subject is regularly omitted when it is general and indefinite, in the first person plural; as, #intellegimus#, _we understand_; and second person singular, as: #putārēs#, _you_, or _anybody would have thought_.

1031. The subject of the first or second person is sometimes a substantive, contrary to the English idiom: as, #Hannibal petō pācem#, _I Hannibal am suing for peace_. #pars spectātōrum scīs#, _a part of you spectators knows_. #exoriāre aliquis nostrīs ex ossibus ultor#, _from out our bones mayst some avenger spring_. #trecentī coniūrāvimus#, _three hundred of us have sworn an oath together_.

1032. (2.) With the third person the subject is regularly expressed, unless the general ‘he she it,’ or ‘they’ implied in the person ending is definite enough.

1033. The third person plural often refers to people in general, particularly of verbs meaning _say_, _name_ or _call_, _think_, and, with #volgō# added, of other verbs also: as, #ferunt#, _they say_, _people say_, or _the world says_. The singular verb #inquit#, is rarely used in the sense of _says somebody_, _it will be said_, or _quotha_.

1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called _Impersonal_. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,

(_a._) #lūcet#, _it is light_, #lūcēscit#, _it is getting light_; #pluit#, _it rains_, #fulget#, _it lightens_, #tonat#, _it thunders_. (_b._) #miseret#, _it moves to pity_, #paenitet#, _it repents_, #piget#, _it grieves_, #pudet#, _it puts to shame_, #taedet#, _it bores_. (_c._) #bene erat#, _it went well_; #pugnātur#, _there is fighting_, #pugnātum est#, _there was fighting_. See also 816.

THE PREDICATE.

1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeterminate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the sense.

Verbs of indeterminate meaning are such as mean _am_ (something), _become_, _remain_, _seem_, _am thought_, _am called_ or _named_, _am chosen_.

1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So particularly such everyday verbs as mean _am_, _do_, _say_, _come_, and _go_, in proverbs and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or description: as,

#quot hominēs, tot sententiae#, sc. #sunt#, _as many men, so many minds_. #omnia praeclāra rāra#, sc. #sunt#, _all that’s very fair is rare_. #mortuus Cūmīs#, sc. #est#, _he died at Cumae_. #bene mihī̆#, sc. #sit#, _be it well with me_, i.e. _a health to me_. #haec hāctenus#, sc. #dīcam#, _thus much only_, or _no more of this_.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

1037. The parts of the simple sentence may be enlarged by additions. The commonest enlargements of the subject and of the predicate are the following.

1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of attributes, appositives, or objects.

1039. (1.) An ATTRIBUTE is an essential addition to a substantive, uniting with it as one idea. The attribute may be:

1040. (_a._) Genitive of a substantive of different meaning, denoting the agent, possessor, or the like: as, #metus hostium#, _fear of the enemy_, i.e. which they feel. #hostium castra#, _camp of the enemy_.

1041. (_b._) Genitive or ablative of a substantive with an adjective in agreement: as, #puer sēdecim annōrum#, _a boy of sixteen years_; #bovēs mīrā speciē#, _kine of wondrous beauty_.

1042. (_c._) A noun in the same case, either an adjective or participle, or else a substantive used adjectively: as, #pugna Cannēnsis#, _the battle of Cannae_; #cīvitātēs victae#, _the conquered communities_; #victor Rōmulus rēx#, _victorious king Romulus_.

1043. (_d._) A substantive in the accusative or ablative with a preposition: as, #pugna ad Cannās#, _the battle near Cannae_. #vir sine metū#, _a man without fear_ (1427).

1044. An attribute is rarely attached immediately to a proper name: as, #fortem Gyān#, _Gyas the brave_. #Q. Lūcānius, eiusdem ōrdinis#, _Lucanius, of the same rank_. It is much oftener attached to a general word in apposition with the proper name: as, #vir clārissimus, M. Crassus#, _the illustrious Crassus_.

1045. (2.) An APPOSITIVE is a separate substantive added as an explanation to another substantive, and in the same case, but not like the attribute uniting with it as one idea: as,

#avītum malum, rēgnī cupīdō#, _the ancestral curse, ambition for a crown_. #Hamilcar, Mārs alter#, _Hamilcar, a second Mars_. #Cornēlia, māter Gracchōrum#, _Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi_. #Teutomatus, Ollivicōnis fīlius, rēx Nitiobrogum#, _Teutomatus, the son of Ollivico, the king of the Nitiobroges_.

1046. (3.) The OBJECT of a substantive is another substantive of different meaning in the genitive, denoting that on which action is exerted: as,

#metus hostium#, _fear of the enemy_, i.e. which is felt towards them. #vēnditiō bonōrum#, _sale of the goods_.

1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.

1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.

1049. (1.) The ACCUSATIVE denotes the object of the verb; also extent, duration, and aim of motion. See 1124.

1050. (2.) The DATIVE denotes that for or to which something is or is done. See 1175.

1051. (3.) A predicate noun, either substantive or adjective, denoting ‘office, time, age, order, condition,’ or the like, is often added to other verbs besides those of indeterminate meaning (1035): as,

#Iūnius aedem dictātor dēdicāvit#, _Junius dedicated a temple in his capacity as dictator_, not _Junius the dictator_. #litterās Graecās senex didicī#, _I learned Greek when I was an old man_. #prīnceps in proelium ībat, ultimus excēdēbat#, _he was always the first to go into battle, the last to come out_. For the predicative dative of the substantive, see 1219.

1052. In like manner a noun may be added as a predicate in agreement with a substantive in any oblique case: as,

#sē incolumēs recipiunt#, _they come back safe_. #ante mē cōnsulem#, _before my consulship_. #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, _Dolabella having been voted an enemy_. #nātūrā duce#, _with nature as a guide_.

1053. (4.) An ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT is either an oblique case of a noun, often with a preposition, or an adverb denoting ‘place, time, extent, degree, manner, cause,’ or ‘circumstances’ generally: as,

#silentiō proficīscitur#, _he marches in silence_. #in eō flūmine pōns erat#, _over that river there was a bridge_.

1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an adverb.

[Erratum:
1040a ... #hostium castra#, _camp of the enemy_.
. missing]

COMBINATION OF SENTENCES.

1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two different ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate; or II. Subordinate.

Thus, in _he died and we lived_, the two sentences are coordinate, that is, of equal rank. But in _he died that we might live_, the sentence beginning with _that_ is subordinate. In either combination the separate sentences are often called _Clauses_ or _Members_, in contradistinction to the more comprehensive sentence of which they are parts.

I. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

1056. A COMPOUND SENTENCE is one which consists of two or more coordinate simple sentences: as,