Chapter LXVII: Section 4: prescribes the examination of specimens of food and (1)

drugs in the Bureau of Chemistry, and section 5 relates to
prosecutions for violation of the Act. Sections 6, 7, and 8
define adulteration and misbranding, as follows:

"Section 6. That the term ‘drug,’ as used in this Act, shall
include all medicines and preparations recognized in the
United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary for internal
or external use, and any substance or mixture of substances
intended to be used for the cure, mitigation, or prevention of
disease of either man or other animals. The term ‘food,’ as
used herein, shall include all articles used for food, drink,
confectionery, or condiment by man or other animals, whether
simple, mixed, or compound.

"Section 7. That for the purposes of this Act an article shall
be deemed to be adulterated:

"In case of drugs:

"First. If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognized
in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it
differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity, as
determined by the test laid down in the United States
Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary official at the time of
investigation: _Provided_, That no drug defined in the
United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary shall be
deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard
of strength, quality, or purity be plainly stated upon the
bottle, box, or other container thereof although the standard
may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the
United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary.

"Second. If its strength or purity fall below the professed
standard or quality under which it is sold.

"In the case of confectionery:

"If it contain terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or
other mineral substance or poisonous color or flavor, or other
ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any
vinous, malt or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic
drug.

"In the case of food:

"First.
If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to
reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength.

"Second.
If any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for
the article.

"Third.
If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or
in part abstracted.

"Fourth.
If it be mixed, colored, powdered, coated, or stained in a
manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed.

"Fifth.
If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious
ingredient which may render such article injurious to health:
_Provided_, That when in the preparation of food products
for shipment they are preserved by any external application
applied in such manner that the preservative is necessarily
removed mechanically, or by maceration in water, or otherwise,
and directions for the removal of said preservative shall be
printed on the covering of the package, the provisions of this
Act shall be construed as applying only when said products are
ready for consumption.

"Sixth.
If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or
putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an
animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it
is the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died
otherwise than by slaughter.

"Section 8.
That the term ‘misbranded,’ as used herein, shall apply to all
drugs, or articles of food, or articles which enter into the
composition of food, the package or label of which shall bear
any statement, design, or device regarding such article, or
the ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be
false or misleading in any particular, and to any food or drug
product which is falsely branded as to the State, Territory,
or country in which it is manufactured or produced.

"That for the purposes of this Act an article shall also be
deemed to be misbranded:

"In case of drugs:

"First.
If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of
another article.

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"Second.
If the contents of the package as originally put up shall have
been removed, in whole or in part, and other contents shall
have been placed in such package, or if the package fail to
bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of
any alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta
eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or
acetanilide, or any derivative or preparation of any of such
substances contained therein.

"In the case of food:

"First.
If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the
distinctive name of another article.

"Second.
If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the
purchaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or
if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have
been removed in whole or in part and other contents shall have
been placed in such package, or if it fail to bear a statement
on the label of the quantity or proportion of any morphine,
opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform,
cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any
derivative or preparation of any of such substances contained
therein.

"Third.
If in package form, and the contents are stated in terms of
weight or measure, they are not plainly and correctly stated
on the outside of the package.

"Fourth.
If the package containing it or its label shall bear any
statement, design, or device regarding the ingredients or the
substances contained therein, which statement, design, or
device shall be false or misleading in any particular:
_Provided_, That an article of food which does not
contain any added poisonous or deleterious ingredients shall
not be deemed to be adulterated or misbranded in the following
cases:

"First.
In the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from
time to time hereafter known as articles of food, under their
own distinctive names, and not an imitation of or offered for
sale under the distinctive name of another article, if the
name be accompanied on the same label or brand with a
statement of the place where said article has been
manufactured or produced.

"Second.
In the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to
plainly indicate that they are compounds, imitations, or
blends, and the word ‘compound,’ ‘imitation,’ or ‘blend,’ as
the case may be, is plainly stated on the package in which it
is offered for sale: _Provided_, That the term blend as
used herein shall be construed to mean a mixture of like
substances, not excluding harmless coloring or flavoring
ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring
only: _And provided further_, That nothing in this Act
shall be construed as requiring or compelling proprietors or
manufacturers of proprietary foods which contain no
unwholesome added ingredient to disclose their trade formulas,
except in so far as the provisions of this Act may require to
secure freedom from adulteration or misbranding."

There was never a harder fight in Congress than that by which
this victory was won, over knaveries that, were not ashamed to
insist on their right to swindle and poison the public by
adulterations and frauds. Nothing but a thoroughly roused
public feeling carried the measure through. The same feeling
impelled local legislation to the same end in thirty-two
States, during 1906, and 1907, all of which is set forth in
the Bulletin cited above and in another of the same series
(No. 112), published in two parts in the following year.

Writing in January, 1908, of what the Pure Food Law had
accomplished, the Chairman of the Food Committee of the
National Consumers League, Alice Lakey, said: "One of the most
important results of the Pure Food Law is the awakening of
many consumers to their responsibilities as buyers of food
products. They are studying labels and buying foods
accordingly. With an intelligent consuming public to purchase
goods, the Pure Food Law will in time accomplish its full
purpose. Perhaps no better phrase will then be found to
describe it than the recent utterance of the manager of one of
the most important food firms in the country. ‘The Pure Food
Law,’ he said, ‘passed by this Government, is the most
important law ever passed by any government.’"

PUBLIC HEALTH: United States: A. D. 1906.
The Packing-House Investigation.

One of the influences which forced the passage through
Congress of the pure food legislation of 1906 came from the
revelations in a report laid before the President on the 4th
of June that year, by two commissioners whom he had appointed
to investigate the conditions existing at the stockyards and
packing-houses of Chicago. In communicating the report to
Congress the President characterized its disclosures as
revolting, and it is certain that the whole public was
sickened by the pictures it drew of reckless filthiness
prevailing in the establishments where meats were prepared for
sale in the markets of the country and of the world. We shall
not attempt to reproduce them here.

The most important part of the report concerned the existing
methods of official inspection of meats. The commissioners
found it most rigorous where it is needed least, namely, at
the time of killing. It was while the meat was being handled,
and especially in its preparation for canning, that it
underwent the most pollution. The cans which received it
finally were allowed to bear labels stating that "the contents
of this package have been inspected according to the Act of
Congress of March 3, 1891. Quality Guaranteed." As a matter of
fact, all that had been inspected was the carcass of the
animal at the time of killing.

The further legislation, respecting inspections, which
supplemented the law quoted from above, was resisted with all
their power by the enormously rich meat-packing companies of
the country, who found strong supporters in Congress, but they
had to submit to defeat.

PUBLIC HEALTH:
The Sleeping Sickness in Africa.

"The most formidable enemy of both man and beast in tropical
Africa is the tsetse, species _Glossina_, a genus of
blood-sucking fly peculiar to that land, which carries a
minute parasite, the trypanosome, from the infected to the
healthy, resulting in the production of sleeping sickness,
or trypanosomiasis. When it is known that in the region lying
around Victoria Nyanza, Lake Tanganyika, and the Victorian
Nile over 400,000 human beings have succumbed to this fatal
malady since it appeared about ten years ago, its appalling
nature is apparent. Vast territories of thickly populated,
fertile country near the shores of these lakes, until the
advent of this terrible plague the homes of a happy, contented
people, are now almost depopulated, and thousands of little
villages have been swept away, their inhabitants victims of
this deadly pest.

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"In appearance the tsetse fly bears a remarkable resemblance
to the ordinary house-fly, but is slightly larger, with longer
wings, which extend beyond its body and lap each other when at
rest like the blades of a pair of scissors. It is somber gray,
nearly black in color, almost like the honey-bee, and has a
prominent proboscis ensheathed in the palpi which project
horizontally in front of its head. The abdomen is marked by
four distinct yellowish bands, with a pale spot over the upper
segment. It is wonderfully active, and evades every attempt at
capture except in the cool of the morning or evening, when its
movements are sluggish and it can be caught in the hand. …

"Sleeping sickness has been known in Sierra Leone, in the
Congo, and on the west coast of Africa since the earliest
history of those lands. In 1870 a fossil tsetse fly (Glossina
morsitans) was discovered in Colorado, and the theory has been
advanced that the absence of wild horses on the American
continent was due to the ravages of the disease carried by
these flies.

"The malady was described as early as 1803, and later most
accurately by Livingstone, the great missionary explorer. He
also advocated arsenic in its treatment. This remedy, after
half a century of research and investigation, still retains
its place as the best one known for prolonging life. …

"The period of the incubation of the disease after the bite of
the infected fly varies from a month to several years,
depending upon the resisting power of the patient. In its
earlier stages the first noticeable symptoms are irregular
fever. … This stage may continue a year, or even longer.

"In the following stage the symptoms are due to the
trypanosomes reaching the cerebrospinal fluid, giving rise to
cerebral manifestations; drowsiness, stupor, dullness of
hearing, slowness in perception and of answering questions,
with incapacity for mental exertion, and somnolence, the
patient sometimes sleeping the entire day. This condition may
continue several years, during which time epileptiform
convulsions develop, with marked tremulousness of the muscles
of the face and tongue, the patient becoming maniacal and the
whole symptomatology resembling that of general paresis of the
insane. …

"Previous to 1901 sleeping sickness was unknown in Uganda. How
the present epidemic originated is not positively known. The
most generally accepted theory is that the soldiers of Emin
Pasha and their followers introduced it, as some ten thousand
of them settled in Busoga after the Sudan campaign. …

"The duration of the sleeping sickness in man is very
variable. Occasionally cases linger six or even eight years,
and until the expiration of this period they are constant foci
of infection.

"Recognizing the fatal nature of the disease, the various
nations whose territories are most seriously affected, notably
England, Germany, Portugal, France, and Belgium, appointed
commissioners, with competent assistants, to ascertain methods
for its control. The enormous amount of investigation and
research accomplished by these self-sacrificing men, among
whom may be mentioned Bruce, Koch, Hodges, Broden, Tullock,
Kopke, Martin, Hardy, and Kleine, two of whom forfeited their
lives in the work, entitles their names to be enrolled among
the benefactors of mankind."

_Louis L. Seaman,
The Sleeping Sickness
(The Outlook, January 15, 1909)._

PUBLIC HEALTH: Tuberculosis:
The Organized Warfare for its Eradication.

After the discovery of the all important fact that the most
destroying of the diseases of the human race, tuberculosis
(the dread "consumption" of the older-fashioned nomenclature
of pathology), is in its nature one so propagated from victim
to victim that the propagation is needless, and may absolutely
be ended by right precautions universally applied, there were
ardent workers soon engaged in eager efforts to bring such
measures into use. The beginning of a hopefully inspired
warfare against the disease dates, therefore, from the
identification of the bacillus of tuberculosis by Dr. Robert
Koch, in 1882; but, for nearly two decades after that
inspiration it was little more than a guerrilla undertaking,
by scientifically benevolent individuals and groups, here and
there in the world. It was not until the latest years of the
nineteenth century and the earliest of the twentieth that more
public risings appeared in the movement, and it began to
acquire the momentum of a crusade.

Germany appears to have been earliest in the fundamental
organization of measures to instruct its people in the nature
of the disease, and in the means by which it may be stamped
out; as well as in the provision of special sanatoria and
hospitals for the new open-air treatment of those attacked.
But the Health Department of the City of New York has the
credit of being the first official body to bring the disease
under efficient administrative control. On this subject Dr.
Hermann M. Biggs, in an address delivered, February 16, 1904,
under the auspices of the Henry Phipps Institute and published
in the first annual report of the Institute, said:

"Notwithstanding all that has been said and written,
notwithstanding the popular education and agitation,
notwithstanding the formation of antituberculosis societies
and antituberculosis leagues, notwithstanding the organization
of many associations for the erection of sanatoria, and the
foundation of institutions for the study of tuberculosis,
notwithstanding the measures adopted for the prevention of the
disease in animals, still only a very small percentage of the
governmental, municipal and state sanitary authorities of this
country, Great Britain and the Continent have adopted
provisions which can be regarded as in any way comprehensive,
or effective in dealing with this disease.

{524}

"If we seek for an adequate explanation for this attitude, it
is not, after all, difficult to find. In speaking of this
matter several years ago, Koch said in substance to the
writer: ‘The adoption in Germany of such measures as are
already in force in New York City will not be possible until
the generation of medical men now in control have passed away.
Not until a younger generation has appeared, which has had a
different scientific training, and holds views more in harmony
with the known facts regarding the etiology of tuberculosis,
will it be possible in my opinion to bring about an
intelligent supervision of this disease. … Notification is a
necessary preliminary to any plan of supervision, and yet only
five years ago a special commission of the Academy of Medicine
of Paris reported against a proposition to place tuberculosis
in the class of notifiable diseases. … Sir Richard Thorne, the
Medical Officer to the Local Government Board of Great
Britain, in the Harben lecture in 1898 on ‘The Administrative
Control of Tuberculosis,’ after a careful consideration of the
various problems presented under the English law relating to
infectious diseases, pronounced definitely against this
proposition, on the ground that the hardship to the
individual, which would follow notification and the
enforcement of proper regulations, would be so great as to
render this measure unjustifiable. … The compulsory
notification and registration of all cases is essential. The
fundamental importance of this measure is so evident that its
consideration seems hardly necessary. It must of course appear
at once that unless there is a system of compulsory
notification, and registration, the enforcement of any uniform
measures for prevention is impossible. Practical experience
with this procedure has made it perfectly clear that the
objections which have been urged against it are without force
or foundation.

"In New York City in 1893 a system of partially voluntary and
partially compulsory notification was adopted. Public
institutions were required to report cases coming under their
supervision; private physicians were requested to do this.
Under this provision the Department of Health carried on this
work for three and a half years, and then adopted in 1897
regulations requiring the notification of all cases. … The
mere fact of notification and registration has in itself a
very powerful educational influence. During the year 1902 more
than sixteen thousand cases were reported to the Department of
Health in New York City, of which forty-two hundred were
duplicates, and in 1903 more than seventeen thousand cases
were reported.

"To facilitate the early and definite diagnosis of all cases
of pulmonary tuberculosis, the sanitary authorities should
afford facilities for the free bacteriological examination of
the sputum in all instances of suspected disease. … The
Department of Health of New York City provided facilities for
such examinations in 1894, early in the history of its attempt
to exercise control over the disease, and this procedure has
proved of very great value to the medical profession, to the
sick, and to the authorities. Following the example of New
York City, other sanitary authorities have adopted similar
measures."

_H. M. Biggs,
The Administrative Control of Tuberculosis
(First Annual Report, Henry Phipps Institute, 1905)._

In 1895 a Central Committee was organized in Germany to
establish special hospitals for the disease.

In 1898 the first National Congress for discussion and better
organization of action relative to tuberculosis was held at
Paris, with some attendance from outside of France. The second
National Congress was at Berlin in the following year, with
similar attendance from other countries, and the third at
Naples in 1900. At the Naples Congress a "Central
International Committee for the Prevention of Tuberculosis"
was organized, and it held its first Conference in Berlin,
under the auspices of the Central German Committee, in 1902.
The succeeding meetings of the Central International Committee
were at Paris, 1903, at Copenhagen, 1904, at Paris again,
1904, and there, at that time, the First International
Congress on Tuberculosis was held.

In 1901 the first National Congress in Great Britain for the
discussion of Tuberculosis and for organizing preventive
undertakings was held at London. There were said to be then
fifty sanitaria for its treatment in Germany; in France a
dozen private and two public institutions for the purpose; in
France and Belgium a number of public dispensaries specially
provided for the disease. In that year the State of New York
made its first appropriation for a Tuberculosis Hospital in
the Adirondacks, and a National Sanitarium Association at
Toronto, Canada, secured the site for a hospital.

In 1902, at the annual meeting of the Canada Association for
the Prevention of Tuberculosis, held at Ottawa, Dr. A. S.
Knopf, of New York, speaking of the progress of the
anti-tuberculosis movement, said of the United States: "We
have but a few small societies striving to do the same work
you are doing. They are the Pennsylvania, the Colorado, the
Ohio, the Maine, the Minnesota and the Illinois." Besides
these State Associations the speaker mentioned a few
cities,—Baltimore, Buffalo and Erie County, Cleveland, and St.
Louis,—as having some organization for the work. No national
organization had yet been formed. In this year, however, some
advances of importance within the United States were begun.
Henry Phipps, of New York, pledged the means for supporting a
free Clinic for Tuberculosis at Philadelphia, which expanded
within a year into the Henry Phipps Institute, founded on the
1st of February and incorporated September 1st, 1903, the
purposes of which, as set forth in its charter, are: "The
study of the cause, treatment, and prevention of tuberculosis,
and the dissemination of knowledge on these subjects; the
treatment and the cure of consumptives"; its benefits to be
"administered without regard to race, creed or color." In this
year, too, an active educational work, by weekly free lectures
in the Assembly Hall of the United Charities Building, by
distributing pamphlets, district nursing, etc., was opened in
the City of New York and conducted by a Committee for the
Prevention of Tuberculosis. Massachusetts was now
appropriating money for its second sanatorium. In Great
Britain, Sir Edward Cassell placed £200,000 at the disposal of
the King for Tuberculosis hospitals and Sanatoria.

{525}

The year 1903 witnessed an important meeting at Paris of the
Central International Tuberculosis Committee, which was
stirred by an appeal from Casimir-Perier, ex-President of
France, for "a mobilization of all social forces" against the
devastating disease. The Government of Sweden instituted a
free distribution of pamphlets on the subject of Tuberculosis
throughout the kingdom. In Great Britain a national committee,
representing all important friendly societies and trade
unions, was formed to promote the establishing of sanatoria
for workers. In Belgium, Madame Rene Gauge started the
movement for Open Air Schools. At Baltimore a Tuberculosis
Exhibition which awakened wide interest was arranged by a
Commission appointed by the Governor of Maryland in the
previous year, in cooperation with the Maryland Public Health
Association. State and City organizations for dealing with the
disease and for educating the people to a right understanding
of the means by which it might be stamped out were now
multiplying rapidly throughout the United States.

In 1904 the United States obtained their first comprehensive
organization for the work. The National Association for Study
and Prevention of Tuberculosis was formed at a large meeting
at Atlantic City in June, with Dr. Edward Trudeau of Saranac,
founder of the Saranac cottage sanatoria and pioneer in
America of the open air treatment of the disease, for its
President, and Drs. William Osier, of Baltimore, and Hermann
M. Biggs for Vice Presidents. In Boston, that year, no less
than eighty-one free lectures on Tuberculosis were given in
schools, churches, social settlements, before trade unions and
clubs, under the auspices of the Boston Association, and
70,000 instructive leaflets were distributed. In France a
special Society for the Protection of Children from
Tuberculosis was formed. The Garment-makers Union and the
Typographical Union of New York entered jointly into
undertakings of educational work among their members, and the
Central Federated Union was soon enlisted with them. A
Directory of Institutions and Societies dealing with
Tuberculosis in the United States, published in January, 1905,
described 125 then existing hospitals and sanatoria in which
consumptives may receive treatment, and 32 special
dispensaries; recounting, also, special measures for the
treatment of the disease in penal institutions and hospitals
for the insane.

The most important campaign of 1905 in the crusade, within the
American field, was probably that connected with the great
Tuberculosis Exposition in New York City, prepared and
conducted by the National Association, in cooperation with the
Committee of the New York Charity Organization Society. New
York City, in this year, appropriated $250,000 for a Municipal
Tuberculosis Hospital, located in the Catskill Mountains.

In 1906 a duplication of the Tuberculosis Exposition of the
previous December in New York was carried, as a travelling
exhibit, to different parts of the city, with impressive
effect; and similar exhibits were given in eleven cities of
the United States. It was reported in this year that about
fifty local commissions and associations were actively in
operation in the United States; and that the American
Federation of Labor, as well as the American Federation of
Women’s Clubs, were enlisted with earnestness in the work. The
Fifth International Conference was held this year at The
Hague.

From this time the public awakening to recognition of the
measureless importance and the inspiring hopefulness of the
struggle to extinguish the deadly "white plague" spread
rapidly everywhere, and each year made increasing records of
gains in the work and its effects. Fourteen of the American
States were reported in 1907 as having founded State hospitals
for the disease, supported from public funds, while measures
were in progress to that end in a number of other States.

In 1908 a most powerful impulse to the crusade in America was
imparted by the meeting at Washington, that year, of the
International Congress on Tuberculosis, with a large
attendance of the most distinguished captains of the warfare
from abroad. The local interest aroused was beyond
expectation. As one writer described the meetings of the seven
sections of the Congress, from September 28 to October 3,
"scientists of international reputation and doctors from
country villages, clubwomen, architects, social workers,
manufacturers, teachers, labor men, Socialists, literary men,
lawyers and lawmakers, society women, and the clergy, were all
there, not only to listen, but to take part."

The subjects which received the most discussion at the
Congress were the compulsory notification of pulmonary
tuberculosis, the cooperation between official and
non-official agencies for the prevention of the disease, the
relationship between dispensaries, sanatoria, and hospitals
for advanced cases, and the difference between the human and
the bovine types of the bacillus. On this latter subject Dr.
Koch, who was present, maintained his belief that bovine
tuberculosis is not communicable to mankind, but failed to
convince the majority of the scientists present. The British
delegates to the Congress in their subsequent report of it,
published in April, 1909, attached particular importance to
the discussions on the subject of the compulsory notification
of cases of tuberculosis, and pointed out that in New York the
notifications were shown to be four times as numerous as the
deaths, which indicated a more complete system than any yet
operative in Great Britain. It appeared from their report,
however, that, since the Washington meeting, the system of
voluntary notification already practised in many parts of
England had been extended by order of the Local Government
Board, and rendered compulsory in the case of all patients
suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis, who came under the
official care of a parochial medical officer.

Statistics quoted in the New York _Evening Post_ of May
8, 1909, from the _Imperial Gazette_, show that in recent
years there has been a steady decrease in the number of deaths
in Germany from tuberculosis, and especially from tuberculosis
of the lungs. The figures are based upon the monthly reports
of deaths in 350 of the largest centres of population in the
empire, and upon annual reports as to the causes of deaths
from nearly all districts, as supplied to the Imperial Board
of Health. The average of deaths per 100,000 in 1905 was
226.6. In 1908 the average had fallen to 192.15. For the rural
and urban population combined statistics are forthcoming for
97 per cent. of the total population, divided into two
classes—persons below the age of fifteen, and persons between
fifteen and sixty.
{526}
In the latter class the average number of deaths annually
between 1898 and 1902 from tuberculosis in all forms was
268.5, and from tuberculosis of the lungs, 255.7 per 100,000.
During the period 1903-1907 the annual averages decreased to
242.8 and 228.8 per 100,000, respectively. The figures,
however, for tuberculosis of all kinds among children between
the ages of one year and fifteen show an average annual
increase in deaths per 100,000 from 77.9 during the period
1898-1902 to 81.1 during the period 1903-1907. Yet during the
latter period of five years the actual number of deaths among
children has gradually decreased from 16,250 in 1905 to 14,283
in 1907. For the two classes together the annual average of
deaths per 100,000 was as follows: From 1898-1902—from
tuberculosis in all forms, 214.1, and from tuberculosis of the
lungs 195.2; from 1903-1907—from tuberculosis in all forms
197.8, and from tuberculosis of the lungs 174.2.

According to a bulletin published in October, 1909, by Cressy
L. Wilbur, Chief Statistician of the division of Vital
Statistics in the United States Census Bureau, the warfare
against tuberculosis has begun to show general effects in the
United States. The statistics given are based on the annual
returns of deaths from the death-registration areas of the
country, which are far from comprehending the whole. The total
number of deaths from all forms of tuberculosis returned in
1908 was 78,289, exceeding those of any previous year of
registration, but the death rate per 100,000 for 1908 is
considerably less than that for 1907. In all registration
States the death from tuberculosis showed a decline, except in
Colorado, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

A Press despatch from Washington, August 9, 1909, announced
that "a plan for the organization of negro anti-tuberculosis
leagues in the various States, proposed recently by the United
States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, has met with
a quick response. Already five State organizations have been
formed, and the movement has received the endorsement of the
last conference of the State and Territorial boards of health.
State leagues have been formed in Georgia, Louisiana,
Mississippi, North Carolina, and Virginia. One of the
principal features of the plan is the issuance of a large
certificate of membership to each supporter of the movement.
Branches of the State leagues are to be established in the
various negro churches."

In July, 1909, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company made
application to the New York State Insurance Department for
permission to purchase a tract of land, 3000 acres or more,
and erect thereon a sanatorium for the treatment of its
employees, and possibly of its policy-holders who suffered
from tuberculosis. The company was said to have ascertained
that among the holders of its 9,000,000 policies there
occurred, on the average, a death every thirty-two minutes
from tuberculosis, and that, regarded wholly from the economic
standpoint, it would be more than justified in applying its
funds to such a measure for saving or prolonging life in that
body of people. The Superintendent of Insurance was unable,
however, to find any warrant in law for authorizing the
undertaking, and felt required to deny the application. The
company appealed from his decision to the courts, and the
Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of the State handed
down a decision early in January, 1910, declaring the plan to
purchase real estate to be used as a hospital for the care and
treatment of its employees who are afflicted with tuberculosis
does not violate that provision of the law which prohibits
insurance companies from acquiring real estate for any purpose
other than that of the transaction of their own business. "The
court passes lightly over the question of the possibility of
the hospital being used, in case vacancies exist in it, for
the accommodation of selected cases from among the
policy-holders. This possibility, it seems, had been indicated
in the original petition, but ‘the briefs of counsel upon
either side,’ says the court, ‘have practically eliminated
that question.’ In such a use of the hospital there might be
serious question of a precedent that would be open to grave
objection."

Gifts to the amount of $700,000 for the establishment of a
tuberculosis preventorium for children were announced from New
York, through the Associated Press, November 9, 1909. The
further statement was made that, "in connection with the
tuberculosis preventorium a movement has been organized which
purposes to take from New York tenements children who have
been affected with tuberculosis and restore them to normal
health before it is too late. The plan was formally organized
at a meeting this afternoon in the Fifth avenue residence of
Henry Phipps. A contribution to the work by Nathan Straus
includes a $500,000 cottage and estate at Lakewood, New
Jersey, occupied by the late Grover Cleveland just before his
death. There the new institution will have its home. Miss
Dorothy Whitney contributed a $100,000 endowment fund."

PUBLIC HEALTH: Yellow Fever:
Eradication in Cuba, at Rio Janeiro,
and in French Western Africa.

"Three signal victories have been gained over yellow fever
during these later years—in Cuba, in Brazil, and in Dakar, in
West Africa. The first is the most memorable of these events.
It is the purification of the endemic center at Habana. This
occurred in 1901, during the United States occupation. The
daily press in countless articles has spread the details. We
know that Brigadier General Leonard Wood, governor of Habana,
decreed one fine day that the plague should be wiped out and
the mosquitoes destroyed throughout the entire city of Habana
and its suburbs, and we know that it was done. …

"The theory was that the mosquito is the sole disseminator of
the disease. This is precisely what the United States
commission, appointed the year before, had just proven. It had
shown that all the other supposed cases of contagion were
imaginary. …

"The yellow fever Stegomya does not breed in swamps. It has
not the habits of the Anophele of the marsh, the malaria
mosquito. It does not live like that one, in the open country,
but dwells in houses. It is a domestic insect. It stays at
home, is wary, and is sensitive to the weather. Like many
other mosquitoes, it never goes more than 500 or 600 yards
away from its breeding place and journeys only when its home
—a vessel or a carriage—journeys. There is no need to fear
that the insect may be carried far by the wind, for it dreads
the wind. It does not trust itself outdoors when there is the
slightest breeze. The problem is thus simplified.
{527}
It is no longer a question of protecting immense areas. It is
enough to protect the house and its immediate environs—the
city and a limited surrounding zone. Still it would be useless
to capture the insect on the wing or at rest. It is permitted
to complete its short life, but is not allowed to have
offspring . The female is prevented from laying its eggs. This
is accomplished by draining stagnant water left in so many
gardens and household utensils where the mosquito seeks a
breeding place. Hence the efficacy of the measures which
forbade the people of Habana from keeping water in any other
way than in covered receptacles or with a coat of oil or
petroleum on top.

"The success of the measures taken by the American physicians,
Gorgas, Finlay, and Guiteras, in Habana, was complete. Yellow
fever has disappeared from there. On April 4, 1904, the
President of the Republic of Cuba, in his message to the
Congress, spoke thus:

"‘There has not been in Cuba since 1901 a single case of
yellow fever not imported. The country should know of this
excellent sanitary condition, which is due to the perfection
of prophylactic measures and the vigilance of the health
authorities.’

"Events happened in the same way in Brazil. Dr. Oswald Cruz,
in charge of the organization of the campaign against yellow
fever, with equal success repeated at Rio de Janeiro what had
been done in Habana. The enforcement of the measures began
April 20, 1903. The mortality which before had averaged 150
deaths a month fell to 8 in the month of April and to 4 in
June. In January, 1904, there were recorded only 3 deaths.

"France decided to follow these encouraging examples. The
governor-general of French Western Africa, M. Roume, adopted
an administration analogous to that of Habana and Rio de
Janeiro, and he knew how to profit by these examples."

_A. Dastre,
The Fight against Yellow Fever
(Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution,
1904-1905, pages 348-350)._

----------PUBLIC HEALTH: End--------

PUBLIC UTILITIES, Regulation of:
The New York and Wisconsin Laws.

The most comprehensive and well-prepared legislation yet
directed in the United States to the control and regulation of
corporations which render services to the public, of the
nature described by the term "public utilities," is
undoubtedly embodied in the New York and Wisconsin laws,
enacted in 1907. Both States, and many others, had
experimented previously with measures for establishing a
certain degree of supervision and regulation over railway
corporations, gas companies, and the like, dealing separately
with them; but, excepting perhaps, in the case of
Massachusetts, this had not been satisfactorily effective.
Governor Hughes, of New York, was the real author of the
Public Utilities Law enacted in that State in 1907, and his
influence was the impelling force which carried it through the
Legislature.

See(in this Volume)
NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1906-1910).

Almost equally, ex-Governor La Follette must be credited, not
immediately, but primarily, with the organization of the
forces which brought out the Wisconsin Law.

The two enactments are compared by Professor John R. Commons
in an article published in the _American Review of
Reviews_, of August, 1907, from which the following
passages are quoted:

"The Wisconsin and New York laws are alike in that both State
utilities like railroads and municipal utilities like gas are
brought under the regulation of the same commission. They
differ from the laws of Massachusetts, which provide a
separate commission for railways. These three States, however,
are the only ones that regulate municipal utilities through a
State commission. Many other States have railroad commissions,
but they leave whatever regulation they have of local
utilities to the local governments. … A significant feature of
the Wisconsin legislation is its disregard of stocks and bonds
and its reliance on the physical valuation of the property as
the first step in regulation. The New York law and the
Street-Railway law of Massachusetts attack the problem of
regulation through the control of future capitalization. The
New York commissions have power to prohibit the issue and
transfer of stocks, bonds, and other evidence of indebtedness,
and to prevent the transfer of shares to holding companies.
The Wisconsin law begins at the other end of the problem and,
for the purpose both of regulation and of publicity, inquires
into the present structural value of the property. This does
not mean that the commission shall disregard other elements of
valuation,—in fact, it is required by the law to take all
elements into account, as indeed the courts would require if
it did not. But the physical valuation is necessary in order
that the public and the courts may know exactly how much is
allowed for the other elements. The commission is required to
value all of the properties in the State and to publish both
the actual value ascertained when all elements are taken into
account and the physical value ascertained by its engineers. …

"The [Wisconsin] law as finally adopted consists really of
three laws: First, an amendment to the Railway law of 1905,
placing telegraph companies and street railways under the same
provisions as steam railways and interurban electric lines;
second, the Public-Utilities law proper, regulating heat,
light, water, power, and telephone companies; third, a
Street-Railway law providing for indeterminate permits similar
to those of the Public-Utilities law. A fourth bill, requiring
physical connection and prohibiting duplication of telephone
exchanges, was defeated by a vote of the Assembly."

The New York Law created two Public Utilities Commissions of
five members each, one having jurisdiction in a district
comprising New York City alone, the district of the other
(known as the Up-State Commission) comprehending the remainder
of the State. The five-year terms of the Commissioners expire
in successive years. Appointed by the Governor, they are
intended to be men of the highest character and
qualifications, and receive salaries of $15,000 each. The
appointments by Governor Hughes for the New York City
Commission were of ex-Postmaster William R. Wilcox, William
McCarroll, Edward M. Bassett, Milo R. Maltbie, John E. Eustis.
For the Up-State Commission he named originally Honorable
Frank W. Stevens, of Jamestown, Charles H. Keep, of Buffalo,
Thomas M. Osborne, of Auburn, James E. Sague and Martin S.
Decker. Mr. Keep resigned subsequently to accept the
presidency of an important New York City bank, and John B.
Olmsted, of Buffalo, was appointed in his place.

{528}

PUBLIC UTILITIES:
New York City Gas Company.

In 1906 the New York Legislature passed a bill reducing the
price of gas in New York City to 80 cents per thousand feet.
The gas companies claimed that this rate was confiscatory.
Pending final decision of the matter the citizens were
compelled to pay the old rate of $1.00 per thousand.
Ultimately the law was sustained, and the gas companies
refunded over eight millions of dollars in 1909 to the
consumers of the past three years.

See, also (in this Volume),
RAILWAYS.

PUNJAB: The Plague.

See (in this Volume)
PUBLIC HEALTH: BUBONIC PLAGUE.

PUNJAB:
Terrific Earthquake.

See(in this Volume)
EARTHQUAKES: INDIA: A. D. 1905.

PURE FOOD LEGISLATION.

See (in this Volume)
PUBLIC HEALTH.

PU-YI (Hsuan-Tung):
Child Emperor of China.

See (in this Volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1908 (NOVEMBER).

Q.

QUEBEC, City of: A. D. 1908.
Tercentenary Celebration of its Founding.

See (in this Volume)
CANADA: A. D. 1908 (JULY).

QUEBEC, Province of: A. D. 1901.
Census.

See (in this Volume)
CANADA: A. D. 1901-1902.

R.

----------RACE PROBLEMS: Start--------

RACE PROBLEMS: In Australia:
Between Europeans and Asiatics.

"Australia occupies a unique position among the nations. It is
an island, lying far from the populated centres of the Old
World and in close proximity to Java and the teeming millions
of Southern and Eastern Asia, who at any time may bear down in
flood upon the scanty forces of the defenders. These pent-up
myriads are at present in a state of unrest, and there are
evidences of a distinct inclination on their part to break
bounds and descend upon the coasts of the great southern land.
On the north-eastern shores of the continent they have already
broken through the thin red line of the British, and have
firmly established themselves in the country beyond. Thursday
Island, which stands at the northern entrance of the passage
between the Great Barrier Reef and the shores of Queensland,
has been styled the Gibraltar of Australia, and large sums of
money have been spent by the Imperial and Australian
Governments in fortifying it. Since it became open to the
Eastern nations, the Japanese have discovered twenty different
channels through the reef, by any one of which they could
avoid the forts and gain an entrance to the sea within the
barrier. A few years ago there were 2000 Europeans on Thursday
Island, engaged in the pearl-shelling industry; but they were
gradually elbowed out until to-day they number less than 100.

"The late Professor C. H. Pearson, at one time Minister for
Education in Victoria, and one of the most intellectual
statesmen who ever resided in Australia, in his _National
Life and Character_, admirably summarised the dangers to
which his adopted country was exposed by reason of its
situation, and the motives which actuated the various colonial
Governments in passing enactments designed to place some
restriction on the wholesale flooding of their territories.

"‘The fear of Chinese immigration which the Australian
democracy cherishes, and which Englishmen at home find it hard
to understand, is, in fact, the instinct of self-preservation,
quickened by experience. We know that coloured and white
labour cannot exist side by side; we are well aware that China
can swamp us with a single year’s surplus of population; and
we know that if national existence is sacrificed to the
working of a few mines and sugar plantations, it is not the
Englishmen in Australia alone, but the whole civilised world
that will be the losers. Transform the northern half of our
continent into a Natal, with thirteen out of fourteen
belonging to an inferior race, and the southern half will
speedily approximate to the condition of Cape Colony, where
the whites are indeed a masterful minority, but still only as
one in four. We are guarding the last part of the world in
which the higher races can live and increase freely for the
higher civilisation. It is idle to say that if all this should
come to pass our pride of place will not be humiliated. We are
struggling among ourselves for supremacy in a world which we
thought as destined to belong to the Aryan race and to the
Christian faith, to the letters and arts and charm of social
manners which we have inherited from the best times of the
past. We shall wake to find ourselves elbowed and hustled,
perhaps even thrust aside by peoples whom we looked down upon
as servile and thought of as bound always to minister to our
needs.’ …

"The Greater Britain that is to be may be the best security
for the Mother Land in years to come, and her natural ally and
friend. Australian statesmen claim that they are not only
safe-guarding British interests, but also legislating for
posterity and looking forward to the time—perhaps a century
hence—when the population of the Commonwealth may be one
hundred millions or even more.

{529}

"At the present the Australian race is in a plastic condition,
and whether it will become, as Marcus Clarke predicted, ‘a
fierce and turbulent democracy, sweeping contemporary
civilisation before it,’ or, as seems more probable, a
practical and enlightened people, troubles it little. Leaders
and followers of every political cast, Conservatives,
Liberals, and Radicals, have now but one national ideal—Purity
of Race. They recognise that hybrids cannot make a great
nation; that an infusion of Chinese, Japanese, or Indo-Chinese
blood must result in race deterioration; and that, if they are
to live happily and prosperously, it must be with no strangers
within their gates other than those of Caucasian descent who
are able to conform to the conditions and customs of civilised
communities."

_O. P. Law, W. T. Gill,
A White Australia
(Nineteenth Century, January, 1904)._

"The great Australian Commonwealth has indeed gone very far in
many directions in its war against workers of other races than
the white. Thus, no contract can be made for the carrying of
Australian mails with any steamship line which allows a
colored man to work on any of its ships. This is a new
measure, and it has been of late the subject of a lively
controversy between the Australian government and the two
Chamberlains in London,—namely, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, the
colonial secretary, and his son, Mr. Austin Chamberlain, who
is now serving as British postmaster-general.

"The fact is that mail-carrying steamship companies which have
hitherto performed the service of carrying mails back and
forth between Great Britain and the Australian ports have been
largely manned by dark-skinned British subjects who are
natives of India, and the British Government is under a
special obligation not to discriminate against these Indians
in view of certain clauses in what is known as the Mutiny Act
in India. These same ships, it is to be remembered, will
carry, also, the Indian mails, and it would be manifestly
impossible for Lord Curzon’s government of India to join in
mail contracts containing clauses excluding dark-skinned men
from employment."

_American Review of Reviews,
September, 1903._

See (in this Volume)
AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1905-1906, and 1909.

RACE PROBLEMS: In Canada:
Hostility to Asiatic Labor.
Restriction of Chinese Immigration.
Riotous attacks on Japanese, Chinese, and Hindu
Laborers in British Columbia.

The opposition of organized labor to Asiatic immigration, on
the Canadian Pacific Coast, directed first against an influx
of Chinese, brought about, in 1904, the imposition of a
head-tax of $500 on every person of Chinese origin entering
Canada thereafter, with the following exceptions:

"(a) The members of the diplomatic corps, or other government
representatives, their suites and their servants, and consuls
and consular agents;

"(b) The children born in Canada of parents of Chinese origin
and who have left Canada for educational or other purposes, on
substantiating their identity to the satisfaction of the
controller at the port or place where they seek to enter on
their return;

"(c) Merchants, their wives and children, the wives and
children of clergymen, tourists, men of science and students,
who shall substantiate their status to the satisfaction of the
controller, subject to the approval of the Minister, or who
are bearers of certificates of identity, or other similar
documents issued by the government or by a recognized official
or representative of the government whose subjects they are,
specifying their occupation and their object in coming into
Canada."

This was an effective restriction; but left the door open to
other "coolie" laborers, so-called, from Japan and India,
whence large numbers were soon coming into British Columbia,
and the labor agitation was directed against them, on the
Canadian as well as the United States side of the line in the
farther Northwest. It came to its climax of violence in the
fall of 1907, when serious riots broke out at Vancouver,
British Columbia, and at Bellingham, in the State of
Washington. Many hundreds of Japanese, Chinese, and Hindus had
been employed in the lumber mills and canneries of the
Washington and British Columbia coast towns, displacing white
labor. "In each case a mob of white men raided the mills where
the foreigners were employed, battered down the doors of their
lodging houses, dragged the Hindus from their beds, and drove
them with violence from the town. The Hindus of Bellingham
fled northward to the protection of the British flag. At
Vancouver the rioters also attacked Chinese and Japanese
merchants and laborers, breaking into their shops and
pillaging and destroying $20,000 worth of property. Two
thousand Chinese and Japanese were driven from their homes.
Later, a number of Japanese immigrants, just landed from a
steamer, were attacked and in the riot that followed Baron
Ishii, chief of the Japanese Bureau of Foreign Commerce, was
severely injured. The Orientals, under the leadership of the
Japanese, immediately organized for defense, and, having
secured firearms and other weapons, the situation took on a
very serious aspect."

The situation was made especially embarrassing to the British
and Canadian Governments by the relations of alliance existing
between Great Britain and Japan, and by the fact that the
Hindus attacked are British subjects, having their established
rights as such. But skilful and careful handling of the matter
was successful in quieting the trouble, possibly in a lasting
way. The Japanese Government, on its own part, has undertaken
to restrict the emigration of its laboring classes to Canada
as well as to the United States.

Important changes in the regulations governing the immigration
of Chinese were announced in a despatch from Ottawa, July 11,
1909:

"While the poll-tax of £100 on coolies is retained, the
restrictions applicable to students and the sons of Chinese
merchants are considerably modified. Students who already
possess a liberal education, but desire to pursue a higher
course of study in any Canadian University or college, are
exempt from the tax. Students who intend to pursue their
studies in the Dominion but are unable to produce proof of
their status on entry are required to deposit the amount of
the tax, but the money will be refunded on production of a
certificate that they have passed two scholastic years at some
seat of learning. The present law permits all Chinese visiting
China to return to Canada within a year without a second
payment. This has been a hardship to Chinese who have been
ill. The new regulation, therefore, extends the time of
exemption in such cases to 18 months, provided that
satisfactory proof be furnished."

{530}

RACE PROBLEMS: In Jamaica: Between White and Black:
The Problem Non-existent.
Solved by Good Sense, Right Feeling, and Just Law.

In the _International Journal of Ethics_ for May, 1906,
Professor Royce reports of several visits to Jamaica,—where
14,000 or 15,000 white inhabitants are living with about
650,000 black and mulatto people,—that he had found no race
problem existing—no racial antagonism—no public discussion of
race equality or superiority. He accounts for this untroubled
relation between colored and uncolored fellow citizens and
neighbors as follows: