Chapter IX: Preface: To the Seventh Volume (8)

See (in this Volume)
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.

BUTLER, Nicholas Murray:
President of Columbia University.

See (in this Volume)
EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1909.

BUTLER, Nicholas Murray:
Arrangement of professorial interchanges
with German universities.

See EDUCATION: INTERNATIONAL INTERCHANGES.

BUXTON, Sidney C.:
Postmaster-General (British).

See (in this Volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1905-1906.

C.

CACERES, Ramon.

See (in this Volume)
SAN DOMINGO: A. D. 1904-1907.

CADETS, Russian.

See (in this Volume)
RUSSIA: A. D. 1905-1907.

CAJAL, Ramon y.
See (in this Volume)
NOBEL PRIZES.

CALABRIA:
Destructive earthquake in 1905.

See (in this Volume)
EARTHQUAKES.

CALAMITIES, Recent extraordinary.

See (in this Volume)
EARTHQUAKES, FAMINES, FIRE, FLOODS, VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS.

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1900-1909.
Growth.
Industries.
Products.
Railway facilities, etc.

"Within the past decade numerous events have tended to direct
the attention of the United States and of the world to the
importance of the Pacific ocean and the lands bordering upon
it, as the field of great activities in the near future. The
Spanish-American war, and particularly the voyage of the
battleship Oregon around South America hastened the movement
for an inter-oceanic canal. The development of the Alaskan
gold fields gave a great impetus to shipping and trade in
staple supplies in Pacific coast cities. The war between
Russia and Japan revealed the maritime enterprise and
established the naval prestige of Japan.

"Since the earliest days of American occupation California has
been steadily filling up with people. These later movements in
Pacific coast history, together with the steady development of
natural resources, have greatly accelerated the advance in
population, especially in cities as the centers of industrial
and commercial activity. The census of 1900 showed a total
population of 1,485,053. At the beginning of 1909 the number
is estimated by the State Board of Trade at 2,564,363. The
growth of cities in the same period is shown by the following
instances,—the first figure being the population by the
census of 1900, the second the State Board of Trade estimate
for 1909.

1900. 1909.

Alameda 16,464 25,000
Berkeley 13,214 40,000
Fresno 12,470 32,000
Los Angeles 102,479 305,000
Oakland 66,960 200,000
Sacramento 29,282 55,000
San Francisco 342,782 500,000
San Jose 21,500 45,000
Stockton 17,506 25,000

"Two features characterize the recent development of
California agriculture,—the increased value of the products,
and a greater variety of crops. Originally wheat was the
staple crop, but now sugar beets, hops, beans, alfalfa, and
garden seeds must be added to the common cereals to make the
list of staples. In 1908 the wheat crop was valued at
$18,894,961, and the barley at $26,841,394.

"Orchards and vineyards furnish one of the best records of
advancing wealth. Shipments out of the state by rail and by
sea are given by the State Board of Trade as follows:

1898. 1908.

Tons. Tons.
Green Deciduous Fruits 69,732 161,224
Citrus Fruits 180,658 399,094
Dried Fruits 76,662 133,846
Raisins 47,796 29,601
Nuts 5,815 10,887
Canned Fruits 52,219 85,135

{62}

"About ninety per cent of all the citrus fruits go from the
southern part of the State (south of Tehachapi mountains) and
substantially all the fresh deciduous fruits go from the
northern and central portions, Sacramento being one of the
largest shipping points. Nearly all the dried fruits, raisins,
canned fruits, wine and brandy, go from the northern and
central portions. Most of the walnuts are grown in the south,
and most of the almonds in the northern and central parts of
the state. Olives are grown in about equal quantities, north
and south. General farming, including stock raising, is much
more widely pursued north of Tehachapi than south, and the
same is true of the mining industry. The principal forests of
the state are in the Sierra region and in the Coast Range
Mountains north of Sonoma county.

"Formerly wool was an important product of California. The
industry reached its maximum about thirty years ago,—the wool
clip of 1876 amounting to 56,550,973 pounds. Since that date
the wool product steadily declined till 1906, when the total
amount was 24,000,000 pounds. Since 1906 the decline has been
swift, as shown by the total of 15,000,000 pounds for 1908.

"In the production of the precious metals the record of
California is very steady in recent years,—the gold output for
1900 being valued at $15,863,355, and for 1907 at $16,727,928.
On the other hand the oil industry shows a marvelous advance.
The output of petroleum from California oil wells was
4,000,000 barrels in 1900, and 48,300,758 barrels in 1908.
Since 1906 the oil product of California has amounted to over
twenty-five per cent of the total production of the United
States. California petroleum now exceeds in value the output
of her gold mines.

"For a long time the high cost of fuel retarded the growth of
manufactures in California. Recently, however, the production
of fuel oil and the introduction of electrical power developed
from the water power in the streams of the Sierras have given
a great impetus to manufacturing industries. The use of
electricity is certain to be greatly increased in the near
future and for this reason the people of California are
tremendously interested in the policy of the federal government
in the preservation of the mountain streams and in the
disposition of water-power sites. The value of the products of
manufacturing enterprises in the state for 1908 is estimated
at about $500,000,000, of which the sum of $175,000,000 is
credited to San Francisco, $62,000,000 to Los Angeles,
$52,000,000, to Oakland, with Sacramento, San Jose, Stockton
and Fresno following in the order of naming.

"California is a state of magnificent dimensions and it is
quite in keeping with the size of the state to find that in
1907, with but two per cent, of the total population of the
United States she had three per cent. of the total railway
mileage of the country. New construction was almost entirely
suspended in 1908, but has been resumed in 1909. The most
important new road is the Western Pacific which enters the
state by the Beckwith Pass to the north of the line of the
Central Pacific route, from Sacramento to Ogden, and with the
advantage of crossing the Sierras at 2000 feet less elevation.
It reaches the Sacramento Valley by the canyon of the Feather
River and opens up a large area of rich country to railway
communication. It will be completed through to San Francisco
in 1910, and will be the fifth trans continental line
terminating on San Francisco Bay.

"Another great work of railway construction in progress in
1909 is the rebuilding upon an improved grade of the Central
Pacific road through the Sierras. The extreme elevation of the
present road at the summit of the range (7000 feet) is to be
diminished by a lengthy tunnel. Other work of construction
soon to be brought to completion is the extension of the
Northwestern Pacific, a coast road north from San Francisco
Bay to Eureka on Humboldt Bay, and the extension of the Ocean
Shore Railway south along the coast to Santa Cruz.

"The records of the State Railroad Commission show in 1909 a
total mileage in the state of 6744.54 miles.

"The lines operated by the principal companies measure up as
follows:

MILES.
Southern Pacific System. 3,582
Santa Fé System. 978
Northwestern Pacific. 404
San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake. 341
Western Pacific. 237
Yosemite Valley Railroad. 79

"Suburban electric railways have reached a high stage of
development and utility in Southern California, in the Santa
Clara Valley, connecting numerous cities and towns in the
vicinity of San Francisco Bay, and in the Sacramento Valley.
The increase of electric power by the further utilization of
the water power of the Sierra Nevada streams will certainly
bring about in the near future a great extension of electrical
transportation for freighting as well as in passenger
traffic."

_Frederick H. Clark,
Head of History Department,
Lowell High School, San Francisco._

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1900-1909.
Constitutional changes.

"Amendments to the state constitution originate with the
legislature, and are placed before the voters of the state at
the biennial state elections. Dissatisfaction with parts of
the state constitution is manifested by an increasing number
of proposed amendments. So long as property interests are not
antagonized, the voters show a willingness to make changes by
ratifying a large majority of the amendments proposed. Among
the important subjects upon which amendments have been adopted
within the past ten years are the following:

authorization of legislation for the control of
primary elections;
providing for the use of voting machines;
the establishment of a system of state highways;
increasing the salaries of judges and of state
executive officers;
changing the pay of members of the legislature from
$8.00 per diem for a period not to exceed 60 days to
the sum of $1000 for the regular session;
authorizing the legislature to provide a state tax for the
support of high schools;
permitting exemption from taxation of various forms of
property, such as buildings used exclusively for religious
purposes and the endowments of the Leland Stanford Junior
University, the California School of Mechanical Arts,
and the Cogswell Polytechnical College,
—also personal property at the will of the owner
to the amount of $100;
eight hours made a legal day’s work on all public work
throughout the state;
authorization for the depositing of public funds in banks.

{63}

An important change in the state judiciary was made in 1904 by
the creation of district courts of appeal for the relief of
the congested condition of the business of the State Supreme
Court. The state was divided into three judicial districts, in
each of which was established a court of appeal consisting of
three judges elected from within the district for a term of
twelve years.

"A plan for the reorganization of the revenue system of the
state was placed before the voters in 1908, but failed of
adoption. The proposed amendment was the outcome of a movement
that began in 1905 with the appointment of a special
commission on taxation. This commission employed expert
assistance and made a thorough study of the subject of public
revenues. Its work was placed before the next meeting of the
legislature from which came the proposed amendment. Its
central object was to discover new sources of revenue for the
state treasury, leaving the direct property tax for the
maintenance of local government alone."

_Frederick H. Clark, Head of History Department,
Lowell, High School, San Francisco._

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1904-1909.
Anti-Japanese agitation.

See (in this Volume)
RACE PROBLEMS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1904-1909.

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1906.
The earthquake of April 18.
Destruction at San Francisco by fire following the shock.
Cause of the occurrence.

See (in this Volume)
SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1906.

CALIPHATE, The Mohammedan:
The Turkish Sultan’s title disputed.

See (in this Volume)
TURKEY: A. D. 1903-1905.

CAMPBELL, H. W.

See (in this Volume)
SCIENCE AND INVENTION: AGRICULTURE.

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY:
Prime Minister of the British Government.

See (in this Volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1905-1906.

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY:
Address at Colonial Conference.

See BRITISH EMPIRE: A. D. 1907.

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY:
DEATH, April 22, 1908.

----------CANADA: Start--------

CANADA: A. D. 1896-1909.
The interchange of people between Canada and the United States.
The "American Invasion."
Rapid settlement of the Canadian Northwest.
Immigration in the last decade.

"Nature is healing the schism of the race by her own slow but
efficacious methods. Hundreds of families of the United Empire
stock have gone back to the United States, in some instances
to the very place of their origin. Upwards of a million native
Canadians are now living in the States, the great majority as
naturalised Americans; whilst American farmers, attracted by
cheap land and good laws, are entering the Canadian North-West
at the rate of 50,000 a year. The exodus, as migration across
the line is called, is a heavy drain on Canada; like an
ancient conqueror, it sweeps away the flower of both sexes,
leaving the unfittest to survive. During the last 30 years we
have spent $10,000,000 on immigration work in Europe, yet our
population has not held its natural increase, has not, that
is, grown as fast as the population of an old and over-crowded
country like England. The Canadian lad thinks no more of
transferring himself to Buffalo or Chicago than a Scotch youth
of going up to London, perhaps not so much. On the other hand,
American tourists, ‘drummers,’ lecturers, sportsmen and
investors come and go in Canada precisely as if this were a
State of the Union. When we produce a champion athlete, a
clever journalist or eloquent divine, they annex him and
advertise him next day as a Yankee. Marrying and giving in
marriage is going on without the slightest regard for the
doctrines of the Loyalists. There are said to be 200 college
professors of Canadian birth in the United States. I am
acquainted with some of them, and in their opinion, whatever
it may be worth, Canada can best serve herself by becoming
politically independent, and could best serve England by
joining the American Union, where her presence and vote would
offset the Anglophobia latent or active in other elements.

"The influence of the Canadian-Americans, to say nothing of
that of the Americans proper, is visible on every side in
English Canada; they are constantly visiting the old home, in
many cases paying the interest of the mortgage on it. The
French Canadians in New England have taught those in Quebec
that the priest has no business to interfere unduly in
elections, or to make war on Liberalism; that the Press ought
to be free, and the State, not the Church, supreme within the
sphere she defines as her own. Every day the French Canadian
papers publish columns of correspondence from the French
settlements in the factory towns across the line, but of
British affairs editors and readers know little, and,
apparently, care less. I mention this not to sneer at the
French Canadian Press, but to show those Englishmen who urge
us to cultivate the Imperialist spirit how difficult it would
be for Mrs. Partington to keep out the Atlantic.

"In English Canada, our newspapers supply us with British news
filtered through American channels; we read American books,
are interested in American politics, frequent their
watering-places and race tracks, imitate their tariffs, play
baseball and poker, live under local institutions fashioned
after theirs, think like them, speak like them, eat like them,
dress like them; when we visit England, we find ourselves
taken for them and treated well in consequence, better than if
we confessed ourselves Colonials."

_E. Farrer,
Canada and the new Imperialism
(Contemporary Review, December, 1903)._

"Some ten years since there began to trickle into the vast
wastes of the West the tiny rivulet of immigration which has
now become a great stream. Many influences have gone toward
widening this current of immigration, but the initial impulse
which set it in motion came from the courage of one man. In
1896 Clifford Sifton, a young man, thirty-five years of age,
who had already played a considerable _rôle_ in the
politics of Manitoba, became Minister of the Interior in the
Dominion Government. He was equipped with a genius for
organization, an almost unequaled capacity for persistent hard
work, and, above all, a faith in the West which knew neither
wavering nor questioning.
{64}
He threw himself with immense energy into the task of
advertising the Canadian West to the world and inducing
immigration. His conception of the problem and its solution
was Napoleonic; for he saw what others could not see and even
scouted as absurd, that the people who could be induced most
easily to lead the procession into the vacant prairies lived
in the adjoining States of the American Union. A new
generation had grown up in these States on the farms secured
as free grants by their fathers in the ’70's, and he saw that
when they looked for lands for themselves there would be none
available at all comparable with those of Western Canada.
Therefore, he argued, to acquaint them with the opportunities
and possibilities of the new land to the north would be to
insure such a migration as he desired, and if the stream once
began flowing it would widen by its own velocity. This was the
great idea which, given effect to by an organization called
into being by first-class executive talent, operating with
limitless resources, broke forever the great silence of the
prairies and made them the Mecca of the world’s landless folk.

"There had been for years Canadian immigration agencies at
various places in the United States, but they had been
administered in a spirit of perfunctory hopelessness. These
offices were reorganized; new ones opened; tens of thousands
of dollars were expended in advertising and in the
distribution of printed literature; enterprising drummers were
sent abroad throughout the Western States to preach up the
opportunities of Western Canada; representative farmers were
induced to take trips through the Canadian West, all expenses
paid by the government,—in fact, everything that trained
business talent could suggest was done.

"The result? In the first year of the new order of things 2412
Americans came to Canada, and thereafter the number mounted
yearly. By 1899 the figures had reached 11,945; 1901, 17,987;
1902, 26,388; 1903, 49,473; 1904, 45,171; 1905, 43,652; 1906,
57,919. During the ten years ending June 30, 1906, no less
than 272,609 persons left the United States to become
residents of Western Canada. These people came from all parts
of the United States. The government homestead records for
1906 show applications from persons coming from every State
and Territory of the United States, including the District of
Columbia and Alaska. North Dakota led in the applications,
with Minnesota a close second; then came Iowa, Michigan,
Washington, Wisconsin, Illinois, tapering to two from Alabama
and one from Georgia. …

"It has given Canada over a quarter of a million of settlers
with the highest average of efficiency. They, almost without
exception, have sufficient capital to make a good start, a
most important consideration in a new country where money is
scarce and dear. Akin to the Canadians in race, language,
political and social customs, they become a part of the
community just as naturally as one stream flows into another
at the same level. These settlers have also brought with them
fifty years’ experience in prairie farming, and by their
example have enormously affected agricultural methods. …

"More important, however, was the advertisement which the
‘American invasion’ gave Western Canada. It was precisely what
the country needed—indeed there could have been no substitute
for it in effectiveness. The Eastern Canadian was rather out
of conceit with his own West; and if a migratory instinct
drove him onward he went to the United States. In Great
Britain Western Canada could get no hearing at all,—her
emigrants went to Australia, the United States, New Zealand,
or even to alien lands in preference to Canada. It is doubtful
whether any possible exertions by the Government could have
turned the attention of these people to Canada had not the
influx of Americans to the prairies, loudly announced by all
controllable agencies of publicity, challenged their attention
and pricked their national pride. Once the fact was driven
into their consciousness they began to hold that if Western
Canada was good enough for ‘Yankees’ it was good enough for
them. British newspapers in particular showed a belated but
very real interest.

"The result has been a heavily increasing immigration from the
British Isles, until it now exceeds by many thousands every
year the arrivals from the United States. For the ten-year
period specified above there were 311,747 immigrants from
Great Britain, compared with 272,609 from the United States;
with 248,250 from ‘other countries,’ chiefly continental
Europe. The Scandinavian, Teutonic, and Slavic peoples are all
strongly represented in Western Canada. The most numerous
non-British people are the Ruthenians, or little Russians. In
addition there is a large yearly influx of Canadian settlers
from the older provinces, of whom there is no record excepting
in the homestead applications. These figures showed that out
of 41,869 applications for homesteads last year 27 per cent.
were Canadians, 29 per cent. Americans, 20 per cent. from the
British Isles, while the remaining 24 per cent. comprised
persons of eighteen different nationalities. These statistics
show that Western Canada is overwhelmingly English-speaking."

_John W. Dafoe,
Western Canada: Its Resources and Possibilities
(American Review of Reviews, June, 1907)._

Writing from Toronto, June 24, 1909, the regular Correspondent
of the London _Times_ took the subject of Canadian
immigration, especially that from the United States, for
extended treatment. Part of his remarks were as follows:

"So long as the American States had free, fertile lands, it
was natural that population should flow into the Republic.
America, in the mind of Europe, was the land of promise and
the home of freedom, and the United States was America. Canada
was but a fringe of inhospitable British territory, where the
spring came late and summer was brief, and winter was long and
stern. The first great impulse to settlement came with the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, but an even more
material factor in Canadian development was the comparative
exhaustion of the free land of the Western States and the
increasing reputation of the Canadian West as a wheat-growing
country. If the 20th century belongs to Canada, as Sir Wilfrid
Laurier has said, it is primarily because the American
Republic has become a far less formidable competitor for
British and European immigration, and because thousands of
American farmers have discovered that they can sell their
improved farms at good prices and secure lands of equal value
in Canada for themselves and their sons with a very small
investment of capital.

{65}

"The total immigration since 1901 is estimated at 1,200,000.
In that year it was 49,149. It rose in 1902 to 67,379. Thence
there was a steady increase until 1907, when the figures were
262,469. In 1908 the total immigration was between 140, 000
and 142,000, and for this year the estimate is 200,000.
British immigrants began to come in considerable Volume in
1901, when there were 17,269 arrivals. The best year was 1907,
when the number reported was 120,182, as compared with 83,975
from the Continent of Europe and 58,312 from the United
States. The decline in 1908 was chiefly in British and
European immigration. Between 50,000 and 55,000 came from
across the border, which was a greater number than came from
either Britain or Europe. This year it is estimated that
70,000 Americans will come into the country. They will take up
between 20,000 and 25,000 homesteads, and as it is considered
that they bring property to the average value of $1,000 each
this would give a total new capital of $70,000,000. In 1907,
the year in which we had our greatest Volume of immigration,
there were 178,500 British and Americans as compared with
84,000 from the Continent of Europe. For the last year there
were 100,000 British and Americans and not a third as many
from Europe.

"It is apparent that, even with the best business management
the Empire can apply to the direction of its population, the
American immigration to Canada will continue to exceed that
from Great Britain. One of the most careful and soberminded of
our public men with whom I talked a few days ago, a man who
knows the West and for years has had intimate official
knowledge of the movements of population on both sides of the
border, believes that in the next ten or twelve years five
millions of Americans will come into Canada. Upon this I
pronounce no opinion, save to agree that the overflow from the
United States is bound to increase in Volume. Naturally there
are those amongst us who regard ‘the American invasion’ with
uneasiness, and fear the ultimate effect upon our institutions
and upon the relation of Canada to the Empire. In this
connexion I can only say that for some years I have been at
pains to consult men from all parts of the West who should
know the mind of these American settlers and their general
disposition towards the social and political institutions of
the country, and as yet I have not found a single Western
Canadian to express apprehension. They all agree that, while
the Americans have a natural affection for ‘Old Glory’ and as
yet may confuse the Fourth with the First of July, they pay
ready allegiance to the flag under which they have come to
live, and very generally agree that the impartial and
inflexible administration of justice in Canada is in itself
sufficient reason for the permanence of the British allegiance
and an honest loyalty to Canadian institutions. What may be
hidden in the womb of the future, when many of these Americans
sit in the Legislatures and in the Federal Parliament, and
become powerful in moulding public policy, we cannot know, but
at least it is seldom that the seeds of revolution thrive
amongst a prosperous agricultural population.

"But it is to one particular phase of the movement of
population that I desire chiefly to call attention. The
migration to the West has had a marked effect on the older
Canadian provinces. Many farms in the long settled districts
have been almost deserted. The old remain; the young have
gone. The only compensation is that the sons prosper in the
West."

According to a despatch from Ottawa in September, 1909, "the
annual Immigration Report states that the total arrivals in
Canada during the last fiscal year were 146,908. For the first
time in Canadian history immigrants from the United States
exceeded those from the United Kingdom; the figures are
respectively 59,832 and 52,901. The total immigration during
the 13 years which the present Government has been in office
was 1,366,658. American immigrants in that period have brought
to Canada £12,000,000 in cash and effects. Immigration from
France and Belgium declined last year and Japanese immigration
fell off by 7,106. Only six Hindus entered Canada, compared
with 2,623 in the previous year; 3,803 immigrants were
rejected at ocean ports, of whom 1,748 were deported. The
total deportations since 1902, when the system was first
inaugurated, were 3,149, of whom 2,607 were English."

Two months later it was reported from Ottawa that during the
first six months of 1909 "homestead entries were made by
27,296 bona fide settlers, representing free grants of
Dominion lands of 4,367,360 acres. This is an increase of 939
entries and of 150,200 acres as compared with the
corresponding period of 1908. In September the total number of
homestead entries was 2,902; of these 926 were American, 325
English, 109 Scotch, 54 Irish, 336 Canadians from Ontario, and
83 Canadians from Quebec."

Previously, in August, it had been stated that "German
capitalists have interested Toronto men in a big plan to
colonize the lands of Alberta and Saskatchewan on a
time-payment system. The scheme includes advances to settlers
for the purchase of implements and for help in house building.
The expectation is that 20,000 Germans will avail themselves
of the scheme."

CANADA: A. D. 1898-1903.
German retaliation for the tariff discrimination
in favor of British goods.

See (in this Volume)
TARIFFS.

CANADA: A. D. 1901-1902.
The Census of the Dominion.
New apportionment of parliamentary representation.

The census of the Dominion, taken in 1901, showed
a total population of 5,370,000,
of which
Ontario contained 2,182,947;
Quebec, 1,648,898;
Nova Scotia, 459,574;
New Brunswick, 331,120;
Manitoba, 254,947;
British Columbia, 177,272;
Prince Edward Island, 103,259;
The Northwest Territories,
Yukon included, 211,649.

The new distribution of parliamentary representation,
determined this year, gave the House of Commons a total
membership of 214, apportioned as follows; Quebec 65 (as
guaranteed by the Confederation Act); Ontario 86; Nova Scotia
18; New Brunswick 13; Manitoba 10; British Columbia 7;
Northwest Territories 10; Prince Edward Island 4; the Yukon 1.
The basis was one representative for each 2500 people. Ontario
lost 6 seats, Nova Scotia 2, New Brunswick and Prince Edward
Island 1 each; all the other provinces gained, British
Columbia to the extent of 7 seats, the Northwest Territories
4, and Manitoba 3.

CANADA: A. D. 1902.
Colonial Conference at London.

See (in this Volume)
BRITISH EMPIRE.

{66}

CANADA: A. D. 1903.
Discovery of the cobalt silver mines in Ontario.

Ore bodies carrying values in silver, cobalt, nickel, and
arsenic were discovered in 1903, during the building of the
Temiskaming and North Ontario Railway near the town of
Haileybury, at a distance of about 103 miles from North Bay.
The railway line ran over the most important vein that has
been found, and signs of the latter were noticed in the spring
of the year named. Prospecting was begun in the fall with
quick results of important discovery, and the rapid attraction
of a large mining population to what has become famous as the
Cobalt District. The production of silver in the district
increased from $111,887 in 1904 to $9,500,000 in 1908. The
ores are said to be unique among those of North America.

_16th Annual Report of Ontario Bureau of Mines._

CANADA: A. D. 1903 (May).
Adoption of "Empire Day" in Great Britain.

See (in this Volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1903 (May).

CANADA: A. D. 1903 (October).
Settlement of the Alaskan boundary question.

See (in this Volume)
ALASKA: A. D. 1903.

CANADA: A. D. 1903-1904.
Measures to establish sovereignty over land and sea
of Hudson Bay region.

"The agreement by Britain and America to arbitrate at The
Hague the Newfoundland Fishery Question will probably pave the
way for a similar solution of another entanglement, as
threatening and complicated as that respecting the Alaskan
Boundary, apparently now imminent between Canada and the
United States over the sovereignty of Hudson Bay. This has a
special relation to the Newfoundland problem, being also based
on the treaty of 1818. The Canadian Government in August,
1903, despatched the Newfoundland sealing steamer ‘Neptune’
(one of the type of wood-built ships suited for the work) to
the region, with an official expedition whose three-fold
object was:
(1) to reassert British sovereignty over all the land and seas
there;
(2) to expel or subject to Canadian authority the United
States whalers who fish there, illegally, it is held; and
(3) to secure further data tending to determine the
navigability of the waters for an ocean grain route and
justify subsidising or discouraging the construction of
railways from the north-west to the shores of Hudson Bay.

"In the summer of 1904, in anticipation of the ‘Neptune’s’
return, the Canadian Government purchased from Germany the
Antarctic exploring steamer ‘Gauss,’ re-named her the
‘Arctic,’ and sent her to Hudson Bay as an official cruiser,
she conveying also Major Moodie, of the North-West Mounted
Police, who was commissioned as ‘Governor of Hudson Bay ’ and
was accompanied by a body of that famous force, to assist him
in the administration of this extensive province, they to
build posts there and establish themselves at the most
important points. … The undisguised purpose of the Dominion is
to take all possible steps to prevent the United States from
securing any advantage, territorial or diplomatic, which would
enable her to put forward pretensions such as have been
advanced by her with respect to the Alaskan Boundary.

"The similarity of this question to that of the Alaskan
Boundary is quite striking. Geographically, the Hudson Bay
region is to the Northeastern portion of the continent what
Alaska is to the North-western. In the variety and value of
natural resources both have much in common. The development of
the Hudson Bay region, while not as advanced as that of
Alaska, seems destined to be much accelerated in the near
future in every department of industrial endeavour. The United
States whalers, voyaging from New Bedford into Hudson Bay, and
from San Francisco into Alaskan seas, penetrate to the very
confines of the Arctic zone itself. To proceed against them
now, after their having enjoyed for over seventy years an
unrestricted access to Hudson Bay, whether entitled thereto or
not, is a step which may provoke a repetition of the
difficulties which were recently experienced over the Alaskan
Boundary. …

"[Canada] contends that from the entrance to Hudson Strait,
which she says is in a line drawn from Cape Chidley, the
northern projection of Labrador, to Resolution Island, the
southern extremity of Baffin Land, all the waters and lands to
the west, including the numerous islands of Arctic America,
are her exclusive possession. She bases this contention on the
following grounds:—

"1. Discovery (the waters, coastline and hinterland having
been discovered and charted by British explorers).

"2. Occupation (the region having been occupied only by the
Hudson Bay Company).

"3. Treaty cession (the British rights to the region having
been admitted by the French in 1713).

"4. Acquiescence (the United States having acknowledged the
Hudson Bay Company’s rights in 1818).

"5. Purchase (Canada having bought out the Company in 1870).

"But Americans are indisposed to acquiesce in any such
conclusion as regards the waters of the Bay. They contend that
the British had originally no rights beyond the three-mile
limit, that the French in 1713 could cede them no more, and
that the American concurrence in 1818 could apply only to the
same territorial waters. In other words, they question the
right of the British Monarch to grant such a Charter as he
did, and it may be observed here that the same point has
frequently been made in England also in the past by opponents
of the Company and by legal critics."

_P. T. McGrath,
The Hudson Bay Dispute
(Fortnightly Review, January, 1908)._

CANADA: A. D. 1903-1905.
Attitude of the Canadian Manufacturers’ Association toward
Great Britain and the United States on the Tariff question.

"The attitude of the Canadian Manufacturers’ Association
toward both the United States and Britain has been very
frequently misrepresented by opponents of tariff reform in
Canada and England. … The views of the Association were
clearly set forth in the recommendations made by the Tariff
Committee at the annual meeting in September, 1903, and
adopted by the Association after full discussion. The
attendance was very large, and the meeting was practically
unanimous, only one member dissenting. The resolutions were as
follows:

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"'(1) That we reaffirm the tariff resolution passed at the
last annual meeting in Halifax, as follows: Resolved, That in
the opinion of this Association, the changed conditions which
now obtain in Canada demand the immediate and thorough
revision of the tariff, upon lines which will more effectually
transfer to the workshops of our Dominion the manufacture of
many of the goods which we now import from other countries;
that, in any such revision, the interests of all sections of
the community, whether of agriculture, mining, fishing, or
manufacturing, should be fully considered, with a view, not
only to the preservation, but to the further development, of
all these great natural industries; that, while such a tariff
should primarily be framed for Canadian interests, it should
nevertheless give a substantial preference to the Mother
Country, and also to any other part of the British Empire with
which reciprocal preferential trade can be arranged,
recognizing always that under any conditions the minimum
tariff must afford adequate protection to all Canadian
producers.

(2) That, except in very special cases, we are opposed to the
granting of bounties in Canada as a substitute for a policy of
reasonable and permanent protection.

(3) That we are strongly opposed to any reciprocity treaty
with the United States affecting the manufacturing industries
of Canada.

(4) We recommend that the Dominion Government establish in
Canada a permanent tariff commission of experts, who shall
have constant supervision of tariff policy and changes, and
shall follow closely the workings of the Canadian tariff with
a view to making such recommendations to the Government as
will best conserve and advance the interests of the Dominion.’

"These resolutions were reaffirmed at the annual conventions
in 1904 and 1905, meeting with no opposition."

_Watson Griffin,
Canadian Manufacturers' Tariff Campaign
(North American Review, August, 1906)._

CANADA: A. D. 1903-1909.
New transcontinental railway project.
The Grand Trunk Pacific.

"The project for a new transcontinental railway made the year
1903 industrially significant. The scheme when finally
presented to Parliament by Sir Wilfrid Laurier, on July 31st,
provided for the building of a new line from Moncton, New
Brunswick, through Quebec to Winnipeg and the Pacific Coast at
a terminus then not fixed, but now known to be Prince Rupert.
The road is to be divided into two parts; the Eastern from
Moncton to Winnipeg, which is to be built by the Government,
and the Western from Winnipeg to Prince Rupert, to be built by
the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company. Provision was made
for a lease of the Eastern section by the company and its
purchase after fifty years. This company is practically the
same as the Grand Trunk Railway Company. Sir Wilfrid estimated
the cost at $13,000,000. There were provisions for Government
assistance in the guaranteeing of the bonds of the new
company."

_F. B. Tracy,
Tercentenary History of Canada,
Volume 3, page 1034 (Macmillan Company, New York, 1908)._

At the half yearly meeting of the Grand Trunk Company in
London, October 21, 1909, the President, Sir C. Rivers Wilson,
who had recently returned from Canada, spoke of the present
state and prospects of the transcontinental line, partly as
follows:

"They were, he remarked, under an obligation to complete their
road through to Prince Rupert by December 1, 1911, but, owing
to the want of labour, he feared there was very little chance
of their succeeding in doing so. … They had built through to
Winnipeg on the one hand and to Lake Superior on the other,
but there remained an unfortunate link of 245 miles to
complete their junction with Lake Superior. … After what had
happened he was very chary of making any prediction, but he
should think that, after all that had taken place, and after
the great pressure which was now being put on the contractors,
the road would be finished by next summer. Their great object,
of course, was to link up the west with their eastern system.
That would be done during the summer by the road coming down
to Lake Superior, which would enable them to communicate by
water with their Georgian Bay port, and during the winter,
when navigation was closed, by way of land north of Lake
Superior by the line the Government was to build to a place
called Cochrane, about 540 miles distant, where they would
obtain communication with North Bay and put themselves in
contact with their own Ontario road."

CANADA: A. D. 1904.
General Election.
Continuance of the Laurier Ministry.
The Earl of Minto succeeded as Governor-General by Earl Grey.

The general election in 1904 resulted in a parliamentary
majority of 64 for the Liberals, thus firmly reseating the
Laurier Ministry. The Conservatives carried Ontario, but were
beaten heavily in the Maritime Provinces, in Quebec, and in
the West. The general prosperity of the country gave a backing
to the Liberals which no political criticism could overcome.

The Earl of Minto was succeeded as Governor-General, in 1904,
by Earl Grey, grandson of the Earl Grey who, as Prime Minister
of England in 1832, carried through the first Reform of
Parliament, extinguishing the "rotten boroughs," transferring
political power from the land-owning aristocracy to the middle
class of English people, and beginning the democratizing of
government, which two later reforms have made nearly complete.
"There can be no doubt," said a Canadian correspondent of one
of the London journals lately, "that the present
Governor-General is more widely popular in Canada than any of
his predecessors in that high office were, or could have been.
Happy in his personality, happier still in his opportunities,
he is known and liked by all sorts and conditions of Canadians
in every part of the country; whereas more than one of those
who have represented the Sovereign there since the creation of
the Canadian Confederacy were regarded as august functionaries
forming the ‘dignified part’ of the constitutional mechanism
(to use Bagehot’s phrase), and as sedulously avoiding close
contact with the people at large."

Within the past year it has been announced officially from
Ottawa that Lord Grey will fill out his full period of six
years in the office of Governor-General, expiring in December,
1910.

CANADA: A. D. 1904.
Creation of the Board of Railway Commissioners.
Its large regulative powers.

See (in this Volume)
RAILWAYS: CANADA.

CANADA: A. D. 1904-1909.
Race problems.
Restriction of Chinese Immigration.
Labor hostility.
Riotous attacks on Japanese, Chinese, and Hindu laborers.

See (in this Volume)
RACE PROBLEMS: CANADA.

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CANADA: A. D. 1905.
New Provinces created.
Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Revival of the Separate School controversy.
The compromise settlement.

By Bills brought into the Dominion Parliament by the Premier,
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, on the 21st of February, 1905, and
subsequently passed, the four Northwest Territories ceded to
the Dominion by Great Britain in 1870 were reorganized as two
provinces, and admitted to membership in the Canadian Federal
Union, bearing the names of Alberta and Saskatchewan, with
Edmonton for the capital of the former and Regina for the
latter.

See, in Volume IV. of this work,
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES OF CANADA.

Saskatchewan includes the territories of Saskatchewan,
Assiniboia, and one-half of Athabasca, and Alberta the
territory of Alberta and the remainder of Athabasca. The
entire area of the two provinces is 550,345 square miles, and
it extends from Manitoba west to the 110th meridian, and from
the United States boundary to 60 north latitude. The
population of each province was reckoned at 250,000, and was
rapidly increasing. The Dominion Government retains control of
the public lands. Each of the new provinces received at the
beginning five representatives in the Dominion House of
Commons and four in the Senate. A single Legislative Chamber
of twenty-five members was provided for each; each has a
Lieutenant-Governor, with a Cabinet of responsible Ministers.
The Dominion Treasury contributes $250,000 yearly to the
revenue of each.

A provision in these bills for conceding separate schools to
religious minorities revived the controversy which raged in
Canada for many years, after the Province of Manitoba, in
1890, had abolished denominational schools and established a
free, compulsory, unsectarian school system.

See, in Volume VI. of this work,
CANADA: A. D. 1890-1896, and A. D, 1898 (JANUARY).

The Government was forced to amend the provision, devising a
compromise which cannot be said to have satisfied either party
to the dispute, but which saved the Government from a probable
defeat. This affords a half hour of religious teaching, by
denominational teachers, at the end of school hours, the
denominational character of the instruction determined by the
majority in attendance, and its reception to be optional. As
explained at the time by a writer in The Outlook, the working
of the system is as follows. "The half-hour is the only
noteworthy feature of the separate schools. They are liable
for no other school taxation than that which is necessary to
support those schools. In all other respects, in every detail
of government control and oversight, they are exactly like the
schools of the majority. From nine o’clock in the morning
until three o’clock in the afternoon the order of lessons is
the same for all; so are the textbooks, the standards of
efficiency, and the qualifications of the teachers. There
cannot be any control of the school by any clerical or
sectarian body. There cannot be any sectarian teaching between
nine o’clock in the morning and three o’clock in the
afternoon. The Normal schools of the new provinces will give a
uniform normal training for all teachers, and there will be
uniform curricula and courses of study for all schools of the
same grade. There will be complete and absolute control of all
schools as to their government and conduct by the central
school authority created by the new provincial Legislature.
The distribution of the legislative grant to all schools will
be according to educational efficiency, a wise provision which
did not apply to separate schools of the old type. To
recapitulate, all the schools are alike, except that where the
trustees are Protestant there is Protestant religious teaching
from half-past three to four, and where the trustees are Roman
Catholic there is Roman Catholic teaching during the
half-hour. That is the only distinction, and neither
Protestant nor Roman Catholic children, when they are in the
minority, need remain to hear any religious teaching against
their parents’ wishes."

CANADA: A. D. 1906.
Dominion Forest Reserves Act.

See (in this Volume)
Conservation of Natural Resources.

CANADA: A. D. 1906.
Passage of the "Lord’s Day Act."

See (in this Volume)
SUNDAY OBSERVANCE.

CANADA: A. D. 1906.
Prisons and Reformatory Act.

See (in this Volume)
CHILDREN, UNDER THE LAW: AS OFFENDERS.

CANADA: A. D. 1906 (May).
Departure of the last British garrison.

On the 1st of May, 1906, the last British garrison in the
Dominion was withdrawn from Esquimault, in British Columbia,
under an arrangement which leaves the Canadian Government in
undivided control of all military posts.

CANADA: A. D. 1906-1907.
Political experiments in Ontario.
Broadening the functions of government.

The Canadians of their Middle West, who used to be the most
conservative of Britons, have manifested lately a new spirit,
wafted, perhaps, from adventuresome New Zealand, and are
trying governmental experiments that would stagger
Oklahoma,—trying them, too, with what looks like success.

For the development of the rich cobalt and silver mining
region on its eastern border, and for the encouragement of
colonization farther northward on the same border, the Ontario
Government has not hesitated to construct and own and operate
officially an important line of railway, the Temiskaming and
Northern Ontario, which is reported to have been profitable
from the start. The road may possibly be extended to James
Bay, the southward projection of Hudson Bay.

The progressive government of Ontario has also undertaken to
work for its own benefit the mines in a large lately opened
block of the Cobalt mining territory, covering about 100
square miles. In somewhat the same line of economic policy, it
determined in 1906 to control the development and transmission
of electric power at and from Niagara Falls, and accomplished
its purpose by a contract with the Ontario Power Company,
which secures power to municipalities in Ontario at an
extremely reasonable rate.

This adventurous policy in economic directions is less
surprising, however, than an absolutely novel experiment in
the officializing of political parties, as agencies in
representative government, which has been put on trial in
Ontario during two parliamentary sessions. For the first time
in constitutional history, the opposition leader in a
legislature has been made a recognized functionary and
salaried by the Government to the extent of $7,000 a year.
Theoretically, the importance of an effectively critical
opposition to the majority party in a legislature is always
acknowledged. Is there not good sense, then, theoretically at
least, in a policy of government which aims to increase the
efficiency of that criticism and give it a responsible
character, in the mode which the Ontarians are trying?

{69}

After between two and three years trial of this last named
experiment, with a salaried leader of the Opposition, the
Toronto correspondent of the London _Times_ wrote, in
June, 1909, to that paper as follows:

"This is an experiment in Parliamentary government which has
not been attempted elsewhere. It has both advantages and
disadvantages. There are few men of wealth or leisure in
Canadian public life, and generally a private party fund has
been provided for the support of the leader of the Opposition.
The charge was commonly made that as this fund was likely to
be provided by the few wealthy men of the party they would
exact compensation in the form of official appointment or
legislative favour when the Opposition leader became the head
of the Government. It was decided, therefore, to give a
salary, equal to the emoluments of a Minister of the Crown, to
the leader of the Opposition. Mr. Borden [leader of the
Opposition in Ontario for some time past] sanctioned this
legislation and accepted the remuneration provided. It was
argued that he thus became a pensioner on the Government, and
that a servile consideration for his salary would affect his
independence and restrain his criticism of the paymasters on
the Treasury benches. Mr. Borden, while disposed more than
once to relinquish the salary, felt that this criticism was
unjust, and, knowing the grave financial distresses which some
of his predecessors had experienced, waited patiently for the
attack to exhaust itself and for opportunity to prove that he
was not a dependent of the Treasury. At length his course
seems to be justified, and the appropriation of a salary for
the leader of the Opposition seems likely to become a settled
feature of the Canadian Parliamentary system. The real test
will come, however, if the system of Parliamentary groups
should ever replace the established two-party system in
Canada. But for the time the experiment has been justified,
and under the conditions which so often obtain in Canada it
may even be said that the official salary enhances the
independence and dignity of the Opposition leader in
Parliament."

CANADA: A. D. 1906-1908.
The Canada Temperance Act.

See (in this Volume)
ALCOHOL PROBLEM: CANADA.

CANADA: A. D. 1907.
The founding of Macdonald College.

See (in this Volume)
EDUCATION: CANADA: A. D. 1907.

CANADA: A. D. 1907 (March).
The "Industrial Disputes Investigation Act," to aid in the
prevention and settlement of Strikes and Lockouts.

See (in this Volume)
LABOR ORGANIZATION: CANADA: A. D. 1907-1908.

CANADA: A. D. 1907 (April-May).
Imperial Conference at London.

See (in this Volume)
British Empire: A. D. 1907.

CANADA: A. D. 1907-1909.
Convention respecting commercial relations with France
and its amendment.

A Convention which greatly liberalized the tariff regulations
affecting trade between Canada and France was concluded
between the British and French Governments and signed at Paris
on the 19th of September, 1907. It gave "the benefit of the
minimum tariff and of the lowest rates of customs duty
applicable to like products of other foreign origin,"
reciprocally, in each country to certain enumerated products
of the other; with mutual pledges that every reduction granted
by either to any foreign country should apply to similar
products of the other.

In January, 1909, an amended Convention was negotiated which
liberalized still further this commercial agreement, enlarging
the schedules of favored products, especially the agricultural
schedules, giving important advantages to Canada in the French
market. The amended Convention was ratified in France on the
13th of July, and in Canada early in December.

CANADA: A. D. 1908.
Child Labor legislation.

See (in this Volume)
CHILDREN, UNDER THE LAW: AS WORKERS.

CANADA: A. D. 1908.
Governmental undertaking of a railway to Hudson Bay.

See (in this Volume)
RAILWAYS: CANADA: A. D. 1908-1909.

CANADA: A. D. 1908 (April).
Convention for the preservation and propagation of Food
Fishes in waters contiguous to the United States and Canada.

See (in this Volume)
FOOD FISHES.

CANADA: A. D. 1908 (April).
Treaty respecting the demarcation of the International
Boundary between the United States and Canada.