Chapter I: The Anglo-Saxon Period, 449-1066 (16)

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| NAME AND | OCCURRENCE, PREPARATION AND | COMPOUNDS AND CHIEF USES |
|IMPORTANT DATA| PROPERTIES | |
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|=Aluminum.= |OCC.--cryolite AlF₃, 3NaF; |Used for cooking utensils,|
|Symbol Al. |bauxite, impure Al(OH)₃; in |boat-building, military |
|At. wt. 27.1. |feldspars, micas and clay; |accouterments and small |
|Valence III. |emery, ruby, sapphire (Al₂O₃). |articles requiring light- |
|S. G. 2.7. |PREP.--com’l, by electrolysis |ness and strength; for |
|M. P. 658°. |of Al₂O₃, from bauxite, dis- |electric leads. The pow- |
|B. P. 1800°. |solved in cryolite, water-power|dered metal is used as a |
| |usually furnishing the electri-|body for paint; and its |
| |cal energy. |mixture with ferric oxide,|
| |PROP.--silver-white, ductile, |called thermite, is used |
| |malleable at 120°, tensile |for producing very high |
| |strength (wrought) 16 tons per |temperatures (up to |
| |sq. in. A better conductor of |3700°C.) for welding |
| |electricity, weight for weight,|rails, etc. Many metals |
| |than copper. Molten metal not |are reduced from their |
| |mobile enough to make castings.|oxides by means of Al, |
| |It turns badly in the lathe. |hence its use in casting |
| |Acted upon by dil. hydrochloric|steel. Aluminum bronze |
| |acid, slowly by sulphuric, but |(10% Al), rolled, has ten-|
| |not by nitric or the acids |sile strength of 40 tons |
| |occurring in foods. Soluble in |per sq. in. Its sulphate |
| |alkaline hydroxides. The tar- |forms alums, e.g., |
| |nishing action of moist air |KAl(SO₄)₂, 12H₂O, common |
| |soon comes to an end as the |alum. |
| |tarnish acts as an adherent | |
| |protective coating. | |
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|=Antimony.= |OCC.--free, and as stibnite |The metal is a constituent|
|Symbol Sb. |(Sb₂S₃). |of the alloy type metal, |
|At. wt. 120.2.|PREP.--roasting stibnite gives |Britannia metal and |
|Valence III. |Sb₂O₄, which is then reduced by|Babbitt metal (used for |
|and V. |heating with carbon. |bearings). Its oxide |
|S. G. 6.6. |PROP.--white, brittle, crystal-|(Sb₂O₃) is both basic and |
|M. P. 630.7°. |line metal. Its alloys expand |acidic. The trichloride, |
|B. P. 1440°. |on solidification, and there- |butter of antimony |
| |fore give very sharp castings, |(SbCl₃), is easily hydro- |
| |e.g., for type. It does not |lyzed. Tartar emetic |
| |tarnish, but may be burned in |(SbOKC₄H₄O₆) is used in |
| |air, and unites directly with |medicine and in dyeing. |
| |the halogens. | |
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|=Argon.= |Present in the air 0.94% by |Forms no compounds, hence |
|Symbol A. |volume. To isolate, air is |its name--does no work. Is|
|At. wt. 39.86.|freed from CO₂ by soda-lime, |a monatomic gas and is |
|Valence nil. |water by P₂O₅, oxygen by red- |identified by its charac-|
|Density 39.9 |hot copper, nitrogen by magne- |teristic spectrum seen by |
|(oxygen = 32).|sium and calcium. From the |examining the light |
|B. P. -186°. |residual mixture argon is ob- |emitted when the gas is |
|M. P. -190°. |tained by fractional distilla- |placed in a vacuum tube at|
| |tion. |low pressure and sparked. |
| | |More soluble in water than|
| | |nitrogen, 100 vols. water |
| | |dissolving 4 vols. argon |
| | |under ordinary conditions.|
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|=Arsenic.= |OCC.--free, as arsenical |Used for hardening lead |
|Symbol As. |pyrites (FeSAs), as orpiment |for shot. All its com- |
|At. wt. 74.96 |(As₂S₃) and as realgar (As₂S₂).|pounds are poisonous. |
|Valence III. |PREP.--by heating arsenical |White arsenic (As₂O₃) is |
|and V. |pyrites, FeSAs--FeS + As. |partly basic, forming a |
|S. G. 5.7. |PROP.--a steel-gray, dully- |chloride and partly acid- |
|B. P. 616° |metallic and crystalline ele- |ic, forming arsenites. |
|(sublimes). |ment classed as a metalloid |Scheele’s green (CuHAsO₃) |
|M. P. about |because intermediate between |is a pigment dangerous in |
|800° (under |metals and non-metals. Its |wallpapers. Traces of |
|pressure). |vapor has a density correspond-|arsenic are detected by |
| |ing to As₄ at 644°, and to As₂ |Marsh’s test in which the |
| |at 1700°. It burns in air and |intensely poisonous arsine|
| |unites directly with the halo- |(AsH₃) is formed. |
| |gens, sulphur and with many | |
| |metals. | |
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|=Barium.= |OCC.--as barytes or heavy-spar |The peroxide (BaO₂) is |
|Symbol Ba. |(BaSO₄), and as witherite |used in the manufacture of|
|At. wt. |(BaCO₃). |oxygen and of hydrogen |
|137.37. |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |peroxide. The nitrate and |
|Valence II. |fused chloride. |chlorate in pyrotechny to |
|S. G. 3.8. |PROP.--a silver-white, lus- |give green fires. The sul-|
|M. P. 850°. |trous, malleable metal harder |phate as the body for a |
| |than lead. Like calcium, it |permanent white paint and |
| |acts slowly on water to give |for filling glazed paper. |
| |barium hydroxide and hydrogen. |All soluble compounds are |
| |The vapors of its compounds |poisonous. |
| |impart a green color to the | |
| |Bunsen flame. | |
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|=Bismuth.= |OCC.--free and as trioxide |Used for making fusible |
|Symbol Bi. |(Bi₂O₃) and trisulphide |alloys, e.g. Wood’s metal,|
|At. wt. 208.0 |(Bi₂S₃). |M. P. 60.5°, which are |
|Valence III. |PREP.--the ore is roasted and |used in plugs of fire |
|(and V.). |then heated with charcoal and |sprinklers and boiler |
|S. G. 9.8. |metallic iron (to remove traces|safety valves, and for |
|M. P. 270.9°. |of sulphur.) |taking casts. The oxy- |
|B. P. 1420°. |PROP.--an exceedingly brittle, |nitrate is used in med- |
| |crystalline shining metal, |icine and as a cosmetic. |
| |white with a tinge of pink. | |
| |Bismuth expands on solidifica- | |
| |tion. It does not tarnish, but | |
| |can be burnt in air. Dissolves | |
| |in oxygen acids. | |
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|=Boron.= |OCC.--as boric acid (H₃BO₃), |The compounds are analo- |
|Symbol B. |borax (Na₂B₄O₇, 10H₂O), coleman-|gous to those of silicon.|
|At. wt. 11.0. |ite (Ca₂B₆O₁₁, 5H₂O). |Borax is used as a flux, |
|Valence III. |PREP.--amorphous boron by re- |and, in solution, as a |
|S. G. |ducing B₂O₃ with Mg. Impure |mild alkali on account of |
|(amorph.) 2.4;|cryst. boron by reducing B₂O₂ |its hydrolysis. Boric acid|
|(cryst.) 2.5. |with excess of Al. |is used as a weak anti- |
|B. P. 3500° |PROP.--amorphous boron is a |septic and preservative. |
|(sublimes). |greenish-black powder that | |
| |burns in air at 700°, forming | |
| |B₂O₃ and also BN. It is oxi- | |
| |dized, by hot conc. sulphuric | |
| |or nitric acids, to boric acid.| |
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|=Bromine.= |OCC.--in seawater as alkali |Potassium bromide is used |
|Symbol Br. |bromide, and in the upper |in medicine, silver |
|At. wt. 79.22 |layers of salt deposits as |bromide in photography. |
|Valence I. |sodium and magnesium bromide. |Bromine is used in course |
|S. G. 3.1 |PREP.--by treatment of the |of the preparation of |
|B. P. 59°. |brines with sulphuric acid and |organic dyes. |
|M. P. -7.3°. |manganese dioxide, or else with| |
| |chlorine. | |
| |PROP.--a dark red liquid, | |
| |smelling like chlorine, whose | |
| |vapor irritates eyes, throat | |
| |and nose. Dissolves in thirty | |
| |parts of water (bromine water).| |
| |Combines directly with most | |
| |other elements, but less vigor-| |
| |ously than chlorine. | |
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|=Cadmium.= |OCC.--in association with the |All the compounds are |
|Symbol Cd. |zinc ores, as carbonate and |poisonous, and little |
|At. wt. |sulphide. |ionized. The sulphide |
|112.40. |PREP.--in the distillation of |(CdS) is the basis of |
|Valence II. |impure zinc, the cadmium comes |“cadmium yellow.” The |
|S. G. 8.6. |over in the first portions. |iodide is used in medi- |
|M. P. 320.9°. |PROP.--a silver-white metal, |cine. |
|B. P. 766°. |more ductile and malleable than| |
| |zinc. It burns in air, and is | |
| |attacked by dilute acids. | |
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|=Caesium.= |OCC.--in certain micas, and in |The compounds are charac- |
|Symbol Cs. |the ashes of certain plants. |terized by giving, es- |
|At. wt. |PREP.--by heating the hydroxide|pecially, two bright lines|
|132.81. |(CsOH) with magnesium. |in the blue of the |
|Valence I. |PROP.--a white, silvery metal |spectrum (caesius sky- |
|S. G. 1.9. |resembling potassium. It is one|blue). |
|M. P. 26.3°. |of the most active of metals, | |
|B. P. 670°. |and decomposes water violently.| |
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|=Calcium.= |OCC.--as carbonate (Iceland |Calcium oxide (quicklime) |
|Symbol Ca. |spar, calcite, aragonite, |is used for mortar and to |
|At. wt. 40.07.|marble, chalk, limestone), |remove hair from hides. |
|Valence II. |sulphate (gypsum), phosphate |The hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂] |
|S. G. 1.55. |(apatite), fluoride (fluor |mixed with sand forms |
|M. P. 803°. |spar), and as complex silicates|mortar; its solution is |
| |in great variety (feldspars, |limewater. Plaster of |
| |pyroxenes, amphiboles, etc.). |paris, a less hydrated |
| |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |sulphate, takes up water |
| |fused chloride. |on setting to form CaSO₄, |
| |PROP.--a white crystalline |2H₂O. The phosphates are |
| |metal, harder than lead, that |fertilizers. Bleaching |
| |can be cut, drawn, rolled and |powder is CaClOCl and |
| |turned. It attacks water, and |calcium carbide is CaC₂. |
| |burns in the air at a red heat |Common glass contains |
| |forming the oxide (CaO) and the|silicates of calcium and |
| |nitride (Ca₃N₂). It unites with|sodium. |
| |hydrogen to CaH₂, whose action | |
| |on water is a source of | |
| |hydrogen for balloons. | |
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|=Carbon.= |OCC.--as diamond and graphite, |The carbon compounds form |
|Symbol C. |in the free state; in combina- |the subject of “Organic |
|At. wt. |tion with hydrogen as petro- |Chemistry.” Carbon dioxide|
|12.005. |leum, with oxygen as carbon di-|results from the burning |
|Valence IV. |oxide in the air, with these |of coal, coke, wood, oil |
|S. G. diamond |and other elements as coal, and|or illuminating gas; from |
|3.5: graphite |in plant and animal tissues; |fermentation and decay, |
|2.3: amorphous|and as many carbonates. |which are slow burnings; |
|1.9 |PREP.--by dry distillation of |and is exhaled in the |
|M. P.--not |wood or coal, yielding charcoal|breath. Carbon monoxide, |
|realized; |and coke respectively. |arising from recently- |
|estimated at |PROP.--diamond is crystalline |stoked fires, is an ex- |
|4400°. |and the hardest of minerals, |ceedingly poisonous gas. |
| |the dark-colored “bort” being | |
| |used for cutting and grinding. | |
| |Graphite has a black metallic | |
| |luster, is crystalline and may | |
| |be scratched by the finger- | |
| |nail. Charcoal is amorphous, | |
| |and possesses the power of ab- | |
| |sorbing gases and also coloring| |
| |matters. All three forms burn | |
| |in oxygen to produce carbon | |
| |dioxide. | |
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|=Cerium.= |OCC.--as silicate in cerite, |Welsbach incandescent gas |
|Symbol Ce. |along with Nd, Pr and La; also |mantles contain one per |
|At. wt. |in monazite sand. |cent of cerium dioxide, |
|140.25. |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |CeO₂. |
|Valence III., |fused chloride. | |
|IV. (and VI.).|PROP.--a metal with the color | |
|S. G. 6.8; |and luster of iron, like tin in| |
|M. P. 623°. |hardness, and very ductile and | |
| |malleable. Burns in air more | |
| |easily and brightly than | |
| |magnesium. | |
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|=Chlorine.= |OCC.--in seawater as chlorides |The gas is used in ex- |
|Symbol Cl. |of the alkalis and alkaline |tracting gold and in pre- |
|At. wt. 35.46.|earths, and as like compounds |paring bleaching and dis- |
|Valence I. |in salt deposits. |infecting agents. In pre- |
|(and VII.). |PREP.--by electrolysis of |sence of water it bleaches|
|S. G. (liquid)|alkali chloride, fused or in |many coloring matters. |
|1.3. |solution; or by the action of |Forms chlorides (as NaCl, |
|M. P. -101°. |manganese dioxide on hydro- |HCl, CaCl₂), hypochlorides|
|B. P. -33.6°. |chloric acid. |[as solution of Ca(OCl)₂],|
|C. T. +146°. |PROP.--a greenish-yellow gas of|chlorates (as KClO₃, used |
| |characteristic odor, with a |for matches and in pyro- |
| |violent action on the respira- |techny), and perchlorates |
| |tory tract. Unites directly |(as KClO₄). |
| |with all elements save oxygen, | |
| |nitrogen and the argon family. | |
| |Displaces bromine and iodine | |
| |from bromides and iodides, and | |
| |substitutes hydrogen in organic| |
| |compounds. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Chromium.= |OCC.--as chromite [Fe(CrO₂)₂]. |The alloy ferrochromium is|
|Symbol Cr. |PREP.--by reducing Cr₂O₃ with |used in steel-making. |
|At. wt. 52.0. |aluminum filings. |Chrome green, the pigment,|
|Valence II., |PROP.--a steel-gray, lustrous, |is Cr₂O₃. Chrome yellow is|
|III. and VI. |brittle and very hard metal. At|PbCrO₄. Bichromates (as |
|S. G. 6.6. |high temperatures it burns in |K₂Cr₂O₇) are used in |
|M. P. 1515°. |air to green Cr₂O₃. It is |photo-processes, tanning |
|B. P. 2200°. |attacked by dilute sulphuric or|and dyeing and as oxi- |
| |hydrochloric acid, but not by |dizing agents, e.g., in |
| |nitric acid. |batteries. |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Cobalt.= |OCC.--as smaltite (CoAs₂) and |Its intensely blue sili- |
|Symbol Co. |cobaltite (CoAsS). |cates are used in coloring|
|At. wt. 58.97.|PREP.--by igniting the oxide in|porcelain and constitute |
|Valence II. |hydrogen. |the pigment smalt. |
|and III. |PROP.--a white, magnetic, mal- | |
|S. G. 8.6. |leable metal, less tenacious | |
|M. P. 1490°. |than iron. By exposure it turns| |
| |pinkish. It is less active | |
| |chemically than iron. | |
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|=Columbium= |OCC.--in the mineral columbite.|The hydride (CbH) burns in|
|(Niobium) |PREP.--by reduction of CbO₂ by |air. The compounds occur |
|Symbol Cb. |paraffin. |with those of tantalum, |
|At. wt. 93.5. |PROP.--a light-gray, malleable |which they closely |
|Valence I., |and ductile metal, as hard as |resemble. |
|II., IV. and |wrought iron, which is not | |
|V. |affected by acids, even by aqua| |
|S. G. 12.7. |regia. | |
|M. P. 1950°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Copper.= |OCC.--free, as cuprite (Cu₂O), |The metal is used for |
|Symbol Cu. |copper glance (Cu₂S), chalcopy-|coins, electroplating, |
|At. wt. 63.57.|rite (Cu₂S, Fe₂S₃), malachite |electric leads, roofing, |
|Valence I. and|[CuCO₃, Cu(OH)₃]. |cooking vessels and for |
|II. |PREP.--after removal of iron |making alloys, such as |
|S. G. 8.9. |and sulphur, the oxide is re- |brass, bell and gun |
|M. P. 1083°. |duced by heating with carbon. |metals, German silver and |
|B. P. 2310°. |It is refined electrolytically.|the bronzes. The soluble |
| |PROP.--a red, lustrous, very |compounds are poisonous, |
| |ductile and malleable metal of |and are therefore used as |
| |tensile strength fourteen tons |germicides in agriculture.|
| |per square inch, second only to|Blue vitriol is CuSO₄ |
| |silver in electrical conductiv-|5H₂O; the basic acetate is|
| |ity. In ordinary air it gradu- |verdigris. |
| |ally becomes coated with basic | |
| |carbonate. In absence of air, | |
| |nitric acid alone among the | |
| |dilute acids attacks it, but in| |
| |presence of air even the acids | |
| |found in foodstuffs can dis- | |
| |solve it. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Dysprosium.= |OCC.--in monazite, gadolinite, |The salts are green or |
|Symbol Dy. |etc. |yellow in color and show |
|At. wt. 162.5.|PREP.--not yet isolated. |characteristic absorption |
|Valence III. |PROP.--the oxide dysprosia, |bands. |
| |along with three other rare | |
| |earths, constitutes erbia. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Erbium.= |OCC.--same as for dysprosium. |The salts are rose- |
|Symbol Er. |PREP.--not yet isolated pure. |colored, and show charac- |
|At. wt. 167.7.|PROP.--crude erbia has been |teristic absorption |
|Valence III. |separated into erbia, holmia, |spectra. |
|S. G. 4.8. |thulia, and dysprosia. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Europium.= |OCC.--in monazite and other |The salts are pinkish and |
|Symbol Eu. |rare minerals. |show a faint absorption |
|At. wt. 152.0.|PREP.--not yet isolated. |spectrum. |
|Valence III. |PROP.--this element so closely | |
| |resembles samarium that the | |
| |analytical separation of the | |
| |two is difficult. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Fluorine.= |OCC.--as cryolite (AlF₃, 3NaF),|Hydrogen fluoride is used |
|Symbol F. |fluor spar (CaF₂) and very |for etching glass and in |
|At. wt. 19.0. |widely elsewhere in small quan-|silicate analysis. Silver |
|Valence I. |tities. |fluoride is soluble and |
|S. G. (liquid)|PREP.--by electrolysis of dry |calcium fluoride insolu- |
|1.11 at -187°.|hydrogen fluoride at -23°. |ble, in contrast with the |
|M. P. -223°. |PROP.--a pale yellowish-green |other halides of these |
|B. P. -187°. |gas that unites with every |metals. |
| |element excepting oxygen and | |
| |the argon family. It rapidly | |
| |displaces oxygen from water or | |
| |chlorine from hydrogen | |
| |chloride. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Gadolinium.= |OCC.--in gadolinite and |The salts are colorless |
|Symbol Gd. |samarskite. |and show no absorption |
|At. wt. 157.3.|PREP.--not yet isolated. |bands. |
|Valence III. |PROP.--This element closely | |
| |resembles terbium in its | |
| |compounds. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Gallium.= |OCC.--in zinc blende and in |It forms two chlorides |
|Symbol Ga. |bauxite. |(GaCl₃ and GaCl₂) which |
|At. wt. 69.9. |PREP.--by electrolysis of a |yield spark spectra very |
|Valence III. |suitable solution of its salts.|characteristic of gallium.|
|S. G. 5.9. |PROP.--a bluish-white, tough | |
|M. P. 30.1°. |metal that may be cut with a | |
| |knife. Like aluminum, it is | |
| |soluble in hydrochloric acid | |
| |and in caustic alkali, but not | |
| |in nitric acid. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Germanium.= |OCC.--in the rare mineral |The close relation of this|
|Symbol Ge. |argyrodite. |element to carbon and |
|At. wt. 72.5. |PREP.--by the reduction of the |silicon is shown in the |
|Valence II. |dioxide (GeO₂) by carbon. |compound germanium chloro-|
|and IV. |PROP.--a grayish-white, brit- |form (GeHCl₃). |
|S. G. 5.5. |tle, lustrous metal, insoluble | |
|M. P. 958°. |in hydrochloric acid. It com- | |
| |bines directly with the halo- | |
| |gens. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Glucinum= (or|OCC.--in beryl [Al₂Gl₂(SiO₃)₆].|Its hydroxide [Gl(OH)₂] is|
|Beryllium). |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |feebly acidic as well as |
|Symbol Gl. |fused double fluoride, GlF₂, |basic, thus resembling the|
|At. wt. 9.1. |2KF. |hydroxide of zinc. Emerald|
|Valence II. |PROP.--a hard, white metal that|is beryl colored green by |
|S. G. 1.7. |tarnishes when heated in air, |chromium. |
|M. P. below |and is soluble in dilute acids | |
|960°. |when powdered. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Gold.= |OCC.--chiefly free, but also as|Pure gold is called 24- |
|Symbol Au. |telluride; many specimens of |carat gold. American, |
|At. wt. 197.2.|iron are auriferous. |French and German gold |
|Valence I. and|PREP.--from gold-bearing sands |coins are 21.6 carat, |
|III. |by washing away the lighter |while British sovereigns |
|S. G. 19.32. |material, and dissolving the |are 22 carat, the balance |
|M. P. 1062.4°.|gold from the residue by mer- |in all these cases being |
| |cury, which is subsequently |copper. Jewelry is made in|
| |separated from the gold by |18, 14, 9, etc., carat |
| |distillation. Quartz ores are |gold, the addition of |
| |pulverized in stamping mills, |copper increasing the |
| |and the powder is then carried |hardness and rigidity. |
| |by water over amalgamated |Sodium chloraurate |
| |copper plates on which the gold|(NaAuCl₄) is used for |
| |collects. |“toning” in photography, |
| |PROP.--a soft, bright-yellow |while potassium auri- |
| |metal, easily scratched by the |cyanide [KAu(CN)₄] is used|
| |knife, an excellent conductor |in electro-gilding. |
| |of heat and of electricity. The| |
| |most ductile and the most mal- | |
| |leable of all the metals. | |
| |Chemically, gold is rather in- | |
| |ert, and is not attacked by the| |
| |oxygen of the air, by hydrogen | |
| |sulphide, nor, indeed, by any | |
| |single one of the common acids.| |
| |It is attacked by fused alka- | |
| |lis, yielding aurates, and by | |
| |aqua regia, yielding chlorauric| |
| |acid (HAuCl₄). | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Helium.= |OCC.--in air to the extent of |It is one of the decompo- |
|Symbol He. |one to two volumes per million;|sition products of certain|
|At. wt. 4.00. |also occluded in certain |other (radio-active) |
|Valence 0. |minerals. |elements. |
|S. G. (liquid |PREP.--neon and helium are | |
|at B.P.) |boiled off crude argon, and the| |
|0.122. |neon solidified by cooling. | |
|M. P. -272°. |PROP.--the lightest gas after | |
|B. P. -268.7°.|hydrogen, transparent, odorless| |
| |and colorless, very inert, | |
| |forming no compounds with other| |
| |elements. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Holmium.= |... |... |
|Symbol Ho. | | |
|At. wt. 163.5.| | |
|Valence III. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Hydrogen.= |OCC.--in air to the extent of |Its two oxides are water |
|Symbol H. |one volume per 20,000 volumes |(H₂O) and hydrogen per- |
|At. wt. 1.008.|air; combined, in water (11.19%|oxide (H₂O₂), the latter |
|Valence I. |by weight) natural gas, petro- |of which is used in solu- |
|S. G. (liquid |leum and all animal and vege- |tion as a bleaching agent.|
|at B.P.) 0.07.|table bodies. |Every acid contains hydro-|
|M. P. -259°. |PREP.--by treating zinc with |gen as an essential con- |
|B. P. -252.5°.|hydrochloric or sulphuric acid;|stituent. Its compounds |
| |by electrolysis of water. |with carbon and other |
| |PROP.--the lightest gas, trans-|elements number over |
| |parent, odorless and colorless,|100,000. Hydrogen gas is |
| |soluble in water (2 volumes in |used for the oxyhydrogen |
| |100 volumes water under every- |flame and for filling |
| |day conditions), in platinum, |balloons. |
| |in palladium (502 volumes in 1 | |
| |of Pd). Burns in air and in | |
| |chlorine, and unites with many | |
| |of the other elements. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Indium.= |OCC.--in zinc blende (ZnS). |Its compounds color the |
|Symbol In. |PREP.--electrolytically from |nonluminous gas flame blue|
|At. wt. 114.8.|solutions of its salts. |and show a characteristic |
|Valence III. |PROP.--a white metal, malleable|blue line in the spectrum.|
|and I. |and softer than lead. | |
|S. G. 7.3. | | |
|M. P. 155°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Iodine.= |OCC.--in the ocean, in certain |Its tincture is used in |
|Symbol I. |seaweeds, and in Chili salt- |medicine as a counterirri-|
|At. wt. |peter, always in the combined |tant. Potassium iodide |
|126.92. |state. |(KI) and iodoform (CHI₃) |
|Valence I., V.|PREP.--from iodides by dis- |likewise find application |
|and VII. |placement of their iodine by |in medicine. The alkyl |
|S. G. 4.94. |chlorine. |iodides (e.g., C₂H₅I) are |
|M. P. 114°. |PROP.--a dark gray, brittle |much used in synthetic |
|B. P. 184°. |solid with a metallic luster. |organic chemistry. |
| |Its vapor is violet, as are its| |
| |solutions in chloroform and in | |
| |carbon bisulphide. It requires | |
| |over 5,000 parts of water for | |
| |its solution. Combines directly| |
| |with many elements, but is much| |
| |less active than chlorine and | |
| |bromine. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Iridium.= |OCC.--along with platinum. |It is used for pointing |
|Symbol Ir. |PREP.--by a complex series of |gold pens. Its alloy with |
|At. wt. 193.1.|operations from platinum ores. |nine parts of platinum is |
|Valence III. |PROP.--a white metal, brittle |used for standard meter |
|and IV. |when cold, and very hard. It is|bars on account of its |
|S. G. 22.4. |attacked by fused alkalies, but|inalterability. |
|M. P. 2300°. |not by aqua regia. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Iron.= |OCC.--as magnetic oxide |The metal is used as a |
|Symbol Fe. |(Fe₂O₄), hematite (Fe₂O₃), |structural material, for |
|At. wt. 55.85.|limonite (2Fe₂O₃, 3H₂O), |rails, machinery, tools, |
|Valence II. |siderite (Fe₂CO₃), which are im-|etc. Jeweler’s rouge and |
|and III. |portant ores; iron pyrites |Venetian red consist of |
|S. G. 7.86; |(FeS₂); in rocks as complex |the oxide (Fe₂O₃). Rust is|
|pig 7.03 to |silicates, and in plants and |chiefly the hydrated oxide|
|7.73. |animals. |(FeO, OH). Hammer scale |
|M. P. 1515°. |PREP.--pig iron is prepared in |and loadstone have the |
|B. P. 2450°. |the blast furnace by reduction |composition Fe₃O₄. Ferric |
|wrought 1100°-|of the ore by means of carbon |chloride (FeCl₃), ferrous |
|1500°. |monoxide in presence of a |iodide (FeI₂) and other |
|steel 1375°. |suitable flux. From pig iron, |iron compounds are used in|
|gray pig |wrought iron is obtained by |medicine. Green vitriol |
|1275°. |puddling, and steel by the |(FeSO₄, 7H₂O) is used in |
|white pig |Bessemer, Siemens-Martin or |making ink, and in dyeing.|
|1075°. |other process. |Potassium ferrocyanide |
| |PROP.--a white, malleable, |[K₄Fe(CN)₆] is used for |
| |ductile, magnetic metal, un- |making Prussian blue, |
| |changed in dry air or air-free |potassium cyanide, etc. |
| |water, but rusting in moist | |
| |air. Easily attacked by dilute | |
| |acids, but not by fused alka- | |
| |lies. Cast iron contains 2 to | |
| |5% of carbon and other impuri- | |
| |ties, and is hard and brittle. | |
| |Wrought iron contains less than| |
| |0.2% of carbon, and is softer | |
| |and tougher, with a tensile | |
| |strength of 22 to 25 tons per | |
| |square inch. Steel contains | |
| |from 0.2 to 1.5% of carbon, is | |
| |permanently magnetic, may be | |
| |tempered, and possesses tensile| |
| |strength up to 100 tons | |
| |per square inch. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Krypton.= |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds, and|
|Symbol Kr. |air. |is identified by its |
|At. wt. 82.92.|PREP.--from crude argon by |characteristic spectrum. |
|Valence 0. |fractional distillation. | |
|S. G. (Liquid |PROP.--an inert, colorless, | |
|at B. P.) 2.2.|odorless gas, resembling, but | |
|M. P. -169°. |denser than, argon. | |
|B. P. -152°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Lanthanum.= |OCC.--as lanthanite [La₂(CO₃)₃,|When heated in air it |
|Symbol La. |8H₂O]. |forms oxide (La₂O₃) and |
|At. wt. 139.0.|PREP.--by electrolysis of fused|nitride (LaN). |
|Valence III. |LaCl₃. | |
|and V. |PROP.--an iron-gray metal | |
|S. G. 6.15. |tarnishing in air to steel- | |
|M. P. 810°. |blue; malleable and ductile. | |
| |Attacked slowly even by cold | |
| |water. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Lead.= |OCC.--as galena (PbS), and in |The metal is used for |
|Symbol Pb. |silver ores. |water pipes, roofs and |
|At. wt. |PREP.--by calcination of par- |gutters and storage bat- |
|207.20. |tially roasted galena. Purifi- |teries. For shot it is |
|Valence II., |cation is effected by Parkes |alloyed with 0.4% of |
|IV. |process. |arsenic. Typemetal con- |
|S. G. 11.4. |PROP.--a soft, gray metal, |tains 20% of antimony. |
|M. P. 327.2°. |malleable, but of low tensile |Babbitt metal, for bear- |
|B. P. 1525°. |strength. In presence of air, |ings, contains over 70% of|
| |water acts on lead to produce |lead. Solder and pewter |
| |the hydroxide, which being |are alloys of lead and |
| |slightly soluble, may cause |tin. The basic carbonate |
| |lead poisoning, if present in |[Pb(OH)₂, 2PbCO₃], “white |
| |water supplies. When heated in |lead,” is the basis of |
| |air it is oxidized to litharge |most oil paints. |
| |(PbO), and, under suitable con-| |
| |ditions, to minimum (Pb₃O₄) | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Lithium.= |OCC.--as a mixed fluoride with |The carbonate [Li₂(CO₃)] |
|Symbol Li. |aluminium in amblygonite. |is used in medicine as a |
|At. wt. 6.94. |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |solvent for uric acid, |
|Valence I. |fused chloride. |lithium urate being solu- |
|S. G. 0.53. |PROP.--a silver-white metal, |ble. The lithium salts |
|M. P. 186°. |softer than lead, that tar- |give a carmine flame |
|B. P. above |nishes quickly in air, and is |coloration. |
|1400°. |easily acted upon by water. | |
| |When heated, it unites vigor- | |
| |ously with nitrogen. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Lutecium.= |OCC.--in euxenite. |Its compounds resemble |
|Symbol Lu. |PREP.--it has not been |those of ytterbium. |
|At. wt. 175.0.|isolated. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Magnesium.= |OCC.--as magnesite (MgCO₂), |The sulphate (MgSO₄, 7H₂O)|
|Symbol Mg. |dolomite (MgCO₃, CaCO₃), |is known as epsom salts |
|At. wt. 24.32.|carnallite (MgCl₂, KCl, 6H₂O) |and is used in medicine, |
|Valence II. |and in very many complex sili- |as are the oxide (magne- |
|S. G. 1.75. |cates. |sia), the carbonates and |
|M. P. 650°. |PREP.--by electrolysis of |citrate. Magnalium is a |
|B. P. 1120°. |dried, fused carnallite. |light, hard alloy with |
| |PROP.--a silver-white metal, |aluminum. |
| |ductile when hot. It tarnishes | |
| |in air, and acts slowly upon | |
| |water, rapidly on steam. Burns | |
| |in air to the oxide MgO, | |
| |emitting a very bright light | |
| |used in photography. It unites | |
| |directly with nitrogen. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Manganese.= |OCC.--as pyrolusite (MnO₂), |Ferromanganese and |
|Symbol Mn. |beaunite (Mn₂O₃), hausmannite |spiegeleisen are alloys |
|At. wt. 54.93.|(Mn₃O₄) and manganese spar |with iron, used in steel |
|Valence II., |(MnCO₃). |making. With copper it |
|III., IV., VI.|PREP.--by heating Mn₃O₄ with |forms the hard, tough |
|and VII. |aluminum filings. |manganese bronzes, with |
|S. G. 7.3. |PROP.--a steel-gray, hard, |tensile strength up to 30 |
|M. P. 1120°. |brittle metal with a pinkish |tons per square inch. Im- |
|B. P. 1900°. |tinge. It rusts in moist air |pure sodium permanganate |
| |and is attacked by dilute |(NaMnO₄) is used in disin-|
| |acids. |ecting as Condy’s fluid. |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Mercury.= |OCC.--free and as cinnabar |It is used for filling |
|Symbol Hg. |(HgS). |thermometers and baro- |
|At. wt. 200.6.|PREP.--by roasting cinnabar HgS|meters. Its alloys are |
|Valence I. and|+ O₂--Hg + SO₂. |called amalgams, some of |
|II. |PROP.--a silver-white, mobile |which are used in dentist-|
|S. G. 13.6. |liquid with a vapor pressure at|ry. Calomel (HgCl) is |
|M. P. -39.5°. |0° of 0.0002 mm. It tarnishes |administered internally in|
|B. P. 356.95°.|but slowly in air and is |medicine; corrosive sub- |
| |attacked only by dilute nitric |limate (HgCl₂) forms a |
| |among the dilute acids. The |solution with very power- |
| |vapor is monatomic. |ful germicidal properties.|
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Molybdenum.= |OCC.--as molybdenite (MoS₂) and|The ferromolybdenum alloys|
|Symbol Mo. |wulfenite (PbMoO₄). |are used in the manufac- |
|At. wt. 96.0. |PREP.--by reducing the oxides |ture of special steels. |
|Valence III., |with aluminum powder. | |
|IV., V. and |PROP.--a white metal, as malle-| |
|VI. |able as iron, that will not | |
|S. G. 10.0. |scratch glass. Insoluble in | |
|M. P. 2450°. |hydrochloric or dilute sulphur-| |
| |ic acid. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Neodymium.= |OCC.--with cerium and |The salts are rose-violet |
|Symbol Nd. |lanthanum. |in color, and their solu- |
|At. wt. 144.3.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the |tions show characteristic |
|Valence III. |fused chloride. |absorption spectra. |
|and IV. |PROP.--a yellowish metal, tar- | |
|S. G. 7.0. |nishing in air. | |
|M. P. 840°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Neon.= |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds, and|
|Symbol Ne. |atmosphere. |is recognized by its |
|At. wt. 20.2. |PREP.--neon and helium are |characteristic spectrum. |
|Valence 0. |boiled out of crude argon, and | |
|B. P. ca. |the neon separated from helium | |
|-243°. |by cooling with liquid hydro- | |
| |gen. | |
| |PROP.--a colorless, trans- | |
| |parent, odorless, inert gas, | |
| |resembling argon. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Nickel.= |OCC.--as nicollite (NiAs) and |The metal furnishes a pro-|
|Symbol Ni. |nickel glance (NiAsS). |tective coating when |
|At. wt. 58.68.|PREP.--by igniting the oxalate |plated on iron. German |
|Valence II. |in hydrogen. |silver is an alloy of |
|and III. |PROP.--a white, very hard, |nickel, copper and zinc. |
|S. G. 8.8. |lustrous metal, malleable, |Nickel steel is used for |
|M. P. ca. |ductile and tenacious. It rusts|armor plates. Manganin, |
|1452°. |but slowly in air, and is |containing nickel, copper |
|B. P. ca. |attacked easily by only nitric |and manganese, is used for|
|2600°. |acid. |electrical resistances. |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Nitrogen.= |OCC.--free nitrogen forms about|Nitrous oxide (N₂O), or |
|Symbol N. |four-fifths of air by volume. |laughing gas, is used by |
|At. wt. 14.01.|As Bengal saltpeter (KNO₃), |dentists. Nitric acid |
|Valence III. |Chili saltpeter (NaNO₃); and as|(HNO₃) has many applica- |
|and V. |an essential constituent of |tions in technical |
|S. G. (liquid |vegetable and animal proto- |chemistry. Ammonia (NH₃) |
|at B. P.) |plasm. |is a very soluble gas. |
|0.81. |PREP.--by heating ammonium |Ammonium sulphate |
|M. P. -214°. |nitrite, by oxidation of |[(NH₄)₂SO₄] and Chili |
|B. P. -194°. |ammonia, etc. |saltpeter are used as |
| |PROP.--a colorless, odorless, |nitrogenous manures. |
| |transparent gas, rather in- |Nitrogen is a constituent |
| |active chemically. At ordinary |of the aniline dyes, the |
| |temperature and pressure, 100 |proteins and many other |
| |volumes of water dissolve 1.5 |important classes of |
| |volumes of nitrogen. It unites |organic substances. |
| |directly with strongly heated | |
| |boron, lithium, calcium and | |
| |magnesium. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Osmium.= |OCC.--along with platinum. |Its alloy with iridium is |
|Symbol Os. |PREP.--by reducing OsO₄. |used in tipping gold pens.|
|At. wt. 190.9.|PROP.--a gray metal, harder |Osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) is|
|Valence II., |than glass, the heaviest of |used as a microscopic |
|III., IV., VI.|known bodies. |stain for fat. |
|and VIII. | | |
|S. G. 22.477. | | |
|M. P. 2500°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Oxygen.= |OCC.--free oxygen forms about |The gas is sold compressed|
|Symbol O. |one-fifth of air by volume. |in mild steel cylinders, |
|At. wt. 16.00.|Water contains 88.88% of oxy- |and is used for the oxy- |
|Valence II. |gen. The rocks of the earth’s |hydrogen blowpipe and in |
|S. G. (liquid |crust contain about 45% in |medicine, besides for |
|at B. P.) |combination, chiefly as sili- |chemical purposes. It is |
|1.13. |cates. |necessary to support |
|M. P. -218.4°.|PREP.--in the laboratory by |animal respiration and to |
|B. P. -182.5°.|heating potassium chlorate |sustain ordinary combus- |
| |(KClO₃). Commercially, from the|tion. It enters as a con- |
| |air. |stituent into all oxides, |
| |PROP.--a colorless, odorless, |most salts and many |
| |tasteless, transparent gas, |organic compounds. |
| |slightly heavier than air. At | |
| |ordinary temperature and pres- | |
| |sure, 100 volumes of water dis-| |
| |solve 3 volumes of oxygen. It | |
| |is very active chemically, com-| |
| |bining directly with all but a | |
| |few of the other elements to | |
| |form oxides. Sulphur, phospho- | |
| |rus, etc., burn much more | |
| |vigorously in oxygen than in | |
| |air. Liquid oxygen is magnetic.| |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Palladium.= |OCC.--along with platinum, and |Since it does not tarnish,|
|Symbol Pd. |with gold in Brazil. |it is used for coating |
|At. wt 106.7. |PREP.--by a complex series of |silver goods, and by |
|Valence II. |processes from platinum ores. |dentists as a substitute |
|and IV. |PROP.--a silvery, malleable and|for gold. |
|S. G. 11.9. |ductile metal, related to | |
|M. P. 1549°. |platinum, unlike which, how- | |
| |ever, it is attacked by nitric | |
| |acid. Under suitable conditions| |
| |it can take up over 900 volumes| |
| |of hydrogen. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Phosphorus.= |OCC.--as phosphates, such as |Red phosphorus is used in |
|Symbol P. |apatite [CaF(PO₄)₃]; in bones, |the manufacture of |
|At. wt. 31.04.|teeth, brain and seeds of |matches, as also is the |
|Valence III. |plants. |compound P₄S₃. In the form|
|and V. |PREP.--by reduction of calcium |of superphosphate of lime |
|S. G. |phosphate by carbon in the |[CaH₂(PO₄)₂] phosphorus is|
|white, 1.82. |electric furnace in presence of|an important artificial |
|red, 2.25. |a suitable flux. |manure. The chlorides |
|M. P. white, |PROP.--phosphorus exists in two|(PCl₃ and PCl₅) are much |
|44°. |allotropic modifications: white|used in organic chemistry.|
|B. P. 289°. |phosphorus is waxy in consis- | |
| |tency, soluble in carbon bi- | |
| |sulphide, evil smelling and | |
| |poisonous; red phosphorus is a | |
| |solid, insoluble in carbon bi- | |
| |sulphide, odorless and not | |
| |poisonous. White phosphorus has| |
| |a low ignition temperature, | |
| |hence its former use in | |
| |matches. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Platinum.= |OCC.--free, alloyed with the |On account of its resis- |
|Symbol Pt. |platinum metals, as nuggets in |tance to acids, platinum |
|At. wt. 195.2.|alluvial sands in the Urals, |is much used for chemical |
|Valence II. |California, etc. |vessels. Since platinum |
|and IV. |PREP.--it is freed from the |has a coefficient of |
|S. G. 21.48. |metals with which it is alloyed|expansion very close to |
|M. P. 1753°. |by a complex series of proces- |that of glass, platinum |
| |ses. |wires can be fused through|
| |PROP.--a silvery, tenacious, |glass without danger of |
| |ductile and malleable metal, |breakage on cooling. The |
| |unaltered in moist air and un- |salts are used in photo- |
| |attacked by any single common |graphy. |
| |acid. Aqua regia, fused alka- | |
| |lies, alkali nitrates and | |
| |cyanides attack it, however. | |
| |Platinum “sponge” and “black” | |
| |are finely divided forms. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Potassium.= |OCC.--as sylvite (KCl), |An alloy with sodium is |
|Symbol K. |carnallite (KCl, MgCl₂, 6H₂O); |used in filling high- |
|At. wt. 39.10.|in plant and animal ashes, and |temperature thermometers. |
|Valence I. |in many complex silicates. |Bengal saltpeter is the |
|S. G. 0.86. |PREP.--by reduction or by |nitrate and is used in |
|M. P. 62.5°. |electrolysis of fused potassium|pyrotechny, for gunpowder |
|B. P. 762°. |hydroxide (KOH). |and as a preservative. The|
| |PROP.--a silver-white, lustrous|iodide (KI) is used in |
| |metal, as soft as wax, tarnish-|medicine. The chlorate, |
| |ing instantly in moist air. |like the nitrate, is used |
| |Chemically it is a very active |as a source of oxygen in |
| |metal, decomposing water in the|pyrotechny and for match |
| |cold and uniting violently with|heads. Caustic potash |
| |the halogens, sulphur and |(KOH) has many chemical |
| |oxygen. |applications. The cyanide |
| | |(KCN) is used in gold ex- |
| | |traction. |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Praseodym- |OCC.--with cerium and |The salts are leek-green |
|ium.= |lanthanum. |in color, and their solu- |
|Symbol Pr. |PREP.--by electrolysis of the |tions have characteristic |
|At. wt. 140.9.|fused chloride. |absorption spectra. |
|Valence III. |PROP.--a yellowish metal, re- | |
|and IV. |maining untarnished in air. | |
|S. G. 6.47. | | |
|M. P. 940°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Radium=. |OCC.--in minute quantity in |The rays from radium com- |
|Symbol Ra. |pitchblende and other uranium |pounds (such as RaBr₂, |
|At. wt. 226.0.|minerals. |RaCl₂, RaCO₃) act destruc-|
|Valence II. |PREP.--the metal has recently |tively on living tissues |
|M. P. 700°. |been isolated; the bromide is |and on bacteria. One gram |
| |separated from the barium |of radium in any of its |
| |bromide prepared from pitch- |compounds gives off about |
| |blende by fractional crystalli-|100 calories of heat per |
| |zation. |hour. |
| |PROP.--in all of its compounds,| |
| |the metal has the power of | |
| |emitting certain radiations. | |
| |These can pass through matter | |
| |that is opaque to light, render| |
| |air a conductor, affect a | |
| |photographic plate and cause a | |
| |zinc-sulphide screen to | |
| |fluoresce visibly. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Rhodium.= |OCC.--in the ores of platinum. |The red chloride (RhCl₃) |
|Symbol Rh. |PREP.--by a complex series of |is formed by the action of|
|At. wt. 102.9.|processes from platinum ores. |chlorine upon the metal. |
|Valence II., |PROP.--a silvery, malleable and| |
|III. and IV. |ductile metal, not tarnishing | |
|S. G. 12.1. |in air and not attacked by aqua| |
|M. P. 1970°. |regia. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Rubidium.= |OCC.--the salts are associated |The compounds show charac-|
|Symbol Rb. |with salts of potassium. |teristic flame-spectra, |
|At. wt. 85.45.|PREP.--similar to that of |and were recognized as |
|Valence I., |potassium. |those of a new element |
|III. and V. |PROP.--a silver-white metal |spectroscopically by |
|S. G. 1.53. |resembling potassium, like |Bunsen. |
|M. P. 38.5°. |which it attacks water vigor- | |
|B. P. 69.8°. |ously. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Ruthenium.= |OCC.--in the ores of platinum. |The following oxides are |
|Symbol Ru. |PREP.--by a complex series of |known: Ru₂O₃, RuO₂, RuO₄, |
|At. wt. 101.7.|processes from platinum ores. |as well as salts corre- |
|Valence III., |PROP.--a hard, white, brittle |sponding to RuO₃ and |
|IV., VI., VII.|metal, oxidized when heated in |Ru₂O₇. |
|and VIII. |air, scarcely attacked by aqua | |
|S. G. 12.1. |regia. | |
|M. P. above | | |
|1950°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Samarium.= |OCC.--in the mineral |The salts are topaz-yellow|
|Symbol Sa. |samarskite. |in color, and are similar |
|At. wt. 150.4.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the |to those of lanthanum. |
|Valence II. |chloride. | |
|and III. |PROP.--a whitish-gray metal, | |
|S. G. ca. 7.7.|tarnishing in air. | |
|M. P. 1300 to | | |
|1400°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Scandium.= |OCC.--in the minerals euxenite |The chloride (ScCl₃) shows|
|Symbol Sc. |and gadolinite. |a characteristic spark |
|At. wt. 44.1. |PREP.--the metal has not been |spectrum. |
|Valence III. |isolated. | |
| |PROP.--the existence of this | |
| |element, whose oxide was dis- | |
| |covered in 1879, was predicted | |
| |by Mendeléeff in 1869. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Selenium.= |OCC.--free in some specimens of|Selenium cells are used as|
|Symbol Se. |sulphur, and in combination |indicators of intensity of|
|At. wt. 79.2. |with lead, iron and other |illumination. The com- |
|Valence II., |metals, as in pyrites. |pounds strongly resemble |
|IV. and VI. |PREP.--(amorphous) by reducing |those of sulphur. Hydrogen|
|S. G. |selenious acid (H₂SiO₃) by |selenide is an evil- |
|amorphous |sulphur dioxide. |smelling inflammable gas. |
|4.26. |PROP.--three varieties are |Selenic acid (H₂SeO₄) is a|
|monoclinic |known: (1) red amorphous, |more powerful oxidizer |
|4.47 |soluble in carbon bisulphide, |than sulphuric acid and |
|hexagonal 4.8.|from which it is deposited as |dissolves gold. |
|M. P. |(2) red translucent monoclinic | |
|amorphous 50°.|crystals, soluble in carbon bi-| |
|monoclinic 170|sulphide, (3) blue-gray metal- | |
|to 180°. |lic selenium, insoluble in | |
|hexagonal |carbon bisulphide. This last | |
|217°. |form conducts electricity many | |
|B. P. 688°. |times better when exposed to | |
| |light, and the better the | |
| |brighter the light. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Silicon.= |OCC.--silicon dioxide (SiO₂) |The “pigs” of silicon made|
|Symbol Si. |occurs as flint, quartz, quartz|at Niagara are used in |
|At. wt. 28.3. |sand, etc. The igneous rocks |steel-making. The ornamen-|
|Valence IV. |are composed largely of sili- |tal varieties of quartz |
|S. G. |cates, and this element consti-|find uses as gemstones, as|
|amorphous 2.3.|tutes over 25% of the earth’s |do several natural sili- |
|crystalline |crust. |cates. Silicon carbide, |
|2.34. |PREP.--by reducing sand with |“carborundum” (SiC), is |
|M. P. 1458°. |coke in the electric furnace. |used as an abrasive. |
|B. P. ca. |PROP.--amorphous silicon is a |Sodium silicate solution |
|3500°. |brown powder that burns when |is “water glass,” used to |
| |heated in air. Crystalline |protect sandstone and to |
| |silicon forms black needles. It|preserve eggs. Common |
| |is less active than the amor- |glass is a mixture of |
| |phous variety and is attacked |sodium and calcium sili- |
| |only slowly by a mixture of |cates. |
| |hydrofluoric and nitric acids. | |
| |It unites with fluorine, how- | |
| |ever, at ordinary temperatures.| |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Silver.= |OCC.--native, as sulphide |It is employed for arti- |
|Symbol Ag. |(Ag₂S) often associated with |cles of use and of orna- |
|At. wt. |galena; chloride (AgCl), etc. |ment and for coinage. |
|107.88. |PREP.--from lead by the |U. S. sterling silver con-|
|Valence I. |Pattison or Parkes process; |tains 90% silver and 10% |
|S. G. 10.53. |from the ores by the Mexican |copper. Lunar caustic is |
|M. P. 960°. |and other processes. |silver nitrate. This salt |
|B. P. 1955°. |PROP.--a white, highly lus- |and the halides of silver |
| |trous, tough, very ductile and |are extensively used in |
| |malleable metal, the best con- |photography. For electro- |
| |ductor of heat and electricity |plating, a bath of potas- |
| |known. Liquid silver dissolves |sium argenticyanide |
| |oxygen. It is unaffected by the|[KAg(CN)₂] is used. |
| |oxygen of moist air, and its | |
| |tarnishing is due to the action| |
| |of hydrogen sulphide. It dis- | |
| |solves in dilute nitric and in | |
| |concentrated hot sulphuric | |
| |acid. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Sodium.= |OCC.--in the sea as chloride |The metal is used in the |
|Symbol Na. |(NaCl); in salt deposits as |manufacture of several |
|At. wt. 23.00.|chloride, borate, nitrate; in |chemicals. Sodium chloride|
|Valence I. |many complex silicates in |(NaCl) is a necessity of |
|S. G. 0.97. |rocks. |life to most animals; and |
|M. P. 965°. |PREP.--by electrolysis of fused|is used in the manufacture|
|B. P. 883°. |sodium hydroxide (NaOH). |of hydrochloric acid, |
| |PROP.--a silver-white metal, as|chlorine and sodium com- |
| |soft as wax, that may be welded|pounds. Sodium carbonate |
| |at ordinary temperature. Like |(NaCO₃, 10H₂O) or washing |
| |potassium it is very active, |soda, and sodium hydroxide|
| |uniting directly with many |(NaOH) are used for |
| |other elements, and attacking |cleaning, and in the manu-|
| |water vigorously in the cold. |facture of soap and chemi-|
| | |cals. Baking soda is |
| | |sodium bicarbonate |
| | |(NaHCO₃). The sulphate |
| | |(Na₂SO₄, 10H₂O) is known |
| | |as Glauber’s salt; the |
| | |thiosulphate, by photo- |
| | |graphers, as “hypo.” |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Strontium.= |OCC.--as strontianite (SrCO₃) |The nitrate and chlorate |
|Symbol Sr. |and celestine (SrSO₄). |are used in pyrotechny for|
|At. wt. 87.63.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the |red fire. All volatile |
|Valence II. |fused chloride. |compounds color the Bunsen|
|S. G. 2.55. |PROP.--a white metal, softer |flame red. |
|M. P. ca. |than calcium and harder than | |
|800°. |sodium, tarnishing to a yellow | |
| |tint. Like calcium it is active| |
| |enough to attack water vigor- | |
| |ously in the cold. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Sulphur.= |OCC.--native, in combination |Sulphur is used to prepare|
|Symbol S. |with most metals as sulphides, |sulphur dioxide (SO₂), |
|At. wt. 32.06.|and with some metals as sul- |which is used in making |
|Valence II., |phates. |sulphuric acid and sul- |
|IV. and VI. |PREP.--by melting the free sul-|phites, and for bleaching;|
|S. G. |phur away from the rocky |also for vulcanizing |
|rhombic 2.06. |matrix, and subsequent purifi- |rubber and in the manufac-|
|monoclinic |cation by distillation. |ture of black gunpowder, |
|1.96. |PROP.--natural sulphur is rhom-|fireworks and matches. |
|M. P. |bic in crystalline form, yel- |Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) is |
|rhombic |low, brittle, of vitreous |to chemical industry what |
|112.4°. |luster, and a poor conductor of|iron is to engineering. |
|monoclinic |heat and electricity. This and | |
|119°. |the monoclinic variety are | |
|B. P. 444.9°. |soluble in carbon bisulphide, | |
| |while amorphous sulphur is not.| |
| |When heated, sulphur unites | |
| |directly with most of the other| |
| |elements. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Tantalum.= |OCC.--in tantalite and many |The metal is used for |
|Symbol Ta. |other rare minerals. |filaments for electric |
|At. wt. 181.5.|PREP.--by the action of sodium |lamps, which possess twice|
|Valence II., |on sodium tantalofluoride |the efficiency of the |
|IV. and V. |(Na₂TaF₇). |carbon filament lamp. |
|S. G. 16.6. |PROP.--a hard, silver-white | |
|M. P. bet. |metal, ductile and malleable | |
|2250° and |when hot, of very high tensile | |
|2300°. |strength. The hot metal can ab-| |
| |sorb 740 volumes of hydrogen. | |
| |It is not attacked by aqua | |
| |regia. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Tellurium.= |OCC.--free and as tellurides. |The compounds find few ap-|
|Symbol Te. |PREP.--by reducing tellurious |plications. Telluric acid |
|At. wt. 127.5.|acid (H₂TeO₃) by means of sul- |(H₆TeO₆) has basic as well|
|Valence II., |phur dioxide. |as acid characters, in |
|IV. and VI. |PROP.--the crystalline variety |keeping with the position |
|S. G. cryst. |is white, has metallic luster, |of the element between |
|6.2. |and conducts heat and electri- |metals and nonmetals. |
|M. P. cryst. |city. The precipitated variety | |
|455°. |is black and of lower density. | |
|B. P. 1400°. |The element is related to sul- | |
| |phur but is more metallic in | |
| |character. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Terbium.= |OCC.--in gadolinite, |The salts show no absorp- |
|Symbol Tb. |samarskite, and other rare |tion spectrum. |
|At. wt. 159.2.|minerals. | |
|Valence III. |PREP.--the metal has not been | |
| |prepared. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Thallium.= |OCC.--in crookesite, and in |It forms two sets of |
|Symbol Tl. |small quantities in many |salts, the thallous (e.g.,|
|At. wt. 204.0.|samples of iron pyrites. |TlCl) and the thallic |
|Valence I., |PREP.--it is precipitated by |(e.g., TlCl₃). All the |
|and II. |zinc from a solution obtained |compounds show a charac- |
|S. G. 11.8. |by suitable treatment of the |teristic green line in the|
|M. P. 303. |flue dust from sulphuric acid |spectrum. |
|B. P. 1515°. |works. | |
| |PROP.--a bluish-white, lead- | |
| |like metal, rather soft, malle-| |
| |able, but of low tensile | |
| |strength. It decomposes water | |
| |rapidly at red heat, and dis- | |
| |solves in dilute acids. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Thorium.= |OCC.--in monazite sand. |The nitrate [Th(NO₃)₄, |
|Symbol Th. |PREP.--by reducing potassium |6H₂O] is used in making |
|At. wt. 232.4.|thorium chloride with sodium, |Welsbach incandescent |
|Valence IV. |or by electrolysis of the |mantles, which consist of |
|S. G. 11.0. |chloride in a mixture of fused |99% of ThO₂. All the com- |
|M. P. above |potassium and sodium chlorides.|pounds are radio-active. |
|1700°. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Thullium.= |OCC.--in gadolinite and other |The salts are of a pale |
|Symbol Tm. |yttrium minerals. |bluish color which is |
|At. wt. 168.5.|PROP.--a metal with the color |destroyed very easily by |
|Valence III. |of nickel, that can be burnt in|minute quantities of |
|M. P. 1700°. |air. Hydrochloric acid attacks |erbium. |
| |it but slowly. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Tin.= |OCC.--as cassiterite (SnO₂). |Large quantities of tin |
|Symbol Sn. |PREP.--after roasting, the ore |are used in the tinning of|
|At. wt. 118.7.|is reduced by heating with |iron for tinplate. It is a|
|Valence II. |carbon. |constituent of the alloys |
|and IV. |PROP.--a silver-white, rather |Britannia metal, pewter, |
|S. G. |soft, very malleable and duc- |solder, bronze, etc. Tin |
|white 7.3. |tile metal, practically un- |forms two sets of salts, |
|gray 5.7. |changed in air. When heated, it|stannous (e.g., SnCl₂) and|
|M. P. 231.8°. |may be burned in air. Dilute |stannic (e.g., SnCl₄). |
|B. P. 2275°. |nitric acid is the only dilute |“Pink salt” [(NH₄)₂SnCl₆] |
| |acid that attacks it rapidly. |is used in dye. “Mosaic |
| |When kept long at temperatures |gold” is SnS₂. |
| |below zero Centigrade, ordinary| |
| |tin changes to a brittle, gray,| |
| |powdery modification. This form| |
| |is the stable one below 20°. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Titanium.= |OCC.--as rutile (TiO₂) and in |The element is very widely|
|Symbol Ti. |titanic iron ore (FeTiO₃). |disseminated, though in |
|At. wt. 48.1. |PREP.--by reducing the chloride|small quantity. It is con-|
|Valence II., |(TiCl₄) by means of sodium. |tained in the ashes of all|
|III. and IV. |PROP.--a hard, brittle metal, |plants. |
|S. G. 4.5. |resembling polished steel in | |
|M. P. below |appearance, that may be forged | |
|1850°. |at a low red heat. It dissolves| |
| |in dilute sulphuric acid, and | |
| |decomposes steam at 800°. It | |
| |unites easily with nitrogen. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Tungsten.= |OCC.--as wolfram (FeWO₄) and as|The metal is used for the |
|Symbol W. |scheelite (CaWO₄). |filaments of incandescent |
|At. wt. 184.0.|PREP.--by reducing tungstic |electric lamps, giving an |
|Valence II., |acid (H₂WO₄) by carbon at a high|efficiency of 1.3 watts |
|IV., V. and |temperature. |per candle power. Tungsten|
|VI. |PROP.--a hard, brittle, gray |steel has 5% W. Sodium |
|S. G. 19.3. |metal, attacked by chlorine |tungstates are used as |
|M. P. 3177°. |only at 250°, although it can |mordants in dyeing. |
|B. P. ca. |be caused to burn in air. It is| |
|3700°. |slowly acted upon by dilute | |
| |acids and even by water. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Uranium.= |OCC.--as pitchblende, which |All the compounds of ura- |
|Symbol U. |contains U₃O₈. |nium are radioactive in |
|At. wt. 238.2.|PREP.--by reducing the oxides |proportion to their ura- |
|Valence III., |with aluminum. |nium content. Glass to |
|IV., V. and |PROP.--a white, lustrous metal,|which uranium compounds |
|VIII. |tarnishing in air and attacking|have been added shows a |
|S. G. 18.7. |water slowly in the cold. It |greenish-yellow fluores- |
|M. P. ca. |combines directly with many of |cence. |
|1500°. |the other elements. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Vanadium.= |OCC.--in a few rather rare |Vanadium added to steel in|
|Symbol V. |minerals. |even small quantity (0.2%)|
|At. wt. 51.0. |PREP.--by reduction of the di- |increases the tenacity and|
|Valence II., |chloride (VCl₂) in hydrogen. |elastic limit without |
|III., IV. and |PROP.--a silver-white, lustrous|reducing the ductility. |
|V. |metal, harder than quartz. It | |
|S. G. 5.7. |does not tarnish nor attack | |
|M. P. ca. |water at ordinary temperatures,| |
|1715°. |but can be burnt in oxygen. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Xenon.= |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds. |
|Symbol Xe. |air, less than one volume in | |
|At. wt. 130.2.|100 million. | |
|Valence 0. |PREP.--by fractionation of | |
|B. P. -109°. |liquid argon. | |
|S. G. (liquid |PROP.--a transparent, colorless| |
|at B. P.) |and odorless gas, very inert | |
|3.82. |like its congener argon. It is | |
| |the densest of the argon | |
| |family. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Ytterbium= |OCC.--in gadolinite, euxenite |The compounds show a char-|
|(Neoytter- |and other rare minerals. |acteristic spark spectrum.|
|bium). |PREP.--the metal has not been | |
|Symbol Yb. |isolated. | |
|At. wt. 173.5.| | |
|Valence III. | | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Yttrium.= |OCC.--in gadolinite, euxenite |The chloride yields a |
|Symbol Y. |and other rare minerals. |characteristic, though |
|At. wt. 88.9. |PREP.--by electrolysis of |complex, spectrum. |
|Valence III. |sodium yttrium chloride. | |
|S. G. 3.8. |PROP.--a gray, lustrous metal. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Zinc.= |OCC.--as zinc blende (ZnS), |Sheet zinc is used for |
|Symbol Zn. |calamine (ZaCO₂), zincite |roofs and gutters. Iron is|
|At. wt. 65.37.|(ZnO), etc. |galvanized by dipping it |
|Valence II. |PREP.--after roasting, the ore |in molten zinc, and so |
|S. G. 6.9 to |is reduced by coal, the metal |protected from rusting. |
|7.2. |distilling off. |Zinc is used for galvanic |
|M. P. 419.3°. |PROP.--a bluish-white, lus- |batteries and, alloyed |
|B. P. 906°. |trous, brittle metal, that is |with copper, to make |
| |malleable and ductile at 120°. |brass. The salts are used |
| |It tarnishes in moist air, |in medicine; the chloride |
| |attacking water slowly in the |and sulphate antiseptic |
| |cold and rapidly when heated in|solutions. |
| |steam. It dissolves in dilute | |
| |acids and in sodium hydroxide | |
| |solution. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
|=Zirconium.= |OCC.--as zircon (ZrSiO₄). |The oxide is contained in |
|Symbol Zr. |PREP.--by reducing the oxide |some incandescent gas |
|At. wt. 90.6. |(ZrO₂) with carbon in the elec-|mantles. |
|Valence IV. |tric furnace. | |
|S. G. 6.4. |PROP.--a hard, gray metal, re- | |
| |maining bright in air and only | |
| |slowly oxidized at a white | |
| |heat. It is dissolved by aqua | |
| |regia and by caustic potash | |
| |solution. | |
+--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+