Chapter II: English and American Literature -- Outline Charts of English and (17)

=Warblers= (_Mniotiltidæ_).--Numerous species of warblers are found in North America which appear to graduate into the Tanagers. They are birds of brighter plumage than the Old-World Warblers, but resemble them in their habits, and are also migrants. The BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER (_Dendroica fusca_) is the most exquisite of the whole family; it is the most eagerly sought bird by bird lovers, in the spring. Some years they are very abundant, while in others few are seen, their routes of migration evidently varying. They arrive about the time that apple trees are in bloom, and are frequently seen among the blossoms, dashing after insects. Their song, a high-pitched lisping “zwe-zwe-zwe-see-ee-ee,” ending in a thin, wiry tone, almost a hiss, is very distinct from the song of any other bird. They nest in coniferous trees at any height from the ground. Shreds of bark, fine cedar twigs, rootlets, etc., are used in constructing nests. The MAGNOLIA WARBLER (_Dendroica magnolia_) is one of the prettiest of the Warblers and one of the least timid. Birch woods are their favorites during migrations, although a few of them will be found almost anywhere. They utter a short, rapid warble.

=Wrens= (_Troglodytes_) have a slender, slightly curved and pointed bill; the wings are very short and rounded; the tail short, and carried erect; the legs slender, and rather long. Their plumage is generally dull. Some fifteen species are recognized in North America, of which the most familiar and widely distributed is the HOUSE-WREN (_Troglodytes ædon_). These are bold, sociable and confiding birds, seemingly to prefer men’s society, building their nests in bird boxes that are erected for them, or in the most unexpected situations about buildings. They are one of the most beneficial birds that can be attracted to one’s yard, feeding wholly upon insects. Their songs are loud, clear and bubbling over with enthusiasm.

Wrens breed north to Maine and Manitoba and winter along the Gulf Coast. The Western House Wren is found from the Plains to the Pacific coast ranges.

=THE WADING BIRDS= (_Struthiones_)

In this class of birds, the beak is generally slender, the legs long
and stilt-like. The struthiones live in marshy spots, and on the
banks of rivers. They feed upon the reptiles and insects found in
water and marshy districts, and upon plants. Most of the wading
birds are migratory.

=Adjutant= (_Leptoptilus argala_), is a bird, common during summer in India. Generally stork-like in appearance, it stands about five feet high, and measures fourteen or fifteen feet from tip to tip of extended wings. The four-sided pointed bill is very large; the head and neck are almost bare; and a sausage-like pouch, sometimes sixteen inches long, and apparently connected with respiration, hangs down from the base of the neck. While feeding largely on carcases and offal about the towns, it also fishes for living food, and sometimes devours birds and small mammals. The loose under-tail feathers are sometimes used for decorative purposes.

=Bittern= (_Botaurus_).--The American species makes a rude nest of sticks, reeds, etc., in its marshy haunts, and lays four or five greenish-brown eggs. The bird is sluggish, and its flight is neither swift nor long sustained. When assailed, it fights desperately with bill and claws; and it is dangerous to approach it incautiously when wounded, as it strikes with its long sharp bill, if possible, at the eye. It is common in many parts of North America, migrating according to the season. The crown of the head is reddish brown, and the colors and markings of the plumage differ considerably from those of the common bittern.

=Crane= (_Grallatores cinerea_).--This family of birds differs from herons, storks, etc., in having the hind-toe placed higher on the leg than the front ones, and in certain characters of bill and skull. The members are also less addicted to marshy places, and feed not only on animal, but, to a considerable extent, on vegetable food. The cranes are all large birds, long-legged, long-necked, long-billed, and of powerful wing. Some of them perform great migrations, and fly at a great height in the air. The young cranes are helpless and require to be fed. Only two eggs are laid. The crane, when standing, is about four feet in height; the prevailing color is ash-gray; the head bears bristly feathers, and has a naked crown, reddish in the male; the bill, which is longer than the head, is reddish at the root, dark green at the apex; the feet are blackish; the tail is short and straight. They are very stately birds, though their habit of bowing and dancing is often grotesque. They feed on roots, seeds, etc., as well as on worms, insects, reptiles and even some of the smallest quadrupeds. The flesh is much esteemed.

The Whooping Crane (_G. americana_) is considerably larger than the common crane, which it otherwise much resembles except in color; its plumage, in its adult state, is pure white, the tips of the wings black. It spends the winter in the southern parts of North America. In summer it migrates far north.

=Heron= (_Ardea_) a large bird covered with long, loose down, with large wings, and a hard horny bill longer than the head, compressed from side to side, and united to the skull by firm, broad bones.

In the Heron genus--which includes the species commonly known as Egrets--the plumage is beautiful, but seldom exhibits very gay colors; white, brown, black, and slate, finely blended, generally predominating. The body is small in proportion to the length of the neck and the limbs. Herons are very voracious, feeding mostly on fish and other aquatic animals; but they also often prey on snakes, frogs, rats, and mice, and the young of other birds.

The Common Heron (_Ardea cinerea_) measures about three feet from the point of the bill to the tip of the tail. It is of a delicate gray color on the upper parts, the quill-feathers are black, the tail of a deep slate color, and the long plume is glossy dark. It generally builds its nest on a high tree; and as many as eighty nests have been counted on a single oak. America has many species of herons, most numerous in its warmer parts.

A common species of the temperate parts is the green heron (_A. virescens_), whose flesh is much esteemed. Other important species are the Great Blue Heron (_A. herodias_), the Great White or Florida Heron (_A. occidentalis_), the Great White Egret (_A. egretta_), and the Little White Egret (_A. candidissima_).

The Peacock Heron (_A. helias_) of South America, a small heron of exquisitely graceful shape and mien, with plumage variegated with colored spots and bars, is a favorite pet bird of the Brazilians.

=Ibis= (_Ibidoideæ_).--These birds are related to the spoonbills, and, more remotely, to the storks and herons. The bill is long, slender, curved, thick at the base, the point rather obtuse, the upper mandible deeply grooved throughout its length. The face and generally the greater part of the head, and sometimes even the neck, are destitute of feathers, at least in adult birds. The plumage is mainly white, with black feathers and plumes on the wings. The neck is long. The legs are rather long, naked above the joint, with three partially united toes in front, and one behind; the wings are moderately long; the tail is very short.

The Sacred or Egyptian Ibis, is an African bird, two feet six inches in length, although the body is little larger than that of a common fowl. The ancient Egyptians worshiped it as the emblem of purity, and used to embalm it.

The Glossy Ibis is a smaller species, also African, but migrating northward into continental Europe, and occasionally seen in Britain. It is also a North American bird. Its habits resemble those of the Sacred Ibis. Its color is black, varied with reddish brown, and exhibiting fine purple and green reflections. It has no loose pendent feathers.

The White Ibis, a species with pure white plumage, once abounded on the coasts of Florida, but has been killed off by feather hunters, so that it is rare except in the remote tropics.

The Scarlet Ibis is a tropical American species, remarkable for its brilliant plumage, which is scarlet, with a few patches of glossy black.

The Straw-necked Ibis is a large Australian bird of fine plumage, remarkable for stiff, naked, yellow feather-shafts on the neck and throat.

=Plovers.=--Wading shore birds sometimes also known as Sandpipers. Their bills are long for probing in the mud. The wings are long and pointed. The most peculiar species lives in New Zealand: its bill is sharply bent either to the right or left, near the end, enabling it to secure food from beneath stones.

North America has a number of species of plovers, such as the Kildeer Plover, abundant on the great western prairies, and not unfrequent in the Atlantic states. It utters, when approached by man, a querulous or plaintive cry.

UPLAND PLOVER (_Bartramia longicauda_) is the only plainly colored shorebird which occurs east of the plains and inhabits exclusively dry fields and hillsides. It breeds from Oregon, Utah, Oklahoma, Indiana, and Virginia, north to Alaska; winters in South America. It is the most terrestrial of our waders, is shy and wary, but has the one weakness of not fearing men on horseback or in a vehicle. Since the bird is highly prized as a table delicacy, it has been hunted to the verge of extermination. Ninety-seven per cent of the food of this species consists of animal forms, chiefly of injurious and neutral species. It injures no crop, but consumes a host of the worst enemies of agriculture.

=Stork= (_Ciconia alba_).--The storks are usually divided into the True Storks and the American “Wood Ibises” (_Tantalus_). There are about a dozen species. They belong chiefly to the Old World. The most familiar representative of the family is the Common Stork or White Stork (_Ciconia alba_), a native of the greater part of the Old World, a migratory. bird, its range extending even to the northern parts of Scandinavia. It is about three and one-half feet in length. The head, neck, and whole body are pure white; the wings partly black; the bill and legs red. The neck is long, and generally carried in an arched form; the feathers of the breast are long and pendulous, and the bird often has its bill half hidden among them. The flight is very powerful and high in the air; the gait slow and measured. In flight the head is thrown back and the legs extended. The stork sleeps standing on one leg, with the neck folded, and the head turned backward on the shoulder. It frequents marshy places, feeding on eels and other fishes, frogs, lizards, snakes, slugs, young birds, small mammals, and insects. It makes a rude nest of sticks, reeds, etc., on the tops of tall trees, or of ruins, spires, or houses. There are four or five eggs, white tinged with buff; and the old nest is re-occupied next year.

=Woodcock= (_Scolopax_).--Their nest is formed simply by lining a sheltered hollow with dead leaves, and three or four yellowish eggs with brown markings are laid in March or early in April. The young birds are sometimes carried by the mother from place to place, and the manner of carrying has given rise to much discussion. The woodcock feeds in the early morning and at dusk on worms, beetles, small crustaceans, etc., the quantity of food consumed being very large. The adult bird measures about fourteen inches, and weighs less than one pound.

The American Woodcock (_S. minor_) is a smaller bird than the European species, and it also is in much request for table use. It is eleven inches in length, and is found east of the Mississippi and south of the Canadian forests.

=THE SWIMMING BIRDS= (_Natatores_)

The beak is of a medium length; the front toes are, as a rule,
joined together by a membrane, to aid the birds in swimming. The
natatores live upon all still and flowing bodies of water, and feed
upon the water reptiles and insects, rarely upon the water plants;
and they are esteemed for their flesh, eggs, and feathers.

=Albatross= (_Diomedea_).--The Common or Wandering Albatross (_D. exulans_) is the largest of web-footed birds, measuring four feet in length, and from ten up to as much as seventeen feet in spread of wings. It weighs fifteen to twenty pounds, or even more. The wings are, however, narrow in proportion to their length. It often approaches very near to vessels, and is one of the objects of interest which present themselves to voyagers far away from land, particularly when it is seen sweeping the surface of the ocean in pursuit of fish and garbage. It seems rather to float and glide in the air, than to fly like other birds, for, except when it is rising from the water, the motion of its long wings is scarcely perceptible. It is affirmed by some to sail by setting its wings like sails, and to make headway against the wind without flapping. The albatross has great powers of sustained flight. It often follows a ship for a considerable time, and it has been calculated that it may fly seven hundred and twenty nautical miles in a day.

The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly white, dusky on the upper parts, with some of the feathers of the back and wings black. The bill is of a delicate pink, inclining to yellow at the tip.

The albatross is extremely voracious; it feeds on fish, cuttle-fish, jelly-fish, etc., but has no objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any kind of carrion. When food is abundant it gorges itself like the vultures, and then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may sometimes be taken with the hand. Its hoarse cry has been compared to that of the pelican, but is sometimes more suggestive of the braying of an ass. The single egg is four or five inches long, of a white color, spotted at the larger end. The nestling is white, the young somewhat brownish and of slow growth.

There are seven species. One of these, the Sooty Albatross (_D. fuliginosa_), chiefly found within the Antarctic circle, is called by sailors the Quaker Bird, on account of the prevailing brown color of its plumage.

=Flamingo= (_Phœnicopterus ruber_), a shore bird of Mediterranean, East Indian, and West Indian regions is essentially a greatly modified Goose. Its legs and neck are very long and its bill abruptly bent downward. It feeds with top of head down, sifting the mud, but retaining the small worms, crustaceans, molluscs, fishes, etc., on which the birds subsist.

The flamingoes are birds of powerful flight, and fly like geese in strings or wedge-shaped flocks. They also swim in deep water, but the legs are too long to be well adapted for this purpose. They are habitual waders, and the webbed membrane of the feet helps to support them on soft, muddy bottoms. Hundreds feed and nest together, and, being large and richly colored, form a brilliant assembly, their exquisite pink plumage sometimes making a striking contrast against a background of dark-green mangroves.

The nests are mounds of mud, from eight to fifteen inches in height, gradually raised year after year, and built at distances of three to four feet apart. The nesting occurs about the end of May, the hatching about a month later. There is usually only one egg.

=Grebes= (_Podilymbus_).--The grebes are much sought after for their plumage, but their shyness and their great agility in diving and swimming under water render them extremely difficult to shoot. One species known throughout all America is the Dabchick (_Podilymbus podiceps_). Several of the American species have tufts of feathers called “horns” on the head--a feature of the large European Crested Grebe.

The Western Grebe is the largest American species, being from two to two and one-half feet in length. The Horned Grebe and the Eared Grebe are common in America.

=Gulls= (_Laridæ_) are water fowl, mostly marine. In color they are white to pearl gray, with dark upper parts; those with black heads lose this color in winter. The feet and bills are red or yellow, the sexes alike, but the young are more dusky than the adults. The Mackerel Gull has the habit of robbing the Oyster Catcher (_Hæmatopus_) of the food secured. Ross’s Gull breeds in the unknown regions about the North Pole. This bird has red feet, black bill, and a narrow, black collar.

=Pelican= (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_) is a native of southeast Europe, Asia and Africa. It is the largest of all swimming birds, and is found on the lakes and rivers of the continents mentioned. There are a number of species, chiefly tropical. The birds have a tail of twenty-four soft feathers, and a long bill, beneath the mandible of which is a distensible pouch for carrying fish. The Pelican of North America goes north into temperate regions in summer, at its breeding time.

=Penguin.=--The most remarkable peculiarity of these birds is the flattened wing, which is clad with flat, scale-like feathers; the whole limb, unfit for flight, is admirably suited for swimming. The feathers of the penguin--instead of being disposed in feather-tracts, separated by intervals (_apteria_) upon which no feathers grow, as is the case with all other birds, not excepting even the ostrich and cassowary--form a continuous covering to the body. The penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and to the south temperate regions--Patagonia, Cape of Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand. In some situations they are extremely abundant, and make their nests in a common area. The nest is little more than a hole in the sand in which the female deposits a single egg. The stupidity of these birds is perhaps due to the inaccessibility of the rocks and shores where so great a number live and breed; having been comparatively little interfered with by man, they show no terror at the sight of him. The plumage of the neck is valued by furriers for collars and tippets; and large numbers of “Johnnies,” as the sailors call them, are slaughtered annually.

=Swans=--See Domesticated Animals.

=THE RUNNING BIRDS= (_Cursores_)

This group is characterized by a considerable sized body, long neck,
flat beak, powerful legs and strong, two or three-toed running feet.
The bones are heavy; the wings are stunted, and useless for flying;
and the plumage is scanty on the head, neck, legs and abdomen.

=Cassowary= (_Casuarius_).--A bird of ostrich affinities, living in New Guinea, and other Malay Islands, and Northern Australia. They have rudimentary wings, live in dense forests, head protected by horny helmet, have blue, red and yellow wattles, three-toed feet, the inner toe with powerful claw, used as weapon, eat large quantities of miscellaneous articles, including indigestible ones; and can be tamed. Their cry is a loud croak. Their eggs, five in number, are laid in August and September, in nests on ground, covered in brush. The young are brownish, but gradually become blacker. The helmet is not full-grown until the fifth year.

=Emu= (_Dromæus_) is closely akin to the cassowary family. There are two species, both Australian--the Common Emu and the Spotted Emu. They differ from the cassowaries in several marked features--e.g., the head and neck are feathered except on cheeks and throat, there is no “helmet,” nor are there wattles on the neck, the bill is broad, and the claws of the three toes are almost of equal length. The emu is a large bird, standing about six feet in height. The plumage is like that of the cassowary; the color is predominantly dull brown, darker on the head, neck and middle line of the back, lighter beneath. The naked parts of head and neck are grayish blue, the bill and feet brownish. The young are striped with black. The wings are of course rudimentary, but the legs serve the bird well both in running and kicking. Timid and peaceful in character, the emu trusts to its speed for safety. It is valued on account of its beef-like flesh, abundant oil, and edible eggs, but is unfortunately being destroyed with too great carelessness.

=Ostrich.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Rhea=, also called Nandu and American Ostrich is a South American bird, which form a somewhat isolated group, though nearer to the ostrich than to any other bird. They are incapable of flight, but the wings are rather better developed than in the ostrich. As in the ostrich and the apteryx, the feathers have no aftershaft, and the color of the eggs is white. The male bird incubates. Three species have been described.

=GAME BIRDS= (_Gallinæ_)

The members of this order are ground-birds, with strong,
blunt-clawed feet adapted for scratching up the ground in search of
food. The beak is nearly always shorter than the head, and has
projecting edges; the wings are generally short, and rounded off;
the legs are armored with callosities. All these birds build their
nests on the ground, and their young are nest fledglings, leaving
the nest on the same day. A number of our domesticated fowl belong
to this group.

=Bobwhite= (_Colinus virginianus_) is known everywhere by the clear whistle that suggests its name. It is loved by every dweller in the country and is better known to more hunters in the United States than any other game bird. It is no less appreciated on the table than in the field, and in many states has unquestionably been hunted too closely. Half the food of this quail consists of weed seeds, almost a fourth of grain, and about a tenth of wild fruits. Although thus eating grain, the bird gets most of it from stubble. It feeds freely upon Colorado potato beetles, chinch bugs, cucumber beetles, wireworms, billbugs, clover-leaf weevils, cotton-boll weevils army worms, bollworms, cutworms, and Rocky Mountain locusts.

=Chicken or Fowl.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Grouse= is a name applied to many game-birds, including quail and partridges. They are well known to be large, plump, somewhat heavy birds, usually short-tailed, and with beautifully variegated plumage, which must often be protective. The largest American grouse, however, is the Cock of the Plains or Sage Cock. The RUFFED GROUSE (_Bonasa umbellus_) is distinguished from other grouse by the broad black band near tip of tail. It is found in the northern two-thirds of the United States and in the forested parts of Canada. The Ruffed Grouse is famed as the finest game bird of the northern woods. It is usually wild and wary and well understands the attacks of hunters. Wild fruits, mast, and browse make up the bulk of the vegetable food of this species; and it is very fond of hazelnuts, beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns and eats practically all kinds of wild berries and other fruits.

=Guinea=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Partridges= (_Tetraonidæ_).--The most common of the Old World is the Gray Partridge. The Snow Pheasants of the heights of the Himalayas may exceed six pounds in weight. The Gray Partridge of India is not palatable as food, but, being very pugnacious, is kept for fighting; the male has two spurs on each foot. There are upward of fifty species of American partridges, among which are the Mountain Quail of California, the Bobwhite (which see), while the Ruffed Grouse is called Partridge in the North and Pheasant in the South. It is shy, forest-loving; the male makes a drumming sound by vibrating its wings. Its tarsus is feathered half way, the head crested, and plumage variegated.

=Peacock.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Pheasants= (_Phasianidæ_).--About forty species of pheasants inhabit southeastern Asia. They are brilliantly colored and have long tails and crests. The males generally are pugnacious; the male of the Blood Pheasant, dwelling on the heights of the Himalayas, has four or five spurs on each foot.

The pheasant exhibits a remarkable readiness to hybridize with other like birds. The Ring-necked Pheasant is a native of the forests of India and China. It is distinguished by a white ring almost surrounding the neck, and is of smaller size than the common pheasant, somewhat different in markings, and has a shorter tail. It is the common pheasant of the Celestial Empire. Among other species of pheasant may be mentioned Diard’s pheasant, a native of Japan; Soemmering’s Pheasant, also from Japan, one of the most beautiful pheasants known, but terribly pugnacious; and Reeve’s Pheasant, a native of the north of China, in which white is the prevailing color, and the tail is of extraordinary length.

Of somewhat different type are the Golden Pheasant and the Silver Pheasant, both natives of China. The Golden Pheasant is one of the most splendid of the tribe. It has a fine crest, and a ruff of orange and black, capable of being erected at pleasure. The tail is very long. The Silver Pheasant is one of the largest and most powerful of the tribe. The Impeyan Pheasant is a native of the East Indies, and known as the “bird of gold.”

=Ptarmigan= (_Lagopus_), a bird nearly allied to the true grouse, differs chiefly in having the toes as well as the legs thickly clothed with short feathers. They are natives of the northern parts of the world, of elevated or of arctic regions. With the exception of the Red Grouse, the species change color on the approach of winter, assuming a white or nearly white plumage. All are esteemed as food.

The Common Ptarmigan is now resident in the Lofoden Island, in Scandinavia, on the Ural and the Altai ranges, etc., and also on the Alps and the Pyrenees. The winter plumage is pure white, except a black band above the eyes of the male, and some black on the under feathers of the tail. In both sexes the wings are always white, but have dark shafts to their quills. In summer the males are predominantly grayish brown above, with blackish head, shoulders, and breast, with white belly, with black tail-feathers tipped with white. In the female a tawny color predominates. In autumn, again the plumage is different, with numerous streaks of slate gray on the upper parts. The white winter plumage is doubtless protective amid the snow, and may be the result of the cold; the summer plumage is not less harmonious with the surroundings.

=Turkey.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Quail.=--See Partridges and Bobwhite.

_THE REPTILES_ (_Reptilia_)

LIZARDS, CHAMELEONS, SNAKES, CROCODILES, TORTOISES AND TURTLES

The reptiles are vertebrates which are supplied with a horny or bony
skin; they have red, cold blood, breathe by means of lungs, and
generally lay eggs; many of them have no feet. When limbs are
present, however, they do not raise the body far off the ground, for
the elbows and knees are turned outward. Some reptiles pass the
winter in sleep.

=TORTOISES AND TURTLES= (_Chelonia_)

These animals have a wide body, which is enclosed between the arched
shell of the back and the flat shell of the stomach. There are land,
sea, and river tortoises. In some the head and legs can be retracted
inside the shell. Over the outside of the case are horny plates
which, in the hawkbill turtle are of value, as they afford the
tortoise shell used for combs, etc. Turtles never have teeth, the
edges of the jaws being covered with horny material. Most of the
species are carnivorous. The largest species are the marine
leather-backs of the tropics, which occasionally drift north to New
England, and the giant species occurring on the Galapagos Islands,
off the west coast of South America, and on some islands in the
Indian Ocean.

=Land Tortoises= have a high arched shell under which the head and feet can be retracted. The feet have separate toes, and are adapted for walking. They are strictly herbivorous. Examples of this family are the large and strong Gopher-tortoises of the Carolinas, which burrow in the earth, the massive Amazon Tortoise, used for food by the natives, the Galapagos Tortoise, and the small Garden Tortoise.

=Mud Tortoise= (_Emys lutaria_) is frequently seen in Italy and the south of France. It inhabits lakes and slow-flowing waters, and feeds upon small fish, spawn, frogs, water insects, etc. It lays its eggs in a hole, which it digs in the bank. Its flesh is edible. Small specimens are frequently kept in aquariums, and fed with meat, bread, lettuce leaves, etc.

=Sea Turtles= have flat shells between which the flipper-like feet and huge head cannot be retracted. There are no nails or separate toes, and the fore feet are much the larger. The Green Turtle (_Chelone midas_) is much esteemed as food, with its eggs. It lives in or near the Gulf Stream, feeds on the roots of eelgrass, comes ashore at night, during May, and lays nearly one hundred eggs, which hatch in six weeks; the laying is usually repeated several times every two weeks, near the first nest. This Turtle may attain a weight of over eight hundred pounds. The Logger-head Turtle, so-called from its huge head and neck, ranges from Brazil to Massachusetts, attains a weight half that of the Green Turtle, and feeds on fish, crustacea, conchs, etc.

The Hawk’s Bill (_Eretmochelys_) has pointed plates that supply the “tortoise shell” of commerce. A large specimen may yield as much as eight pounds of the “shell.” The beautiful mottled color and semi-transparent characters of this material are well known. Its manufacture is carried on in the East, a fine tortoise-shell being exported from Celebes to China.

=Snapping Turtle= is a large voracious turtle, common in North America along stagnant waters and along the southern Mississippi where it sometimes reaches the weight of thirty pounds. It lives on fishes, frogs, and shells, and occasionally water-fowl. It has great strength of jaw and snaps when it bites. When fattened, its flesh is often esteemed as a delicacy. It is sometimes known as the Alligator-terrapin or Alligator Turtle.

=Terrapin= is the popular name of many species of fresh-water and tidal-water tortoises, native to tropical and the warmer temperate countries. About twenty fresh-water species are found in the United States. But the terrapin _par excellence_ is the Diamond-back Salt-water Terrapin, highly prized as a delicacy for the table. It is caught in salt marshes along the coast from New England to Texas, the finest being those of the Massachusetts and the northern coasts.

=CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS= (_Crocodilia_)

These inhabitants of the rivers and estuaries of tropical regions
are somewhat lizard-like in appearance, but in structure they are in
many ways much more specialized. They have a scaly, tough skin on
the back, four powerful feet, and a long tail. They live chiefly in
the water, and only go to the banks to bask in the sun. The jaws are
armed with powerful interlocking teeth, which constitute a deadly
trap. The valvular nostrils are so situated that the animal can
drift along with most of its body submerged, and at the same time
breathe quite easily.

=Alligator= (_Alligator mississippiensis_) is found in the southern states of North America. It is as voracious as it is bloodthirsty. Should it perceive an unfortunate mammal drinking or browsing on the edge of the bank, it sinks below the surface, and rapidly swims toward the victim by strokes of its powerful, flattened tail. Then comes a sudden snap, aided, perhaps, by a lash of the tail; should the attempt prove successful, the prey is held under water till it is drowned, if too large to be forthwith swallowed. No bullet will pierce the hide on its back. It deposits its eggs in a kind of nest, which it builds with grass and mud on the banks, and defends with great fierceness. It deposits about one hundred eggs in this nest. The alligator is captured in various ways, but there is danger in hunting it.

=Crocodile= (_Procœlia_) is found in both hemispheres, but especially in Africa; they swarm on the Upper Nile. The crocodile of the Nile is a well-known species, not now found farther north than Thebes, but occurring abundantly farther south and east. Some two or three score of eggs, with delicate, rough, limy shells, about the size of those of geese, are laid in sandy cavities in the bank. The crocodile is now hunted for the perfume of its musk-glands, and also for its skin and fat.

=LIZARDS= (_Lacertilia_)

These may perhaps be described as the most average of existing
reptiles, and have a very wide distribution. Examination of a lizard
or its skeleton enables us to grasp very clearly some of the average
characters of reptiles, such as the sprawling limbs and long tail.
Some of the tropical lizards are of very considerable size,
attaining a length of as much as six feet, as in the iguanas of
America, some of which are esteemed as food. These are among the
climbing members of the order, other examples being the geckoes and
chameleons, both of which are animals of small size.

=Chameleons= are proverbial for the way in which they rapidly change color if placed among fresh surroundings, so as to harmonize with them. This variable general coloration is protective, because it makes the chameleon invisible to its foes, and also aggressive, as the insect prey of the little lizard are thereby lulled into a sense of false security. The digits are bound together into two groups, and a tongs-like grasping organ of great efficiency is thus constituted. The chameleon is also notable for the relatively enormous distance to which it can suddenly shoot out its sticky club-shaped tongue, for the purpose of seizing insects or other small creatures.

=Flying Dragon= (_Draco volans_) is found on trees in the island of Java. It generally frequents the trees along the banks of great rivers, in the leaves of which are numerous insects, upon which the flying dragon feeds. As it is as green as the leaves of the trees, it can only be recognized by an experienced eye. It is hunted for its delicate flesh, and also for the eggs, which are found deposited, often fifteen to twenty at a time, in a hollow in the ground.

=Gecko= (_Hemidadylus maculatus_) is a native of the East Indies and China. At dawn these reptiles creep out of their holes, and with dilated eyes look around for prey. As soon as they catch sight of it, the clumsy creatures spring upon it from a distance of four to six inches, with all the violence and rapidity of an animal of prey. Sucking pads on the feet of the gecko enable it to cling firmly to the most slippery surface, and to crawl about without slipping; its claws, which are sharp and retractile, are also useful to this reptile.

=Iguana= (_Iguana tuberculata_) is found in the East Indies and in South America. It lives in trees along the banks of rivers, feeding upon the insects. Its usual color is dark olive green. Its flesh is considered a delicacy, being tender and very much like that of a chicken. The eggs, of which the female deposits from four to six dozen at a time, are also eaten.

=SNAKES OR SERPENTS=

have elongated bodies, covered with plates or scales, and no feet.
Many kinds have no poisonous fangs in the upper jaw. Serpents
reproduce their species from eggs, and feed upon living animals;
those found in colder regions sleep through the winter.

HOW THE SNAKE TRAVELS

The vertebrae are very numerous. With the exception of the most anterior (atlas), all bear ribs, which are very freely movable and are the snake’s main organs of locomotion. Snakes are capable of moving with great swiftness. The body undulates from side to side--not up and down--in a wriggling or writhing fashion. The extremely flexible backbone permits of this, but to guard against dislocation the vertebrae are connected by extra locking-joints, which only permit a certain amount of play. It is, however, comparatively easy to break the back of a snake by a sharp blow with a stick or whip.

MOUTH AND SENSE ORGANS OF SNAKES

Snakes are typically carnivorous, and many of them are furnished with powerful poison fangs. The tongue is forked, can be rapidly protruded and retracted, and is an efficient sense organ. Upon it and the well-developed nostrils the snakes largely depend, for neither sight nor hearing is very acute. There are no eyelids, the eyes being covered over by a transparent convex scale. The whole skin is covered with scales, which are folds of the epidermis, continuous with one another. In consequence, when the snake casts its coat--which occurs several times in the year--it casts it in one piece, this being a complete replica of the snake.

THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION

The heart is four-chambered, as in mammals and birds, and not three-chambered, as in other reptiles and amphibia. The pure and impure blood do not, therefore, mix inside the heart; but as such blending takes place outside, owing to imperfect separation of the great vessels, the net result is much the same as in the lizards.

HOW SNAKES SECRETE POISONS

In venomous serpents some of the glands opening into the mouth secrete a poisonous fluid, which is introduced into the blood of a bitten victim. The largest amount of specialization is found among the vipers, where the teeth are reduced to a pair of hollow “fangs” in the front of the upper jaw, and there are two large poison-glands, one on either side of the head, giving it a characteristic resemblance to the ace of spades. In a state of rest, when the mouth is shut, the poison-fangs are pressed against the roof of the mouth, with their tips directed backwards. But when the snake opens its mouth and “strikes,” the fangs are rotated forward so that their sharp tips can be brought into action. The poison flows into the upper end of the tooth-canal and, in vipers, enters the wound by a small hole on the side of the tip. Were it at the end a blockage might result. We have, in fact, an anticipation of the device used in the construction of the needles employed with hypodermic syringe.

WHY SNAKES ARE COLORED

Snakes, like lizards, are very commonly colored in such a way that they may harmonize with their surroundings. A good many poisonous forms, on the other hand, advertise their dangerous properties by brilliant hues and striking patterns. Such “warning coloration” is seen, for example, in the coral snakes of tropical America, which are marked with broad red rings, alternating with others of whitish tint, shading into black at the front and back of each ring. These coral snakes serve as models which certain harmless forms unconsciously mimic, thus securing a certain amount of immunity from attack by sailing under false colors.

SOME SNAKES THAT WARN

In the American rattlesnakes, at each periodical casting of the skin or slough, a little knob remains at the end of the tail. A series of these loosely united together make up the “rattle,” used for the production of warning sounds. The “hissing” of a snake has the same purpose. Venomous snakes also commonly assume a warning attitude, raising the front part of the body from the ground and, in some cases, as illustrated by the cobra, inflating a kind of hood--in this particular instance bringing a black, spectacle-shaped mark into prominence.

But in these and other animals it must not be supposed that the “warning” is for the benefit of the prey, but may be taken as a hint to aggressive birds and mammals that discretion is the better part of valor. The success of this device is shown by the terror with which all monkeys regard serpents.

THE ART OF SNAKE CHARMING

This art has been practised from very ancient times in Africa and the East, and often remains from generation to generation the profession of a family. It is sometimes practised for alleged useful purposes, since the “charmers” are often employed to clear a house of its unwelcome snake visitors. For the most part, however, it is, like conjuring, a form of popular amusement. In India it is practised by several distinct classes of men, who vary in the methods and success of their art. The charmers usually take good care to play with snakes whose fangs or even poison-glands have been carefully removed, or even to use those which are not venomous at all. The frequent use of a musical pipe, and the way in which the snakes seem to respond to the sounds, are facts interesting to naturalists, who believe that at least many snakes are very deaf. The charmers sometimes manifest a fearlessly confident dexterity in handling intact venomous snakes.

THE WISDOM OF THE SERPENT

In correlation with the presence of a well-developed brain, snakes may be regarded as the most intelligent of reptiles, though the idea of their “wisdom” probably took origin in their stealthy ways, and the curious “fascinating” powers already mentioned. They are among the numerous animals that have been the objects of superstitious worship.

AMERICAN AND OTHER SNAKES

The group of North American snakes include a large number of Colubrine snakes and about a score of pit-vipers or rattlesnakes. Among the Colubrine forms are the water-snakes, the black snakes and coachwhip snakes of the genus Coluber, the pine-snakes, the king-snakes, the ring-necked snakes and so on. Besides the rattlesnakes proper, there are the related copperheads and mocassins. Outside these two families there are the boa-like and venomous coral-snakes, and the harlequin snake.

There are no snakes in Ireland, nor are they represented in most oceanic islands such as New Zealand and Iceland. The pythons and boas are distinctly tropical snakes: the pythons in Africa, India, Malaya, Australia; the boas in tropical America. Among the most important venomous snakes of India are the following: the cobra, the Hamadryas, the Krait, the Sankni, and the sea-snakes.

_AMPHIBIANS_ (_Amphibia_)

FROGS, NEWTS, SALAMANDERS AND TOADS

The amphibians hold a middle position between the reptiles and
fishes. The name, Amphibia, means “double-lifed” or living on both
land and water. The larvæ, after leaving the eggs, live in the water
like fishes; they gradually accustom themselves to live in the air,
and when their metamorphosis is complete they breathe by means of
lungs.

They have red, cold blood, and are enveloped in a smooth, often
slippery, skin. Some have tails, like the newt and salamander, and
others are tailless, like the frog and toad.

=Frog= (_Rana temporaria_) is familiar all over America, and is found in the early spring in all our ponds, ditches, and lakes, in which also large quantities of frog’s eggs can be seen. When fully developed, frogs have a short, tailless body, a large head, and four legs, the toes being frequently joined together by a membrane.

They deposit their eggs (_a_) in the water, either in masses or in strings. The larvæ (called tadpoles) have a long, flattened tail (_c_); they have no legs, and breathe through gills (_b_), and are therefore very different from the fully developed frog. The gills gradually disappear, and lungs are developed; the fore legs make their appearance, the hind pair developing first (_d_ and _e_); the tail gradually diminishes, and finally disappears (_f_). The change, is then complete, and the young frog leaves the water to begin its life upon land. The common frog leaves the water immediately after spawning, and makes itself very useful by destroying numerous injurious insects and snails.

In this country the commoner species of frogs embrace the BULL FROG (_R. catesbiana_), which is the largest, sometimes being eight inches long. Its sonorous bass notes are familiar to the ear, and to the eye it presents a greenish appearance, brightest on the head; with faint spots on the back and blotches on the legs. It occurs from Kansas eastwards, and its hind-legs fried are considered a delicacy.

The SPRING FROG (_R. clamatans_) is widespread, about three inches in length, green and black spotted above and white below.

The common GREEN FROG (_R. virescens_) has irregular black blotches, and is paler beneath. Both average about three inches in length.

The PICKEREL FROG (_R. palustris_) is light brown in color, with two rows of large oblong blotches of dark brown on the back and spots elsewhere. It is smaller in size and less aquatic than most other kinds.

The WOOD-FROG or TREE-FROG (_R. sylvatica_) is more closely related in structure to the toads than to the frogs proper. The tree-frogs show various interesting adaptations to their arboreal life. The last joint of each toe bears a claw, on which is supported a disc or sucker by means of which the animals can cling to a perfectly perpendicular surface. Most of them also exhibit in a greater or less degree the power of color-change, where the color varies from a dark brown to a lichen-like gray or a brilliant green.

=Newts= are separated from the lizards on account of their changes while young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles, and do not assume their perfect shape until six weeks after their exclusion from the eggs. The common Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds, ditches, and still waters.

The male newt is distinguished by a beautiful crimson tipped wavy crest of loose skin, that extends along the whole course of the back and tail, and which, together with the rich orange-colored belly, makes it a most beautiful creature. The female has a singular habit of laying her eggs upon long leaves of water-plants, and actually tying them in the leaf by a regular knot.

=Salamander= (_Salamandra maculata_) is a nocturnal animal, and found in woods and hedges under decayed leaves and similar matter. Their bodies are longer and similar to the lizard. Most of the species lay eggs, usually in the water. From these the gilled young hatch out. They are carnivorous or insectivorous. In the adult stage, some are aquatic, but more live on the earth burrowing beneath the soil or under stones, seeking their prey at night. None are poisonous, except that they have glands in the skin which secrete an acrid juice. Our largest species is the mud puppy (_Necturus_) of the Mississippi basin; the largest living species is the giant salamander of Japan, three feet in length.

=Toad= (_Bufo_).--Toads are distinguished from frogs by the absence of teeth, by the roughness of the skin, by peculiarities in the breastbone, and by the shorter hind-legs.

The common toad is a shy, nocturnal animal, hiding during the day in dark, damp places, crawling about at night in search of insects, grubs, slugs, worms, and the like. Its appearance is familiar--a dirty brownish-gray color, a warty skin, a flat head, swollen parotid glands above the ears, bright jewel-like eyes with a transverse pupil, slightly webbed toes. They are heavier and clumsier than frogs, and cannot leap nearly so far. During the winter they live in the mud or in holes. In spring they pair, and the females lay in the water-pools their numerous eggs in strings about three or four feet in length. The tadpoles are smaller and darker than those of frogs, and do not accomplish their transformation into toads until autumn.

Toads are widely distributed over most parts of the continents, but are most abundant in tropical regions. The common toad of North America ranges everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. In the Southern States another very similar species is numerous, and other species are found in the West. The largest toad of tropical America measures eight inches in length.

The LAUGHING TOAD (_Bombinator igneus_) is the smallest of the toads, with a yellow spotted belly.

is one of the strangest of all fishes in its habits. It shoots down flies and other small creatures from the bank by means of a series of well-aimed “bullets” of water, which it ejects in rapid succession.]

_THE FISHES_ (_Pisces_)

The fishes are the last class of the vertebrated animals, and have
cold, red blood. The elongated body generally tapers off to the
tail; the head and neck are large; the limbs are called fins, and
are such as to make efficient paddles. They are usually one or more
fins in the middle line of the back and one or two in a
corresponding position beneath the tail (anal fins); while the tip
of the tail is terminated by a caudal fin, the chief organ of
swimming. All of the fins are supported by a skeleton of rays,
either horny or spinous in character.

There are but two chambers to the heart, and the occurrence of a
swim bladder, an organ for regulating or recognition of the depth of
the water in which the fish is, is very frequent. Externally fish
have a defensive armor of scales or bony plates embedded in the
skin. They breathe throughout life by means of gills, which are
delicate folds or filaments connected with openings (gill slits) in
the sides of the throat. The fishes live in water, and reproduce
their species by eggs.

There are several great groups of fishes, distinguished by the
presence of a cartilage or bony skeleton, by having the gill slits
free or under a gill cover, by characteristics of the skull,
presence or absence of air bladder, and by peculiarities of the
digestive tract and nervous system.

(1) The bony, or true fishes (_Teleostei_), which include all the
most familiar freshwater and marine forms; (2) the Cartilaginous
fishes (_Elasmobranchii_), including sharks, dog-fish, bays and
skates; (3) the heavily-armored fishes (_Ganoidei_), like the
sturgeons and bony pike; and (4) the double-breathers (_Dipnoi_), of
rare occurrence.

=THE BONY FISHES= (_Teleostei_)

These have a bony skeleton, and a well-defined vertebra, or
backbone; their bodies are mostly covered with scales.

=Alewife= (_Alosa tyrannus_), a fish of the same genus with the Shad, which, at the beginning of summer, appears in great numbers on the east coast of North America, and enters the rivers to spawn. It appears in Chesapeake Bay in March, on the coasts of New York and New England in April, and on those of the British provinces about May 1. It abounds in the bay of Fundy, but is more rare in the gulf of St. Lawrence; and the bay of Miramichi appears to be its northern limit. Its length is not more than twelve inches. The alewife is called spring herring in some places, and gaspereau by the French Canadians.

=Bass= (_Labrax_) is a member of the perch family. The shape is salmon-like. The color is without the zebra-like bars of the perch, and shades off from dusky blue above to silvery white beneath.

The Striped Bass or Rock-fish of the United States (_L. lineatus_) very nearly resembles the common bass, but attains a larger size. It is one of the most important of American food fishes, and sometimes weighs fifty pounds. It is caught from July to September. The name Stone Bass is given to various forms. A Yellow Bass is found in the Lower Mississippi valley, and the Fresh-water Bass is an imported fish found in the streams of eastern New York and the other middle states.

=Bluefish= (_Temnodon or Pomatomus saltator_).--A fish common on the eastern coasts of America, allied to the mackerel. The only known species is abundant on the east coast of North America. The upper parts are of a bluish color, the lower parts whitish, a large black spot at the base of the pectoral fins. The mouth is crowded with teeth, the jaws are furnished with large ones. The bluefish preys on other fishes, such as the menhaden and mackerel, the shoals of which it pursues. It sometimes attains a length of three, or even five feet, and a weight of fourteen pounds. It is often caught by trolling, as it bites readily at an object drawn swiftly through the water. It is much esteemed for the table.

=Bullhead.=--In the United States the name is given to some species of catfish or horned pout; in England to a smaller fish, allied to our miller’s thumb, but belonging to a different group from the catfish.

=Carp.= See page 256.

=Cod= (_Gadus_), a genus of bony fishes in the soft-rayed order. This is probably the most important food fish and is taken in enormous numbers on the coasts of Europe and of eastern North America. It occurs in the northern Pacific as well. It feeds upon other fishes as well as on shellfish, and large specimens weigh over one hundred pounds. Allied to the cod are the haddock, pollack, hake and cusk.

=Eel= (_Anguilla vulgaris_) has elongated form, and has become proverbial on account of its slipperiness and tenacity of life. In the rivers and lakes only female fish are found; the males keep to the open sea. The former go down to the sea in the autumn; but in the following spring the young female fish swim up the rivers in immense numbers, while the young males remain in the sea. During the day the eel conceals itself in the mud, but at night it exhibits its voracious qualities by swallowing numerous fish, water insects, crabs, mussels, and worms. Its firm, delicate flesh is much esteemed.

=Flounder= (_Pleuronectes flesus_), a common species of flat-fish, of wide distribution in shallow waters in north temperate countries. It is the Scotch “fluke,” and the Swedish “flundra,” and differs but a little from the plaice and dab, two of the commonest neighbor-species. Like other flat-fishes, the flounder is asymmetrical, and swims or rests on one side, almost always the left, the eye of which is in early youth, brought round to the upturned surface. It measures about one foot in length, and about a third as much between the dorsal and the ventral edge, without including the fringing fins.

Of the two dozen related species, the plaice, the dab, the smear-dab, and the craig-fluke are the commonest.