The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

Chapter II: English and American Literature -- Outline Charts of English and (5)

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DELTAS AND ESTUARIES. Owing to local peculiarities at the mouths of rivers, accumulations of sedimentary matter take place in the middle of the stream, dividing it into two or more branches. By these depositions _deltas_ (so called from the Greek letter (Δ) delta) are formed--many of them, as those of the Mississippi and Orinoco and of the Rhine and the Ganges, being of great extent. Some rivers fall into the ocean through _estuaries_ or wide channels, and are subject to a great swell or sudden rise of the waters when the tide enters.

=FIRST: Showing the comparative length of the rivers; where and how they take their rise; where and how they empty; their chief branches and connected lakes; and the principal cities located on their banks.=

=SECOND: Comparative height of mountains, arranged in groups by continents, showing the relative height of both mountains and continents. See next page for LOCATION and HEIGHT IN FEET of the various mountain peaks.=]

Most rivers are subject to an occasional, and in some instances to a periodical increase of volume. These seasons of flood are by no means regular, being partly dependent on the melting of the snows, and partly on occasional heavy falls of rain; and hence depend on the climatic variations of the country in which rivers originate.

=FAMOUS MOUNTAIN AND OTHER ELEVATIONS OF THE WORLD=

NOTE: The numbers refer back to the Picture Diagrams on the
preceding page.

=NORTH AMERICA=
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=Ref. =Name and Location= =Height
No.= in Feet=
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A. *Mount McKinley, Coast Range, Alaska 20,300
1. Orizaba, Cordillera, Mexico 18,310
2. Mount St. Elias, Coast Range, Alaska 18,024
3. Popocatapetl, Cordillera, Mexico 17,748
4. Mount Brown, Rocky Mountains, Canada 15,990
5. Mount Hooker, Rocky Mountains, Canada 15,700
6. Mount Fairweather, Coast Range, Alaska 14,750
7. *Mount Rainier, Coast Range, Washington 14,408
8. *Mount Whitney, Coast Range, California 14,501
9. Mount Elbert, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 14,402
10. Pike’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 14,108
11. *Gannett Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming 13,785
12. Fremont’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming 13,570
13. *Kings Peak, Utah 13,498
14. *N. Truchas Peak, Rocky Mountains, New Mexico 13,306
15. *E. Peak, White Mountains, Nevada 13,145
16. *Granite Peak, Rocky Mountains, Montana 12,850
17. *San Francisco Peak, Arizona 12,611
18. Mount Assiniboine, Rocky Mts., Canada 11,860
19. *Mount Hood, Coast Range, Oregon 11,225
20. *El Capitan, Texas 9,020
21. Mount Potrillo, Cuba 9,000
22. Cibao Mountains, Hayti, West Indies 8,970
23. *Harvey Peak, South Dakota 7,242
24. Sierra del Cobre, Cuba 7,200
25. *Mount Mitchell, Allegheny Mts., N. C. 6,711
26. *Mount Guyot, Allegheny Mts., Tennessee 6,636
27. Black Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C. 6,476
28. *Mount Washington, White Mts., N. H. 6,293
29. Roan Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C. 6,038
30. Mount Adams, White Mts., N. H. 5,963
31. Mount Jefferson, White Mts., N. H. 5,725
32. *Mount Rogers, Blue Ridge, Virginia 5,719
33. Mount Monroe, White Mts., N. H. 5,390
34. *Banner Peak, Nebraska 5,350
35. *Mount Marcy, Adirondacks, New York 5,344
36. *Mount Katahdin, Maine 5,273
37. Mount McIntyre, Adirondacks, New York 5,112
38. Mount Hecla, Iceland 5,110
39. Mount Franklin, White Mts., N. H. 5,050
40. Skylight, Adirondacks, New York 4,920
41. Haystack, Adirondacks, New York 4,918
42. Morne Garon, St. Vincent, West Indies 4,800
43. *Spruce Knob, West Virginia 4,860
44. *Brasstown Bald, Georgia 4,768
45. *Cimarron Peak, Oklahoma 4,750
46. Mount Lafayette, White Mts., N. H. 4,723
47. Mount Morris, Adirondacks, New York 4,576
48. Mount Pelée, Martinique 4,300
49. *Mount Mansfield, Green Mts., Vermont 4,364
50. Otter Peak, Allegheny Mountains, Virginia 4,260
51. *Highlands (West Boundary), Kansas 4,135
52. *Big Black Mountain, Kentucky 4,100
53. Killington, Green Mountains, Vermont 4,100
54. Mount Seward, Adirondacks, New York 4,000
55. Table Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia 4,000
56. *Bald Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia 4,000
57. Mount Parnassus, Spitzbergen 3,951
58. Round Top, Catskills, New York 3,804
59. High Peak, Catskills, New York 3,718
60. Mount Misery, St. Christopher, West Indies 3,712
61. Sierra de Luquillo, Porto Rico 3,678
62. Mount Greylock, Taconic Mts., Mass. 3,505
63. *Monadnock, White Mts., New Hampshire 3,450
64. *Bowman Summit 3,500
65. Backbone Mountain, Maryland 3,340
66. *Blue Knob, Allegheny Mts., Pennsylvania 3,136
67. Central Peak, Nevis, West Indies 3,000
68. *Blue Mountain, Arkansas 2,800
69. Kearsarge, White Mts., New Hampshire 2,460
70. *Cheaha Mountain, Alabama 2,407
71. *Bear Mountain, Connecticut 2,355
72. *Rib Hill, Wisconsin 1,940
73. *Mesabi Range Minnesota 1,920
74. High Point, New Jersey 1,809
75. Pringhar, Iowa 1,800
76. Taun Sauk Mountain, Ozarks, Missouri 1,750
77. *Logan Summit, Ohio 1,550
78. West Point, Highlands, New York 1,500
79. Storm King, Highlands, New York 1,389
80. *Charles Mound, Illinois 1,241
81. Carlos Summit, Indiana 1,210
82. Mount Tom, Massachusetts 1,200
83. Berkshire Hills, Massachusetts 1,200
84. Anthony’s Nose, Highlands, New York 1,048
85. Mount Holyoke, Massachusetts 830
86. Palisades of Hudson, New York and N. J. 500
87. Mount Hope, Rhode Island 300
88. Bunker Hill, Massachusetts 62
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* Greatest altitude in the state or territory.
=EUROPE=
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1. Monte Blanc, France 15,782
2. Monte Rosa, Italy 15,217
3. Weisshorn, Switzerland 14,808
4. Matterhorn, or Cervin, Switzerland 14,780
5. Finsteraarhorn, Switzerland 14,026
6. Breithorn, Switzerland 13,685
7. Jungfrau, Switzerland 13,671
8. Mönch, Switzerland 13,465
9. Pic des Ecrins, France 13,462
10. Shreckhorn, Switzerland 13,385
11. Mount Paradis, France 13,300
12. Otherspitze, Austria 12,800
13. Gross Glockner, Austria 12,776
14. Aiguille du Midi, France 12,743
15. Monte Viso, France 12,582
16. The Gallonstock, Switzerland 12,481
17. Aiguille de Sassire, Sardinia 12,346
18. Wetterhorn, Switzerland 12,150
19. Mont Genevre, Sardinia 11,785
20. Monto Gavio, Austria 11,754
21. Cerro de Mulhacen, Spain 11,605
22. Simplon, Switzerland 11,541
23. Wisbach Horn, Austria 11,518
24. La Mormelata, Austria 11,508
25. Mont Cenis, France 11,457
26. Mont Nethou, Spain 11,427
27. Pic Blanc, France 11,190
28. Great St. Bernard, Switzerland 11,080
29. Vignemale, France and Spain 10,980
30. St. Gothard, Switzerland 10,595
31. Mount Calm, France and Spain 10,500
32. Pic Blanc, France and Spain 10,205
33. Splugen, Switzerland and Austria 9,981
34. Peak of Oo, France and Spain 9,730
35. Pic du Midi, France 9,650
36. Mount Etna, Island of Sicily 9,652
37. The Thorstein, Austria 9,630
38. Little St. Bernard, France 9,591
39. Monte Corno, Italy 9,523
40. Canigon, France 9,137
41. Monte Rotondo, Island of Corsica 9,065
42. Guiona, Greece 8,620
43. Lomnitzer Spitze, Austria 8,779
44. Rilo Dagh, Bulgaria 8,300
45. Mount Parnassus, Greece 8,000
46. Mount St. Elias, Greece 7,946
47. Mount Ida, Crete 7,674
48. Col de Ferret, Switzerland 7,641
49. Mount Dinara, Austria-Hungary 7,458
50. Monte Cimone, Italy 7,083
51. Mount Kleck, Austria-Hungary 6,926
52. Pisanino, Italy 6,723
53. Pizzo di Casi, Sicily 6,509
54. Oraefa Yokul, Iceland 6,420
55. Kissovo, Bulgaria 6,407
56. Genargentu Peak, Sardinia Island 6,290
57. Mount D’or, France 6,188
58. Mount Pierus, Bulgaria 6,161
59. P. de Cantal, France 6,093
60. Sulitelma, Sweden and Norway 5,956
61. Monte Amiata, Tuscany 5,792
62. Recullet de Toiry, Switzerland 5,643
63. La Dole, Switzerland 5,509
64. Black Mountain, Island of Cephalonia, Greece 5,356
65. Zagora, Bulgaria 5,310
66. St. Angelo, Lipari Island, Sicily 5,260
67. Schneekoppe, Germany 5,253
68. Feugari, Samothraki Island, Turkey 5,248
69. Feldberg, Black Forest, Germany 4,900
70. Puy de Dome, France 4,846
71. Ballon de Alsace, France 4,688
72. Monte Alto, Italy 4,380
73. Hohenstein, Austria 4,284
74. Brokfeld, Norway 4,188
75. Mount Delphi, Island of Negropont, Greece 4,156
76. Kielburg, Erz Gebirge, Germany 4,074
77. Montserrat, Spain 4,054
78. Vesuvius, Italy 4,260
79. Brocken, Harz Mountains, Germany 3,740
80. Ispario, Thasos Island, Greece 3,428
81. Great Beerberg, Thuringerwald, Germany 3,265
82. Summit, Norway 3,200
83. Great Feldsberg, Germany 2,886
84. Stromboli, Lipari Island, Sicily 3,090
85. Mount Delphi, Skopela Island, Greece 2,295
86. Tonnere, France 2,225
87. Mount St. Oreste, Italy 2,140
88. Peak, Island of Corfu, Greece 1,900
89. Kastri, Island of Thasos, Greece 1,565
90. Gibraltar, Spain 1,437
91. Valdai Hills, Russia 1,200
92. North Cape, Island of Mageroe, Norway 1,161
93. Himmelsberg, Plateau of Denmark, Denmark 928
94. Montmartre, Paris, France 400
95. Observatory, Paris, France 240
96. Heligoland Island, North Sea, Germany 230
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=BRITISH ISLES=
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1. Greenwich Observatory, Kent, England 214
2. Holyhead, Island of Anglesea, Wales 709
3. Carraton, Cornwall, England 1,208
4. Penmaen Maur, Wales 1,540
5. Axedge, Derby, England 1,750
6. Pendlehill, Lancashire, England 1,803
7. Holmernoss, Derby, England 1,859
8. Ingleborough, Yorkshire, England 2,361
9. Whernside, Yorkshire, England 2,384
10. Plinlimmon, Cardiganshire, Wales 2,463
11. Cradle Mountain, Brecknockshire, Wales 2,545
12. Coniston Fell, Westmoreland, England 2,577
13. Caermarthen Vau, Caermarthenshire, Wales 2,596
14. Cheviot, Northumberland, England 2,684
15. Grassmere Fell, Cumberland, England 2,756
16. Cross Fell, Cumberland, England 2,909
17. Bow Fell, Cumberland, England 2,911
18. Cader Idris, Merionethshire, Wales 2,914
19. Arran Mowdwy, Merionethshire, Wales 2,955
20. Skiddaw, Cumberland, England 3,022
21. Helvellyn, Cumberland, England 3,313
22. Carnedd Llewellyn, Caernarvon, Wales 3,471
23. Snowdon, Caernarvon, Wales 3,571
24. Cairn Gorm, Invernesshire, Scotland 4,095
25. Ben Macdui, Aberdeenshire, Scotland 4,305
26. Ben Nevis, Inverness, Scotland 4,368
27. Cairntoul, Aberdeenshire, Scotland 4,245
28. Ben Lawers, Perthshire, Scotland 3,945
29. Ben More, Perthshire, Scotland 2,944
30. Ben Gloe, Perthshire, Scotland 3,690
31. Ben Cruachan, Argyleshire, Scotland 3,669
32. Ben Deirg, Perthshire, Scotland 3,550
33. Schehallien, Perthshire, Scotland 3,514
34. Macgillicuddy Reeks, Kerry, Ireland 3,404
35. Scarscoch, Aberdeenshire, Scotland 3,402
36. Ben Gurdy, Perthshire, Scotland 3,364
37. Ben More, Sutherlandshire, Scotland 3,231
38. Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire, Scotland 3,180
39. Ben Voirlich, Perthshire, Scotland 3,055
40. Lunaquilla, Wicklow, Ireland 3,039
41. Galtee Mountains, Tipperary, Ireland 3,008
42. Slatterwind, Stromoe, Faroe Islands 2,998
43. Black Larg, Ayrshire, Scotland 2,890
44. Goat Fell, Island of Arran, Scotland 2,865
45. Ben Ledi, Perthshire, Scotland 2,863
46. The Cobbler, Argyleshire, Scotland 2,863
47. Slievedonard, Ulster, Ireland 2,796
48. Broad Law, Peeblesshire, Scotland 2,741
49. Ben Wyvis, Rosshire, Scotland 2,720
50. Hart Fell, Dunfriesshire, Scotland 2,635
51. Mount Battock, Kincardineshire, Scotland 2,600
52. Lowther Hill, Lanarkshire, Scotland 2,522
53. Kippure, Leinster, Ireland 2,473
54. Paps of Jura, Argyleshire, Scotland 2,470
55. Slievenaman, Tipperary, Ireland 2,362
56. The Paps, Kerry, Ireland 2,280
57. Snaefell, Isle of Man, Great Britain 2,004
58. Campsie Hills, Stirlingshire, Scotland 1,850
59. Achil Head, Mayo, Ireland 1,800
60. Pentland Hills, Scotland 1,700
61. Peak, Hoy Island, Orkney Group 1,569
62. Eildon Hills, Roxburgshire, Scotland 1,364
63. Ailsa Craig, Firth of Clyde, Scotland 1,139
64. Dunnose, Isle of Wight, England 792
65. Salisbury Craigs, Mid Lothian, Scotland 550
66. Hill of Howth, Dublin, Ireland 549
67. Edinburg Castle, Mid Lothian, Scotland 434
68. Bass Rock, Firth of Forth, Scotland 400
69. St. Paul’s, London, England 404
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=ASIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS=
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A. Mount Everest, India-China 29,002
1. Godwin-Austin, India-China 28,278
2. Dapsang, Tibet 28,273
3. Kanchanjanga, India-China 28,156
4. Nanga-Parbat, India 26,629
5. Dhawalaghiri, India 26,286
6. Nanda-Devi, India 25,661
7. Bride Peak, India 25,100
8. Chumolhari, India 23,933
9. Kaufmann, Turkestan 23,000
10. Cantas, India-China 22,500
11. St. Patrick, India-China 22,385
12. St. George, India-China 22,240
13. Gemini, India-China 21,600
14. Bunderpooch, India-China 21,155
15. Pyramid, India-China 20,966
16. Peak, Hindu Kush, Afghanistan 20,230
17. Bunderpooch 2d, India 20,122
18. Mount Elburz, Russian Empire 18,526
19. Mount Ararat, Asia Minor 17,160
20. Mount Kasbeck, Russian Empire 16,592
21. Kliontsheoskoi, Kamtschatka 16,512
22. Kassoumba, Sumatra, Malaysia 15,000
23. Australian Alps, Australia 15,000
24. Demavend, Persia 18,500
25. Mouna Kea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands 13,953
26. Mount Ophir, Sumatra, Malaysia 13,842
27. Mouna Loa, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands 13,600
28. Arjish Dagh, Asia Minor 13,100
29. Sevellan, Persia 13,000
30. Gunong Dempu, Sumatra, Malaysia 12,465
A. Mount Erebus, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent 12,400
31. Peak, Formosa, Japan 12,000
B. Mount Terror, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent 11,500
32. Koriatskaia, Kamtschatka 11,215
33. Mount Lebanon, Syria 11,050
34. Mount Bielucha, Russian Empire 11,063
35. Peak, Otaheite, Polynesia 10,895
36. Italitskui, Russian Empire 10,735
37. Kriontskaia, Kamtschatka 10,625
38. Shivelutsh, Kamtschatka 10,591
39. Haleakala, Maui, Hawaiian Islands 10,200
40. Murtchurti Bet, India 10,070
41. Mount Olympus, Asia Minor 9,100
42. Mount Egmont, New Zealand 8,839
43. Arvatskaa, Kamtschatka 8,760
44. Dodabetta, India 8,760
45. Mount St. Catherine, Arabia 8,593
46. Mount Sinai, Arabia 8,300
47. Pedro-talla-galla, Ceylon 8,326
48. Melin, China 8,200
49. Kirrigal Pota, Ceylon 7,810
50. Totta Rella, Ceylon 7,720
51. Peak of Yeddo, Japan 7,680
52. Adams’ Peak, Ceylon 7,420
53. Mount Serbal, Arabia 6,760
54. Quelpaert, Quelpaert Island 6,400
55. Sea View Hill, Australia 6,300
56. Taddiamdamala, India 6,055
57. Subramain, India 5,560
58. Jebel, Akral, Arabia 5,318
59. Abu, India 5,100
60. Mount Ida, Asia Minor 4,960
61. Peak of Teneriffe, Tasmania 4,500
62. Mount Williams, Australia 4,500
63. Corean Mountains, Japan 4,480
64. Baskirian Urals, Russian Empire 4,400
65. Ben Lomond, Tasmania 4,200
66. Mount Wellington, Tasmania 3,795
67. Forest Hill Peak, Australia 3,776
68. Quamby’s Bluff, Tasmania 3,500
69. Karnalighur, India 3,203
70. Mount York, Australia 3,192
71. Mount Exmouth, Australia 3,000
72. Mount Cole, Australia 3,000
73. Mount Field, Tasmania 3,000
74. Peak, St. Paul’s Island, Indian Ocean 2,760
75. Sugar Loaf, Peak, Australia 2,527
76. St. Paul’s Dome, Tasmania 2,500
77. Mount Carmel, Palestine, Syria 2,250
78. Mount Tabor, Palestine, Syria 2,053
79. Bathurst Heights, Australia 1,970
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=AFRICA=
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1. Kilimanjaro, East Africa 19,780
2. Kibo Peak, German East Africa 19,320
3. Mount Kenia, British Africa 17,200
4. Mount Stanley, Central Africa 16,800
5. Abba Yared, Abyssinia 15,200
6. Bushad, Abyssinia, Central Africa 14,364
7. Mongo-ma-Lobah, Central Africa 13,760
8. Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Islands 12,000
9. Mount Miltsen, North Africa 11,400
10. Clarence Peak, Fernando Po Island, Gulf of Guinea 10,655
11. Pic Nieges, Bourbon Island, Indian Ocean 10,355
12. Spitz-Kop, South Africa 10,240
13. Mount Alantika, Central Africa 9,000
14. Tarami, Abyssinia 8,643
15. Peak, Tristan de’Acunha Island, Atlantic Ocean 8,236
16. Peak of Pico, Azores, Atlantic Ocean 7,013
17. Volcano Fogo, Cape de Verd Islands, Atlantic Ocean 7,884
18. El Cumbre, Canary Islands, Atlantic Ocean 6,648
19. Jebel Akhal, East Africa 6,500
20. Pico Ruivo, Madeira Island, Atlantic Ocean 6,056
21. Mount Dogen, Central Africa 5,000
22. Table Mountain, South Africa 3,582
23. Devil’s Peak, South Africa 3,315
24. Green Mountain, Ascension Island, Atlantic Ocean 2,868
25. Mount Tekut, North Africa 2,800
26. Diana’s Peak, St. Helena, Atlantic Ocean 2,692
27. Lion’s Head, South Africa 2,166
28. Cape, Cape Colony, South Africa 1,000
29. Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt 479
30. Pyramid of Chephren, Egypt 456
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=SOUTH AMERICA=
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1. Aconcagua, Chile 23,080
2. Sorata or Illampu, Bolivia 23,000
3. Mercedario, Argentina 22,312
4. Illimani, Bolivia 22,200
5. Tupungato, Chile 21,550
6. Condor, Argentina 21,128
7. Famatina, Argentina 20,680
8. Salcantay, Peru 20,540
9. Chimborazo, Ecuador 20,475
10. Antisana, Ecuador 19,184
11. Santa Morta, Colombia 19,030
12. Tacora, Bolivia 19,000
13. Cotopaxi, Ecuador 18,880
14. Arequipa, Peru 18,370
15. Tolima, Colombia 18,069
16. Maispo, Chile 17,670
17. Peak of Cuzco, Peru 17,525
18. Sangai, Ecuador 17,460
19. Ruiz, Colombia 17,388
20. Tunguraqua, Ecuador 16,690
21. Cotocachi, Ecuador 16,300
22. Cerro de Potosi, Bolivia 16,037
23. Pichincha, Ecuador 15,918
24. Roraima, Venezuela 8,740
25. Silla de Caracas, Venezuela 8,632
26. Duida, Venezuela 8,467
27. Corcorada, Argentina 7,510
28. Minchinmadiva, Argentina 7,046
29. Mount Sarmiento, Tierra del Fuego 7,000
30. Mount Darwin, Tierra del Fuego 6,800
31. Guadarrama, Colombia 6,400
32. Itambe, Brazil 5,960
33. Piedade, Brazil 5,820
34. Itacolumi, Brazil 5,750
35. Morro dos Canudos, Brazil 4,476
36. Macarapan, Guayana 3,500
37. Cape Horn, Argentina 1,870
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FRESHWATER AND SALT LAKES

Lakes are of different kinds. Some are mere tanks which receive the first outpourings of springs, others consist of basins or reservoirs which occur in the line of a river’s course; some consist of basins or cavities, into which rivers flow, but which, on account of their depression or their mountainous cincture have no outlets; lakes are also formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes; and some lakes are periodic, or subject to have their basins alternately empty and full of water.

MOUNTAIN LAKES, which are valleys or chasms filled by streams, are long and narrow, rarely of extensive area, but often of great depth. Examples of this class are found in Lakes Champlain and George, among the Appalachian Mountains; Lakes Constance and Geneva, on the northern side of the Alps; and Lake Maggiore and Lake Como, on the south side; all of which are renowned for the loveliness of their shores, or the grandeur of the surrounding mountain scenery.

Lake Maggiore, which is hardly three miles wide, is, according to Italian engineers, 2,623 feet deep--more than double the depth of Lake Superior--its basin reaching 1,936 feet below the sea level.

The forms of mountain lakes are very irregular, for the water often covers several contiguous and connected valleys. This is the case in Lake Como, which has two long arms; and Lakes Lucerne and Lugano, each of which fills four distinct valleys, meeting one another nearly at right angles.

LAKES IN PLAINS. The lake basins in plains and plateaus are, usually, simple depressions in a comparatively uniform surface. The lakes are, therefore, often of great size, broad in proportion to their length, but of little depth compared with their area.

The largest lakes of the globe--the Caspian and Aral seas, and the great North American and African lakes--and the largest in Europe and South America, all belong to this class. Their vast expanse, together with the tameness of their shores, deprives them of the picturesque beauty of mountain lakes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT LAKES. Numerous lakes in the interior of the continents, though receiving affluents, have no outlet. Their waters are chiefly lost by evaporation, though some portion may be absorbed by the sandy soil.

The surfaces of the continents having been the beds of the primeval oceans, the presence of salt in the soil is a natural consequence.

FAMOUS SALT LAKES. The Great Salt Lake of Utah, in the Great American Basin, is one of the finest examples of its class. The Caspian and Aral seas, at the bottom of the vast depression between Europe and Asia, are the most extensive salt lakes. The former has about four times the area of Lake Superior; and the latter is a little larger than Lake Michigan.

The Caspian, though receiving the Volga, the largest river of Europe, evaporates so much water that its surface is about 83 feet lower than that of the Mediterranean, varying with the seasons. Many lakes in its neighborhood disappear entirely in the heat and drought of summer, leaving their beds covered with a crust of pure white crystalline salt.

THE REMARKABLE DEAD SEA, in Syria, is a lake in which the salt has accumulated until the water is converted into a heavy brine. It may be the remnant of an ancient sea of much greater extent, which has been gradually reduced in size by the excess of evaporation over the supply of water in its basin.

This celebrated body of water lies in the deepest part of a long chasm or valley, which is sunk not less than 4,000 feet below the level of the surrounding country. The surface of the lake is 1,286 feet, and its bottom 2,500 feet, below the level of the Mediterranean.

Its feeder, the river Jordan, flows almost throughout its entire course below the level of the sea, the only known instance of the kind. The beautiful lake of Tiberias, the scene of so many of the miracles of Jesus, which is but an expansion of the Jordan in its upper course, is about 650 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean.

HOW THE LAKES ARE DISTRIBUTED OVER THE GLOBE

Lakes are most numerous in the central and northern portions of Asia, Europe and North America. The southern continents, except Africa, have comparatively few.

ASIA is pre-eminently the continent of salt lakes. They occur in countless numbers, both in the steppes north of the Caspian and Aral, and in all the interior plateaus. Lakes of fresh water are also found among the Altai Mountains and adjacent chains. Lake Baikal, one of these, is the largest mountain lake known, being nearly 500 miles long.

EUROPE. The most characteristic and celebrated lakes are those which adorn the Alps of Switzerland and Scandinavia, and the less lofty mountain chains of the British Isles. But the largest lakes are found in the low lands and slight swells which surround the Baltic Sea, in western Russia and Sweden. Lakes Ladoga and Onega in Russia, and Wener and Wetter in Sweden, are the largest in Europe.

NORTH AMERICA is peculiarly rich in great lakes. No continent presents a more remarkable series than that which stretches from northwest to southeast, through the central plains, along the line of contact of the oldest geological formations of the continent. This series includes Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Athabasca and Winnipeg, and the five great lakes of the St. Lawrence, with many of less area.

Innumerable small lakes are scattered throughout the middle portions of the central plain, and the northern and less regular part of the Appalachian mountain region; but south of the parallel of Lake Erie there is an almost entire absence of lakes, whether large or small.

PRINCIPAL SALT-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD

PRINCIPAL FRESH-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD

AFRICA. The great plateau lakes are typical of the continent. The Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, feeding the White Nile; Tanganyika, whose outlet is unknown; Tzana, at the head of the Blue Nile; and Lake Nyassa, in the Zambezi basin, all rest on the high plateaus of Central Africa. Lake Tchad alone, among large African lakes, is surrounded by low plains.

WATERFALLS AND RAPIDS. The variations in the slope of a river-bed, arising from unequal erosion, or from the original irregularities in the surface, give rise to rapids and falls.

The first occur where an increased slope causes the stream to flow with more than its average velocity. The second are caused by nearly perpendicular rocky walls, down which the foaming water descends in picturesque cascades, or imposing cataracts.

The famous “Cataracts of the Nile” are merely rapids which impede but do not entirely obstruct, the navigation as cataracts must. The so-called Falls of St. Anthony, in the upper Mississippi, and the rapids of the St. Lawrence, above Montreal, are among the finest rapids in American rivers.

The highest falls are in the upper course of rivers, in mountainous regions; the greatest and most imposing, in their middle course.

The Niagara Falls exhibit a most important industrial utilization of water power. The Falls of St. Anthony in the Mississippi, the Falls of Foyers in Scotland, the Rhine falls, the Rhone falls of Bellegarde, and the innumerable waterfalls of Scandinavia, Switzerland, and similar mountainous lands, are all utilized in this way. It has been proposed to convey power generated at the Victoria falls of the Zambezi to the Rand goldfield of the Transvaal, and a scheme for this is now being prepared.

=FAMOUS WATERFALLS OF THE WORLD=

NAME LOCATION HEIGHT
(FEET)
=Bridal Veil= California 900
=Foyers= Great Britain 205
=Gastein Falls= Austria 469
=Gavarnie= Pyrenees 1,400
=Genesee= New York 95
=Grand Falls= Labrador 2,000
=Great Falls= Montana 500
=Hay River= Alaska 200
=Kaieteur Falls= Guiana 740
=Krimmler Falls= Austria 1,300
=Kukenam Fall= Guiana 1,500
=Maanelvan= Norway 940
=Minnehaha= Minnesota 50
=Missouri= Montana 90
=Montmorenci= Quebec 265
=Multnomah= Oregon 850
=Murchison= Africa 120
=Nevada Falls= California 600
=Niagara= New York 165
=Oroco Falls= Monte Rosa 2,400
=Rjukanfos= Norway 804
=Roraima Fall= Guiana 2,000
=Rukaufos= Norway 513
=St. Anthony= Minnesota 80
=Schaffhausen= Switzerland 100
=Seven Falls= Colorado 266
=Shoshone= Idaho 210
=Skykjefos= Norway 700
=Snoqualmie= Washington 268
=Staubbach= Switzerland 1,000
=Stirling= New Zealand 500
=Sutherland= New Zealand 1,904
=Takkakaw= British Columbia 1,200
=Tequendama= Colombia 475
=Tessa Falls= Austria 541
=Twin= Idaho 180
=Velino Falls= Italy 591
=Vermafos= Norway 984
=Vettisfos= Norway 950
=Victoria Falls= Zambezi 400
=Voringsfos= Norway 600
=Yellowstone (upper)= Montana 110
=Yellowstone (lower)= Montana 310
=Yguazu or Iguazu= Brazil 210
=Yosemite (upper)= California 1,436
=Yosemite (middle)= California 626
=Yosemite (lower)= California 400

Niagara in winter presents a picture of frozen grandeur equaled nowhere else in the world.]

1. The NIAGARA FALLS and rapids form one of the most impressive spectacles in the world. The Niagara River, which is the sole outlet of the great lakes, pours itself in two vast sheets over a precipice about 160 feet high. Goat Island, which is situated on the lip of the falls, divides the cataract into two sections--the Horseshoe, or Canadian fall, which is by far the more majestic, and the America fall. It has a descent of 158 feet and the American fall of 167 feet. The volume of water which sweeps over this immense chasm is about 15,000,000 cubic feet per minute. The limestone edge of both falls is wearing away in the center, the Canadian fall now being V-shaped, and the American fall showing the same tendency, although its process of recession has begun more recently. For some distance below the falls there is smooth current, the mass of water which pours over the precipice sinking and only coming to the surface two miles below, where the rapids, more magnificent and wilder than those above the falls, begin, and culminate in the rapids of the Upper Whirlpool. Lower down the river is the whirlpool itself, where a sharp turn sends the waters hurling against the Canadian side; they then sweep round in a gigantic circle before they find a vent at right angle with their former course. The sight of the falls is equally awe-inspiring from the bridge on the lip of the fall, from the boat which plies from shore to shore below the cataract, or from the Cave of the Winds, reached from Goat Island. Although in summer the magnificence of the sight is extraordinary, it is in winter, when the wizardry of the frost is upon it, that it is superlatively beautiful. The falls were first discovered by Father Hennepin in 1678.

2. The FALLS OF JUANACATLAN (_hoo-ă-nă-kwt-lăn_), Mexico, are located near the island city of Guadalajara (guă-dă-lă-hă´ră) on the Rio Grande de Santiago. Though only 70 feet in height they are more than 600 feet wide, and as known as the “Niagara” of Mexico.

3. The CATARACTS OF IGUAZU (_e-gwă´soo_) on the frontiers of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. These falls, situated in a remote wilderness, far from civilization, are a veritable fortress in protecting the peace-loving peoples on their borders. They constitute a series of falls extending over three miles, and more than 200 feet in height, and of magnificent scenic beauty. Their energy is estimated to be about 14,000,000 horse-power, or almost three times that of Niagara.

4. The YOSEMITE (_yo-sem´i-tee_) FALLS of California, are highest and probably the most remarkable of their class. They descend on almost perpendicular ledge of rocks 2,600 feet high to the bottom of the Yosemite valley, forming three separate cataracts. The first fall is 1,600 feet sheer descent. Then comes a series of cascades, partly hidden, 600 feet downward, and a final leap of 400 feet. Seen from afar, the Yosemite Falls seem insignificant; but they are, in fact, 35 feet wide, and the shock of their descent is observed a mile away.

5. The STAUBBACH (_stoub´băk_) FALLS, in the Swiss Alps near Lauterbrunnen, descends a precipice of 980 feet, and is reduced to spray like a misty veil before reaching the bottom. It is the highest unbroken fall in Switzerland, and the most noted.

6. The GREAT FALLS OF THE YELLOWSTONE, though not so high, vie with the Yosemite in striking beauty. These famous falls plunge from a height of 360 feet into the abyss of a mighty chasm. At the point of descent, the waters of the Yellowstone suddenly contract from a width of 250 feet to 75 feet.

7. The BRIDAL VEIL FALLS of California, belong to the famous Yosemite Valley. Its waters, over 30 feet wide, leap from the granite rocks on the south wall of the Yosemite in two vertical descents aggregating over 900 feet. The first fall covers a distance of 600 feet, then the waters rushing over a sloping pile of jagged rocks drops a perpendicular distance of 300 feet more. From the chief points of view it seems to make but one plunge, in an unbroken descent similar to the Staubbach, but carrying a much greater volume of water. Frequently the wind swings the great plume of water from the face of the cliff and waves it like a scarf or veil. At sunset rainbows with an indescribable radiance bejewel its foam and the glistening leaves surrounding it.

8. The REICHENBACH (_ri´ken-băk_) FALLS near Meiningen, Switzerland, comprise five fine cascades in the Reichenbach River. The most gorgeous of these, known as the Upper Fall, makes a huge leap of 300 feet into a deep rocky basin, which then continues in several foaming and plunging cascades in general aspect not unlike the Niagara gorge.]

THE OCEANS OF THE WORLD AND THEIR MYSTERIES

The Oceans consist of one great fluid mass, and in extent covers three times the area of the dry land. There is also about three times as much land to the north of the equator as there is to the south of it. Though the waters of the ocean surround the land on every side, yet they are broken up into certain areas by the arrangement of the land portions, and to these various parts we give particular names.

The Atlantic Ocean, lying between the western shores of Europe and
Africa and the east coast of America.

The Pacific Ocean, lying between the west coast of America and the
east coast of Asia.

The Indian Ocean, lying between the south of Asia and the Antarctic
circle.

The Arctic Ocean, lying within the Arctic circle.

The Antarctic Ocean, lying within the Antarctic circle.

VAST EXTENT OF THE OCEANS

THE ATLANTIC is the most branching of the oceans, and is especially distinguished by the number and great size of its inland seas. Two of these, the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, lie in the warm regions; and two, Hudson Bay and the Baltic Sea, in colder latitudes.

The broader seas are represented by the Caribbean Sea, within the tropics and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the North Sea in temperate latitudes. The Gulf of Guinea, and the Bay of Biscay, are examples of the more shallow coast waters.

THE PACIFIC is particularly rich in vast border seas, a continuous series of which lines the Asiatic and Australian coasts. Among these are the Behring Sea, enclosed by the peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands; Okhotsk Sea, enclosed by Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands; the Sea of Japan, and the North and South China seas; and the Arafura, Coral, and New Zealand seas, on the Australian Coast.

Only two inland seas of considerable size--the Gulf of California in North America, and the Yellow Sea in Asia--mark this entire basin.

THE INDIAN OCEAN is characterized by gulfs, two of which form the entire extension of the basin; namely, the Gulf of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea. It has also two inland seas of considerable extent, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, isolating the peninsula of Arabia from the adjacent continents; but border seas are wholly wanting in the Indian Ocean.

THE ARCTIC OCEAN is a partially enclosed sea, which a comparatively inconsiderable rise of the sea-bottom would convert into a true Mediterranean. Three openings connect it with the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, namely, Behring Straight (narrow and shallow), Davis Straight, and the broad expanse of water lying between Norway and Greenland. Of these, the last is by far the most important, for through it the warm waters of the Gulf Stream find access to the Polar basin, and keep the sea free from ice throughout the year. This current is supposed to flow feebly along the coast of Siberia, until, deflected by the land, it becomes merged in the cold counter-currents which, passing along the eastern coasts of Greenland and Labrador, carry immense masses of ice into the Atlantic.

Ridges, mountains, plateaus, which may represent submerged continents of the past, and many an abyss that exceeds in depth the height of the highest mountains, are shown above. The shallow coasts, marked by the lightest shade, are part of the present Continental Shelf, and do not exceed six hundred feet in depth. Beyond this shelf, as a rule, the oceans rapidly attain great depths. Our knowledge of the ocean bed has been obtained from the extensive soundings.]

THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN is situated about or within the antarctic circle. The great Southern Ocean is that part of the ocean which surrounds the world between the latitude of 40 degrees south and the antarctic circle. The northern portions of this band are often called the South Atlantic, South Indian and South Pacific, while the southern portions are usually called the Antarctic Ocean. The average depth of the continuous ocean which surrounds south polar land is about two miles; it gradually shoals toward antarctic land, which in some places is met with a short distance within the antarctic circle. Life is abundant in the surface waters, and at the bottom of the ocean.

HOW THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN APPEARS

As a rule the sea is shallowest near the land, though in a few cases there is a sudden descent to a great depth at a very short distance from the coast. Lowlands have usually shallow seas near the coast, and highlands deep water.

Along the American shores, in the latitude of New York, the depth, for a distance of more than 100 miles, is less than 600 feet; then suddenly the bed descends, by a steep slope, to the depth of 6,000 or 9,000 feet. After a comparatively narrow interval, a second terrace descends to the main basin, from 15,000 to 18,000 feet deep.

The bottom of the trough of the ocean, in general, is equally varied with that of the land surface of the globe, forming mountains, hills, valleys, tablelands, etc. In many parts these marine mountains reach above the surface and form islands. On the table land extending across the Atlantic between Newfoundland and Ireland is laid the submarine-telegraph cable which connects the two hemispheres.

THE DEPTH OF THE OCEANS. The average depth of the Pacific Ocean has been estimated at between 15,000 and 18,000 feet, which is slightly greater than that of the Atlantic. The deeper portions may be learned on reference to the map. The western portion of the North Pacific in particular shows some very deep depressions. To the east of Japan lies a long deep trough which in one part has furnished the sounding of nearly five and one-half miles. This abyss is often called the Tuscarora Deep. South of the Ladrone Islands, in the Caroline Archipelago, there is also a deep abyss where an English ship, the _Challenger_, obtained a sounding of nearly 27,000 feet. In the Pacific soundings of over 30,000 feet have been made.

The Indian Ocean has an average depth of about 12,000 feet, and the deepest soundings have been taken on the eastern side. It is interesting to observe that the deepest sounding, about five and three-quarter miles, in the South Pacific somewhat exceeds the height of the highest mountain. Mount Everest has a height of 29,000 feet above the sea level. And it must also be noted that the mean height of the land, 1,000 feet, is only about one-twelfth the mean depth of the whole ocean, 12,000 feet. (See colored map showing comparative surfaces of land areas and ocean depths.)

INLAND AND BORDER WATERS. These enclosed basins belong to the structure of the continents, rather than to the oceans. All are shallow in comparison with the great basins with which they are connected, as is apparent from the depths given below.

The Gulf of Mexico is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in depth. The deepest
part of the Caribbean Sea, on a line connecting Porto Rico and Costa
Rica, averages 7,000 feet, and near the latter it reaches a depth of
14,000; but the ocean, immediately outside of the Lesser Antilles,
is more than 18,000 feet deep.

The Mediterranean is divided into two basins, by a rocky isthmus,
from 50 to 500 feet below the surface, lying between Sicily and Cape
Bon, in Africa. The western basin is over 9,000 feet in depth, and
comparatively uniform; while the eastern is more irregular, varying
from 6,000 near the center, to 13,000 feet, south of the Ionian
Islands. The Red Sea has an irregular bottom, with an average depth
of 3,000 feet, but in some places it reaches 6,000.

The Baltic Sea, being a simple depression in the great European
plain, is but a few hundred feet deep. In the North Sea, the depth
averages 300 feet, and rarely exceeds 600. The continent is here
prolonged in the form of a submarine plain, whose highest portions
form the British Isles.

The Border Seas of Asia, lying within the chain of continental
islands, are only a few hundred feet in depth, while immediately
without those islands, abrupt slopes descend to the great depths of
the Pacific basin.

Smaller inlets are also of frequent occurrence, especially in
districts where mountain ranges approach the borders of the ocean.
Such are the _lochs_ of Scotland, the _voes_ of the Shetland
Islands, and the _fiords_ of Norway and Greenland. The term _lagoon_
is usually applied to lake-like inlets.

SALT AND OTHER INGREDIENTS OF SEA-WATER. The waters of the ocean are salt, holding in solution various saline matters. The saline ingredients amount to rather more than thirty-five grains in a thousand grains of sea-water. The most abundant of these is chloride of sodium or common salt, which in general forms about a third of the whole. Besides this, sea-water contains some magnesia, lime, potash, and traces of iodine and bromine.

The following table exhibits the exact percentage composition of sea-water.

One hundred parts by weight of sea-water contain:

Water 96.470
Sodium Chloride 2.700
Magnesium Chloride .360
Potassium Chloride .070
Magnesium Sulphate .230
Calcium Sulphate .140
Calcium Carbonate .003
Magnesium Bromide .002
Traces of Iodides, Silica, etc., estimated .025
-------
100.000

HOW THE SEA GETS ITS COLOR. The color of sea-water is due to the character of the skies and clouds above, and to vegetable and animal objects growing and living in it. The luminosity or phosphorescence of the ocean is due to the decay of animal and vegetable substances, but in some cases it arises from the presence of myriads of living animals, which, like the glow-worm and fire-fly of the land and air, have the power of emitting light.

OCEAN TEMPERATURE. The water of the ocean appears generally to agree with that of the climate in which it is situated. In warm latitudes the temperature of the deep sea diminishes with the depth below the surface until a certain depth is reached, below which it appears to retain an equable temperature, this being about 40 degrees Fahrenheit. In the Polar Seas, where the temperature of the surface is lower than 40 degrees the heat increases downward until it reaches that point. In latitude 70° the temperature of the ocean is considered to be the same at all depths.

The moon pulls the waters of the earth into a great double wave heaping it up on the side nearest to the moon and on the opposite side. As the earth rotates, this double wave moves round the earth, and the crests and troughs alternately produce high and low tide. Thus there are two high and two low tides daily, at intervals of about twelve hours, or half a Sun or day.]

CAUSE OF THE TIDES, WAVES AND CURRENTS OF THE OCEANS

The waters of the ocean are retained in their bed by the attraction of gravitation. This power is great in proportion to the mass; and as the earth is of much greater mass than the particles of water on its surface, it attracts them and keeps them in their assigned places. But the sun and moon also possess this power of attraction, and notwithstanding their distance, attract and draw them up to a certain elevation. The vast mass of the waters being drawn up by the moon into a mountain or curve of water forms what is called the “great primary or tidal wave.”

This remarkable cavern, on the shore of the island of Capri, at the entrance of the Bay of Naples, is entered from the sea, and is one hundred and eighteen feet long and forty feet high, with a breadth of ninety-eight feet at its widest part. It derives its name from the wonderful blue reflection of the sun’s rays through the water, which gives the interior its marvelous beauty and majesty. The cavern has been created by the ceaseless action of the tide.]

EBB-TIDE AND FLOOD-TIDE. This drawing up of the waters of mid-ocean causes a recession from the shores, thus giving rise to ebb-tide, or low water. But when the temporary attraction ceases the waters flow back to their natural level, returning to shore and forming flood-tide, or high water. This culmination or rising of the waters in the great tidal wave takes place twice in twenty-four hours and fifty minutes. The combined influence of the sun and moon at new and full moon augments the size of this wave, and causes the “spring-tides” at those periods.

HEIGHT OF TIDES. High water at the various points along the coast is dependent on the return of this great wave, though some variations are caused by local peculiarities; and the height of the tide also varies greatly in different parts of the earth.

On the eastern coast of North America, the average rise of the tide is from nine to twelve feet. At the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, however, it rises eighteen feet, while at the head of that bay it reaches sixty, and in the highest spring tides, even seventy feet. At Bristol, in England, the spring tides rise to forty feet; and at St. Malo, on the south coast of the English Channel, they reach fifty feet.

THE MAELSTROM, CHARYBDIS AND HELL GATE

Differences in level, produced by high tides, cause currents which vary in force and direction with the condition of the tide, producing, in some cases, dangerous whirlpools. The famous Maelstrom, off the coast of Norway, is but a tidal current, which rushes with great violence between two of the Lofoden Islands, causing a whirling motion in the water which is reversed at each ebb and flow of the tide.

Such is, also, the famous whirlpool of Charybdis, in the Straight of Messina, and many others of less note. The powerful currents of Hell Gate, in the passage from Long Island Sound to New York Bay, are due to a similar cause, high water occurring at different hours in the bay and in the west end of the sound.

WHAT CAUSES THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN

The waves of the ocean, which are caused by the action of the wind, and which are called secondary or wind waves are of a totally different character from the tidal wave. The influence of the wind is supposed not to extend to a greater depth than forty or fifty feet, the deep sea, though raised in a great mass by the grand tidal movement, being free from agitation. Wind waves at a distance from the shore are comparatively low and long, but in shoal water they assume a greater curvature, and fall on the beach either in gentle ripples or in mighty breakers, according to the depth of the water and the force of the wind. The heavy swell which occasionally takes place, called the “ground sea,” is supposed to originate in distant storms of wind.

THE RIVERS IN THE SEA

Currents in the ocean arise from various causes. They may be produced by long-continued gales of wind, by the melting of polar ice, or by any cause that may give rise to onward movements of limited portions of the great mass of waters. Other currents, and of these only is it necessary to speak in this connection, are permanent. The most remarkable of these are the polar currents and the equatorial currents.

POLAR CURRENTS are produced by the perpetual movement of the waters from the poles to the equator. In accordance with the laws of mechanics, an accumulation of the waters takes place on that part of the globe which has the greatest velocity of motion; and as the earth in turning on its axis moves with far greater velocity at the equator, the waters continually flow toward that line from the poles.

EQUATORIAL CURRENTS. This accumulation of the waters at the equator tends to produce the equatorial currents, which consist of the continuous progression of the tropical seas in a westerly direction. When the wave brought by the polar currents arrives--coming as it does from regions where it naturally has less velocity--it does not at once acquire the velocity of the earth’s motion at the equator; and since the rotation of the earth is from west to east, this portion of the water lagging behind forms a stream or current which has an apparent motion from east to west, that is to say, apparent as regards the earth, but real in relation to the adjacent land and water. The trade winds, which in this zone blow constantly in the same direction, lend their aid in maintaining the equatorial current.

THE GREAT SYSTEMS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

An extensive system of currents appears to arise in the Antarctic Ocean. A current of cold water flowing northward joins the equatorial current in the Pacific. Entering the Indian Ocean, it maintains its westerly course until it approaches the shores of Africa; then bending southward it rushes through the Mozambique Channel, and doubling the Cape of Good Hope travels northward until it arrives at the Bight of Benin. This current then joins the equatorial current, and crossing the Atlantic from the coast of Guinea to that of Brazil, it is divided into two branches by the projecting headland of Cape San Roque, one flowing southward and the other northward.

THE GULF STREAM. After passing the Island of Trinidad, this great oceanic current enters the Gulf of Mexico, and there acquires a high temperature, and sweeping round that sea it again pours forth into the Atlantic, forming the most powerful of known currents, called the Gulf Stream. Issuing from the Gulf of Mexico, this current of warm water rushes with considerable force through the Bahama Channel; then taking a northerly course it travels along the eastern shores of North America, and at Newfoundland is turned to the eastward by an opposing cold current which sets in from Baffin’s Bay. It now maintains an easterly direction, and crossing the Atlantic arrives at the Azores in about twenty-eight days, and divides its waters on the coast of France and Spain: one portion goes southward and at length joins the grand current which sets from the coast of Guinea; and another portion travels northward and skirts the western coasts of Europe. These currents are seldom more than 500 feet deep.

ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE AND WEATHER

The atmosphere is the vast ocean of air that envelops the earth and
makes life possible on our globe. It absorbs the heat and vapors
caused by the action of the sun upon the surface of both land and
water, and is the medium through which the ever-changing phenomena
of _climate_ and _weather_ are produced. The two great forces of
nature acting in connection with it are _gravitation_ and _heat_, or
solar radiation; and the results of their ceaseless action may be
summed up as follows: (1) _Temperature_, or heat, which we soon
learn to know by our senses, and to measure by the thermometer. (2)
_Evaporation_, which changes the weight of the air by carrying
invisible moisture through it. This change of _weight_ is indicated
by the barometer. (3) _Condensation_, producing fog, dew, rain,
hail, and snow; all estimated accurately by the rain gauge or
pluviometer. (4) _Motions_, as in the winds, varying from the gentle
breeze to the awful cyclone, the force and velocity of which are
indicated by the anemometer. (5) _Electricity_, producing lightning,
thunder, magnetic and chemical changes in the atmosphere. (6)
_Optical Phenomena_, such as rainbows, haloes, coronas, mirage, and
the auroras.

_THE ATMOSPHERE: ITS EXTENT, CHARACTER, USE AND EFFECT_

The Earth is enveloped in its own atmosphere, which like a transparent covering surrounds it, and revolves with it. This atmosphere does not extend to more than forty or fifty miles above the earth’s surface, and is higher at the equator than at the poles.

WHAT THE ATMOSPHERE IS COMPOSED OF

The atmosphere is an elastic fluid consisting of a mixture (not a compound) of oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of about twenty-one of the first to seventy-nine parts of the last named. It also contains a small quantity of carbonic acid gas, and a yet smaller quantity of ammonia; and water in the form of invisible vapor is always present in it, though the quantity is subject to great variations. All these substances move freely among each other, and are continually changing places: the oxygen being ever ready to perform the office assigned to it of sustaining life and combustion; the carbonic acid to promote the growth of vegetation; the nitrogen to perfect the fruits of the earth, and the vapor to descend to the thirsty ground, in the form of showers and dew.

The atmosphere is elastic, and therefore capable of expansion and compression; and is also a ponderable body. The consequence of these properties is, that it is much lighter and thinner in the upper regions than nearer the earth’s surface; for at the sea-level its whole weight presses on its lower strata and gives it greater density. Ascending from the earth’s surface it becomes gradually lighter and thinner, and at great elevations is so rarefied as to be unsusceptible of sustaining life.

HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS WEIGHED AND MEASURED

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The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of AnswersChapter II: English and American Literature -- Outline Charts of English and (5)

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