The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

Chapter I: Period of Authentic Discovery and Exploration, From 1492 to 1607 (3)

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In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.

=President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved=.--At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.

PANAMA CANAL.--This gigantic engineering project was designated by
Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the
French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from
1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the
French company by the United States, and work was started by United
States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that
time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the
Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges
in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom
width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine
feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a
minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage
of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is
estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger
vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the
Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and
$7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include
the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the
Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is
estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the
United States will approximate $375,000,000.

This map shows the general direction of the canal to be north and south; how it is brought into direct communication with the ports of the United States; and how it facilitates shipping to all parts of the world.]

=TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT=

In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho,
Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and
the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is
restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in
Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several
States may vote at school elections.

=============================+===============================+=============
STATES AND POPULAR NAME | PREVIOUS RESIDENCE REQUIRED | GOVERNORS
+-------+--------+------+-------+------+------
| In | In | In | In | Sala-|Length
| State | Co. | Town | Pre- | ries | Term
| | | | cinct | | Years
-----------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+------
=Alabama= “Lizard” |2 years| 1 year| 3 mos.| 3 mos.|$7,500| 4
=Alaska= |1 year |... |30 days|30 days| 7,000| 4
=Arizona= |1 year |30 days|30 days|30 days| 4,000| 2
=Arkansas= “Bear” |1 year | 6 mos.|30 days|30 days| 5,000| 2
=California= “Golden” |1 year |90 days|... |30 days|10,000| 4
=Colorado= “Centennial” |1 year |90 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000| 2
=Connecticut= “Nutmeg” |1 year |... | 6 mos.|... | 5,000| 2
=Delaware= “Diamond” |1 year | 3 mos.|... |30 days| 4,000| 4
=Dist. of Col.= |... |... |... |... | ...| ...
=Florida= “Flower” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6,000| 4
=Georgia= “Cracker” |6 mos. | 6 mos.|... |... | 5,000| 2
=Hawaii= |1 year |... |... | 3 mos.| 7,000| 4
=Idaho= |6 mos. |30 days|... |... | 5,000| 2
=Illinois= “Prairie” |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days|12,000| 4
=Indiana= “Hoosier” |6 mos. |... |60 days|30 days| 8,000| 4
=Iowa= “Hawkeye” |6 mos. |60 days|10 days|10 days| 5,000| 2
=Kansas= “Sunflower” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000| 2
=Kentucky= “Blue Grass” |1 year | 6 mos.|... |60 days| 6,500| 4
=Louisiana= “Creole” |2 years| 1 year|... | 6 mos.| 5,000| 4
=Maine= “Pine Tree” |3 mos. | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3,000| 2
=Maryland= “Old Line” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 1 day | 4,500| 4
=Massachusetts= “Bay” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.|10,000| 1
=Michigan= “Wolverine” |6 mos. |20 days|20 days|20 days| 5,000| 2
=Minnesota= “North Star” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000| 2
=Mississippi= “Bayou” |2 years| 1 year| 1 year| 1 year| 5,000| 4
=Missouri= |1 year |60 days|60 days|... | 5,000| 4
=Montana= “Mountain” |1 year |30 days|... |... | 5,000| 4
=Nebraska= |6 mos. |40 days|10 days|10 days| 2,500| 2
=Nevada= “Silver” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000| 4
=New Hampshire= “Granite” |6 mos. | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 3,000| 2
=New Jersey= “Jersey Blue” |1 year | 5 mos.|... |... |10,000| 3
=New Mexico= |1 year |90 days|... |30 days| 5,000| 5
=New York= “Empire” |1 year | 4 mos.|30 days|30 days|10,000| 2
=North Carolina= “Old North” |2 years| 6 mos.| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 5,000| 4
=North Dakota= “Sioux” |1 year | 6 mos.|90 days|90 days| 5,000| 2
=Ohio= “Buckeye” |1 year |30 days|20 days|20 days|10,000| 2
=Oklahoma= |1 year | 6 mos.|... |30 days| 4,500| 4
=Oregon= “Sunset” |6 mos. |30 days|... |30 days| 5,000| 4
=Pennsylvania= “Keystone” |1 year |... |... | 2 mos.|10,000| 4
=Porto Rico= |1 year |... | 1 year|... | 8,000| 4
=Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|2 years|... | 6 mos.|... | 3,000| 2
=South Carolina= “Palmetto” |2 years| 1 year| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 3,000| 2
=South Dakota= “Coyote” |6 mos. |30 days|10 days|10 days| 3,000| 2
=Tennessee= “Volunteer” |1 year | 6 mos.|... |... | 4,000| 2
=Texas= “Lone Star” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.|... | 4,000| 2
=Utah= |1 year | 4 mos.|... |60 days| 6,000| 4
=Vermont= “Green Mountain” |1 year | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 2,500| 2
=Virginia= “Old Dominion” |2 years| 1 year| 1 year|30 days| 5,000| 4
=Washington= “Evergreen” |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days| 6,000| 4
=West Virginia= “Panhandle” |1 year |60 days|60 days|... | 5,000| 4
=Wisconsin= “Badger” |1 year |... |10 days|10 days| 5,000| 2
=Wyoming= |1 year |60 days|10 days|10 days| 4,000| 4
-----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+------

Note.--Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to
vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national
concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United
States and became the seat of the general Government.

* Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of
Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of
1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations.
(_a_): Women can vote in school elections. (_b_): Also soldiers,
sailors and marines in United States service. (_c_): Women taxpayers
can vote on tax propositions. (_d_): Or by Queretaro treaty. (_e_):
Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to
Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (_f_): Males
born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign
power. (_g_): One year’s residence in the United States prior to
election is required. (_h_): Who has paid six months before election
all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State
Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due
the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more.
(_i_): Failure to pay poll tax. (_j_): Or those unable to speak,
read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (_k_): Women can
vote in school and city elections. (_l_): Offenders against elective
franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and
persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the
Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not
disqualified. (_m_): All of the States and Territories pay mileage
also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New
Jersey by all railroads to members by law.

=GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS=

=UNITED STATES= =BRITISH EMPIRE=

_Form of Government:_ Republic. The _Form of Government._--Monarchy in
general plan of the government of the form, but republic in practice. The
United States is determined by the monarchy is constitutional and
Constitution. The central government limited.
is limited to the exercise of the The British Empire consists of the
powers specifically enumerated in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Constitution, or implied therein, Ireland, the Empire of India, and
while the remaining governmental the British Dominions beyond the
powers, not denied to the states by Seas, including the self-governing
the Constitution, are reserved to the Dominions, and the Crown Colonies,
states. The general government is in Protectorates, and other Dependen-
three fairly well defined parts, the cies, the whole forming one Empire.
legislative, executive, and judicial.

=I. Constitution.=--The present Con- =I. Constitution.=--The British
stitution was adopted September 17, Constitution is mainly unwritten and
1787. customary, but its development is
marked by certain outstanding and
_Ratification of the Constitution._-- fundamental laws, of which the prin-
The Constitution was ratified by the cipal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the
thirteen original States in the fol- Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of
lowing order: Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimous- with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union
ly. with Ireland, 1800; and the Parlia-
Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote ment Act, 1911. The first secured
46 to 23. annual parliaments and the equal ad-
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unani- ministration of justice; the second
mously. established the liberty of the per-
Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously. son; the third provided for the Prot-
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 estant succession to the throne; the
to 40. fourth and fifth created the United
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote Kingdom; and the last enabled the
187 to 168. Commons to pass certain Acts without
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 the adherence of the other Chamber.
to 12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote
149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote
57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to
79.
New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to
28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote
193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34
to 32.

_Amendments._--Congress may, by two-
thirds vote of both Houses, propose
amendments to the Constitution, or
upon application of the Legislatures
of two-thirds of the several States,
shall call a convention for proposing
amendments, which, in either case,
must be ratified by the Legislatures
of three-fourths of the several
States, or by conventions in three-
fourths thereof.

=II. The President.= =II. The Sovereign.=

_How Elected._--The several steps in _How Designated._--The King’s legal
the election of the President are: title rests upon the Act of Settle-
ment, in 1701, under William III., by
State Electors are chosen at a Gener- which the succession to the Crown of
al Election held on the _Tuesday fol- Great Britain and Ireland was settled
lowing the first Monday of November_ on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and
of every fourth year; the number of the “heirs of her body, being Protes-
Electors of each State being equal to tants.” The throne is hereditary in
the number of Senators and Represen- the English house of Saxe-Coburg-
tatives to which the State is en- Gotha with mixed succession, the sons
titled in Congress. of the Sovereign and their descen-
dants having precedence of daughters,
The Electors meet in their respective but daughters and their descendants
States on the _second Monday in preference over lateral lines. The
January_ following their election, Sovereign is designated King (or
and vote by ballot for President and Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland,
Vice-President; and at the same time and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
make certificates of their vote and
transmit the same to the President of
the Senate.

The Senate and House of Representa-
tives meet together on the _second
Wednesday of February_ next ensuing,
and count the votes of the State
Electors, when, if there is an elec-
tion, the President of the Senate
declares who is elected President and
Vice-President.

In case there is no choice by the
State Electors, the President is
elected by the House of Representa-
tives from the three candidates who
received the most electoral votes for
President; in which election the vote
is taken by States, each State having
but one vote, and a majority of all
the States being necessary to a
choice.

_Term of Office._--Four years. _Term of Office._--Holds office for
life, by hereditary title, and cannot
be removed.
_Eligibility._--A natural born citi-
zen; resident of the United States
fourteen years; minimum age thirty-
five years.

_Salary._--Fixed by law at $75,000 _Salary or Civil List._--The Civil
per year. List Act, 1910, gave the King
$2,350,000. Provision for other mem-
bers of the Royal Family, $730,000.
The Prince of Wales, as the income
of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000.
The King in addition to his Civil
List receives the revenues of the
Duchy of Lancaster amounting to
$320,000.

_Powers and Duties of the President._ _Powers and Duties._--Has command of
--Commander-in-Chief of the Army and army and navy.
Navy. Communicates with Congress by
message. Approves or disapproves Parliament cannot be assembled, pro-
Acts of Congress. Makes treaties rogued, or dissolved except by the
with advice and consent of the express command of the Sovereign.
Senate. Appoints Public Officers with
the advice and consent of the Senate. At the commencement of a new Parlia-
Commissions Public Officers of the ment must deliver, either in person
United States. Grants reprieves and or by a commission authorized for
pardons for offenses against the that purpose, a speech declaring the
United States. cause of the summons.

_The Vice-President._--Elected by Bills passed by Parliament must re-
State Electors the same as the Presi- ceive the assent of the Sovereign in
dent; or by the Senate, in case there order to become law.
is no choice by the State Electors.
Term of office same as for the Presi- Has legally a veto power; but, be-
dent. Eligibility same as required of cause the influence of the Executive
the President. Salary fixed by law at over legislation has passed into the
twelve thousand dollars per year. hands of the Ministers, the veto of
the Crown has been disused since
_The Presidential Succession._--In 1707.
case of the removal, death, resigna-
tion, or inability of the President, Has power to appoint all officers in
the Vice-President takes the Presi- the army and navy, judges, ambas-
dent’s place. sadors, colonial governors, bishops
and archbishops of the Established
In case of the removal, death, resig- Church, and grants all degrees of
nation, or inability of both Presi- nobility.
dent and Vice-President the heads of
the Executive Departments succeed to May make treaties of any kind.
the Presidency in the order in which
the Executive Departments are named May grant pardon to any particular
below; but such officer must be con- offender.
stitutionally eligible to the Presi-
dency, must have been appointed to _The Privy Council._--The King in
the cabinet by the advice and with Council is the supreme executive
the consent of the Senate, and be not authority in the realm. The Privy
under impeachment. The Secretary of Council meets as a whole at the be-
Agriculture and the Secretary of Com- ginning of a new reign and on other
merce and Labor are ineligible to the occasions of state and ceremony, pos-
presidency by reason of the fact that sesses certain administrative powers,
these two cabinet offices were and is the Supreme Court of the Em-
created subsequent to the passage of pire. Its personnel includes the
the act of the forty-ninth Congress royal princes and the archbishops,
in which provision was made for the Members of the Cabinet and of the
presidential succession. royal household, the Speaker of the
House of Commons, the ambassadors,
the principal colonial governors,
colonial statesmen, certain judges,
and members of both political parties
who have never been in office.

The important functions of the Coun-
cil are the bringing into operation
by means of orders in council of the
provisions of many statutes which
Parliament leaves to the executive to
enforce, temporarily or permanently,
at such time or times as it may deem
necessary and desirable. These orders
have all the force and validity of
law.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

_Acts of Congress_ become laws:--
When signed (approved) by the Presi-
dent; or, by his failure to make ob-
jection in writing (veto) within ten
days after any act is submitted to
him, unless Congress by adjournment
within that time prevents its return;
but Congress has power to pass a law
over the President’s veto by a vote
of two-thirds of each House.

THE CABINET THE MINISTRY

_Composed_ of the heads of the _The Cabinet_, or Inner Council,
executive departments. under the presidency of the Prime
Minister, consists of Ministers,
_Appointed_ by the President with the drawn from the ranks of the party in
advice and consent of the Senate. power and appointed by the Sovereign
on the advice of the Prime Minister.
_Salary._--Secretary of State,
$12,000; all other cabinet members,
twelve thousand dollars annually.

HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS _Members_ (As reconstituted in June,
1915) and their salaries.
_Department of State._--Has charge of
foreign affairs. _Prime Minister and First Lord
of the Treasury_ $25,000
_Treasury Department._--Has charge of
fiscal affairs. _Lord High Chancellor_ (and
$20,000 as speaker of the
_Department of War._--Has charge of House of Lords) 50,000
the Army and military affairs.
_Minister without Portfolio_ unpaid
_Department of Justice._--Has charge
of the legal affairs of the Govern- _Lord President of the Council_10,000
ment.
_Lord Privy Seal_ unpaid
_Post-office Department._--Has charge
of postal affairs. _First Lord of the Admiralty_ 22,500

_Navy Department._--Has charge of the _Secretaries of State:_
Navy and naval affairs. _Home Affairs_ 25,000
_Foreign Affairs_ 25,000
_Department of the Interior._--Has _Colonies_ 25,000
charge of domestic affairs, including _War_ 25,000
public lands, pensions, patents, _India_ 25,000
Bureau of Education, etc.
_Chancellor of the Exchequer_ 25,000
_Department of Agriculture._--Has
charge of agricultural affairs, in- _Minister of Munitions_ 25,000
cluding Weather Bureau, etc.
_Secretary for Scotland_ 10,000
_Department of Commerce and Labor._--
Has charge of domestic and foreign _Chief Secretary to the Lord
affairs, relating to commerce, trans- Lieutenant of Ireland_ 21,125
portation, Department of Labor, etc.
_Presidents of Committees of the
Council:_
_Board of Trade_ 25,000
_Local Government Board_ 25,000
_Board of Education_ 10,000

_First Commissioner of Works_ 10,000

_Attorney-General_ 35,000

_Board of Agriculture_ 10,000

_Relations to Parliament._--The Chief
of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is
called the Prime Minister or Premier.
He is the leader of the House of Par-
liament of which he is a member. He
dispenses the greater portion of the
patronage of the Crown. Other members
of the Cabinet are the leaders of
Parliament, shaping and directing the
business of the Houses.

_Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon _Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon
the will or favor of the President. the favor of the House of Commons;
for if not sustained, they must all
resign. When a Ministry resigns it is
the function of the sovereign to call
upon some statesman to form another
administration. There is no restric-
tion upon the Royal choice, but the
statesman usually selected is the
leader of the opposing party in one
of the two Houses.

_Powers and Duties._--As stated _Powers and Duties._--All real
above, but under the direction of the authority is with the Cabinet. The
President. executive government is nominally in
the Crown, but practically in the
Cabinet. The Ministers are at the
heads of the administrative depart-
ments. The Sovereign does not sit
with the Cabinet.

_Other Ministers._--The Ministry in-
cludes a number of minor posts whose
occupants have no seat in the
Cabinet.

=III. Congress.=--Consisting of both =III. Parliament.=--Parliament con-
the Senate and the House of Represen- sists of two Houses, the House of
tatives as co-ordinate bodies. Lords and the House of Commons. The
Sovereign alone has the power of sum-
_Duration._--The term of each moning or proroguing or dissolving
Congress is for two years, commencing Parliament, and gives the Royal
March 4th of the odd years. Assent to measures which have passed
both Houses. Unless it be dissolved
_Regular Sessions._--Annual, begin- by the Crown, Parliament exists five
ning the first Monday in December. years from the date on which it was
first to meet. The demise of the
_Special Sessions._--At the call of Crown does not dissolve Parliament,
the President. but, on the contrary, renders an im-
mediate assembling of the two Houses
_Membership._--Each House is the necessary; and if there be no Parlia-
judge of the elections and qualifica- ment in existence, the old Parliament
tions of its own members. must reassemble, and may sit again
for six months, if it be not within
_Congress has General Powers of that time dissolved by the new
Legislation._--To provide for the Sovereign.
raising and disbursement of revenue.
To borrow money; to coin money and to All British dominions are subject
regulate its value; and to fix the (except as regards taxation) to the
standard of weights and measures. To legislation of the British Parlia-
regulate foreign and interstate com- ment; but no Act of Parliament af-
merce. To declare war, and to main- fects a colony unless that colony is
tain an army and navy. To establish specially mentioned. If the legis-
post-offices and post roads. To enact lature of a colony enacts a law which
patent and copyright laws. To enact is repugnant to an imperial law af-
uniform naturalization and bankruptcy fecting the colony, it is to the ex-
laws. To provide for the punishment tent to which it is repugnant abso-
of crimes against the United States. lutely void.
To establish courts inferior to the
Supreme Court. To provide for orga-
nizing and calling out the militia.
To admit new States into the Union.
To provide for the governments of the
Territories. To exercise exclusive
jurisdiction over the District of
Columbia, public lands, public build-
ings, forts, and navy yards. To enact
all laws necessary and proper for
carrying into execution all the
powers vested by the Constitution in
the government of the United States.

_THE SENATE._--Composed of two _THE HOUSE OF LORDS._--The House at
Senators from each State (ninety-six present consists of three Princes of
in 1917), chosen by popular vote for the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-
six years, one-third retiring every one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one
two years. hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-
six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops,
three hundred and fifty-six Barons,
sixteen Scottish Representative Peers
elected for each Parliament, and
twenty-seven Irish Representative
Peers elected for life. The members
hold their seats by virtue of heredi-
tary title; by creation of the
Sovereign; by virtue of office
(English bishops); by election for
life (Irish peers); by election for
duration of Parliament (Scottish
peers).

_Qualifications._--Must be at least _Qualifications._--Must be at least
thirty years of age, must have been a twenty-one years of age.
citizen of the United States for nine
years, and must be an inhabitant of
the State which he represents.

_Remuneration._--Members receive _Remuneration._--Receive no pay.
seven thousand five hundred dollars,
with mileage.

_Organization._--The Vice-President _Organization_--_Quorum._--Three, in-
of the United States is the Presi- cluding the Lord Chancellor; thirty
dent of the Senate. Is elected by the for final vote on a bill. The Lord
Electoral College. Votes only in case Chancellor, who is a member of the
of a tie. Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by
mere delivery of the Great Seal to
_Quorum._--A majority of members. him by the Sovereign and is principal
legal adviser of the Crown. His
patronage is very extensive. He
nominates the puisne judges and
county court judges; the holder of
the office may not be a Roman Catho-
lic.

_Committees._--Members are divided _Committees._--Special committees are
into standing committees, chosen by appointed to make investigations, and
the Senate itself, which act in the report on matters which could not be
preliminary examination, and shaping undertaken by the whole House.
of measures to be voted on.

_Powers and Duties._--In concurrence _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence
with the House of Representatives, it with the House of Commons, makes the
makes the laws. It also has power to laws, having a revising power over
confirm or reject all appointments to all bills proposed by the House of
office by the President of the United Commons, except those relating to
States, and all treaties. The members public revenue and expenditure, which
constitute a high court for the trial it must pass or reject without amend-
of impeachments. Elects Vice-Presi- ment.
dent of the United States if regular
election fails. It is the highest appellate court of
the United Kingdom. It may in certain
cases try members of its own body; it
tries any person who may be impeached
by the House of Commons, and it also
decides claims to the peerage.

_HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES._-- _HOUSE OF COMMONS._--This body
Composed (in 1917) of four hundred consists of six hundred and seventy
and thirty-five members elected every elected members representing county,
second year for two years by the borough, and university constituen-
people of the States in the propor- cies. Roughly speaking, about one-
tion of one Representative for every sixth of the population are electors.
211,877 inhabitants. Each State, how-
ever, is entitled to at least one mem-
ber, whatever its population.

_Qualifications._--Must be at _Qualifications._--Must be at
least twenty-five years of age, must least twenty-one years of age.
have been seven years a citizen of Clergymen are disqualified from sit-
the United States, and must be an in- ting as members, also English and
habitant of the State from which he Scottish peers, government contrac-
is chosen. tors, and sheriffs and returning
officers for the localities for which
they act.

_Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority _Organization_--_Quorum._--Forty mem-
of members. Elects its own presiding bers, including the Speaker. Elects
officer, who is called the Speaker, its own presiding officer, who is
salary twelve thousand dollars per called the Speaker, who has a resi-
year. dence in the Palace of Westminster,
and receives a salary of $25,000 per
annum.

_Remuneration._--Members receive _Remuneration._--$2,000 per year
seven thousand five hundred dollars (since 1911).
and mileage.

_Powers of the House of Representa- _Powers and Duties._--May originate
tives._--Elects its Speaker (pre- and, in concurrence with the House of
siding officer) and its other offi- Lords, pass resolutions and bills;
cers. Elects President of the United but bills relating to the imposition
States if the regular election fails. of taxes and the granting of supplies
Prosecutes impeachments before the for the service of the State must be
Senate. Originates all bills for originated in the House of Commons.
raising revenue.

_Committees._--Almost all the acts of _Committees._--The business of the
the House are under the control of House is almost entirely under the
Standing Committees, appointed by the direction of the Ministry; however,
Speaker. commissions and select committees are
from time to time appointed to make
investigations and report on matters
which could not be undertaken by the
House.

=IV. The Judicial Department.= =IV. Judicial Departments=, or Courts
of Law.
JUDGES OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS
_Privy Council._--The Judicial Com-
_Appointed_ by the President with the mittee of the Privy Council (which
advice and consent of the Senate. hears appeals from Colonial and
Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesi-
_Tenure of Office._--During life or astical Courts) consists of the Lord
good behavior; but may retire on full Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords
salary after reaching the age of President, the Lords of Appeal in
seventy years, and after ten years’ Ordinary, and such other members of
service on the bench. the Privy Council as shall from time
to time hold or have held “high judi-
THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED cial office.” No dissenting judgments
STATES are allowed, but the Judicial Commit-
tee can grant special leave to
_Members._--A Chief Justice and Eight appeal.
Associate Justices.
The English courts of law having
_Salaries._--Chief Justice, fifteen jurisdiction in actions between
thousand dollars; Associate Justices, parties are:
each fourteen thousand five hundred
dollars. HOUSE OF LORDS

_Terms of Court._--One each year, be- _Lord High Chancellor_ and such peers
ginning on the second Monday in of Parliament as are holding or have
October. held high judicial office. This is
the ultimate Court of Appeal from all
_Original Jurisdiction._--In all the courts in the United Kingdom.
cases affecting Ambassadors,
Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases
in which a State is a party.

_Appellate Jurisdiction._--In cases
of law and equity where the Inferior
Courts have original jurisdiction,
with such exceptions and regulations
as Congress has made.

_The Chief Justice._--Presides over
the Senate when it sits as a Court of
Impeachmenet for the trial of the
President.

INFERIOR COURTS There are two Courts of Appeal below
these divisions:
_Jurisdiction._--In cases between
citizens of different States. In _Lords of Appeal in Ordinary._-- Con-
cases in which the United States is sisting of six Justices.
a party. In cases of admiralty and
maritime jurisdiction. In trials for _Court of Appeal._--Ex-Officio
crimes against the United States; but Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the
the trial of crimes must be by jury, Lord Chief Justice of England, the
and must be held in the State where Master of the Rolls, and the President
the crime was committed. of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty
Division.
_Appeals to the Supreme Court_ may be
had in all cases of law and equity, _The High Court_ comprises the King’s
with such exceptions and regulations Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce
as Congress has made. and Admiralty Divisions.

KINDS OF INFERIOR COURTS _High Court of Justice, Chancery Di-
vision._--(Administration of trusts,
_United States Circuit Courts of company cases, mortgages, patents,
Appeals._--Organized in 1891 to re- etc.). Consists of the Lord High
lieve the United States Supreme Court Chancellor and six other Justices.
in Appellate Cases. Number: One in
each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three _High Court of Justice, King’s Bench
judges selected from the District Division._--(Contracts, torts, bank-
Courts. ruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord
Chief Justice of England and fifteen
_Number._--One in each Judicial other Justices.
Circuit.
_High Court of Justice, Probate, Di-
_Members._--Three judges selected vorce and Admiralty Division._--
from the District Courts. (Wills, matrimonial cases, and mari-
time cases). Consists of two
_United States Circuit Courts._-- Justices.

_Number of Circuits._--Nine. _Court of Criminal Appeal._--All the
Judges of King’s Bench Division.
_Number of Judges._--Each Circuit has
two, three, or four Circuit Judges, _Court of Arches._--An ecclesiastical
and a Justice of the Supreme Court is court unites the powers of the _jus
assigned to each Circuit. The canonicum_ with new powers conceded
District Judge also may sit in a Cir- by the Church Discipline Act, 1841,
cuit Court. and the similar statute of 1874,
exercising authority in both pro-
_Salary of Circuit Judges._--Fixed by vinces. The Judicial Committee of
law at seven thousand dollars per Privy Council is the Court of Final
year. Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.

_United States District Courts._-- _Bankruptcy Court._--Consisting of
one Justice.
_Number of Districts._--One or more
in each State. At present there are
seventy-three Judicial Districts.

_Salary of District Judge._--Fixed by
law at seven thousand dollars per
year.

_United States Court of Claims._--

_Jurisdiction._--Claims against the
United States, including all claims
which may be referred to it by
Congress.

_Members._--One Chief Justice and
four Associate Justices.

_Salaries._--Chief Justice, six
thousand five hundred dollars;
Associate Justices, each six thousand
dollars.

In addition to the above named
courts, Congress has established
courts of local jurisdiction in the
District of Columbia and in the
Territories.

=GERMANY= =FRANCE=

_Form of Government._--The Empire, _Form of Government._--France, since
according to the Constitution of the overthrow of Napoleon III., in
April 16, 1871, is a Confederate 1870, has been a republic governed by
League, bearing the name German Em- a President and two Chambers under
pire, under the hereditary presi- the Constitution.
dentship of the King of Prussia, who
holds the title of German Emperor,
and whose eldest son is styled His
Imperial and Royal Highness.

=I. Constitution.= =I. Constitution.=

_Adoption._--Present Constitution _Adoption._--Present Constitution
adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitu- adopted February 25, 1875. It has
tion of the German Empire is sub- undergone but slight modifications.
stantially that of the North German The present French Constitution re-
Confederation, which came into force mains a mixture of monarchical and
in 1867, and which was adopted by the republican institutions, and it has
Empire in 1871, after the southern fully maintained its strong and old-
states of Germany had combined with established centralization. The
the northern. Constitution of 1875 is based on uni-
versal suffrage. It was revised in
1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

_Amendments._--Amendments to the _Amendments._--Whenever the two
Constitution can be proposed by Houses agree that revision is neces-
either of the legislative bodies, are sary, and also agree upon particular
passed by ordinary legislative pro- points that should be revised, the
cess, requiring for their passage a National Assembly, composed of the
majority simply of the votes of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,
Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen sitting as one body, convenes at Ver-
votes are cast against them in the sailles, and acts upon the amendments
Bundesrath. proposed, the vote of an absolute
majority being decisive. The National
Assembly also elects the President of
the republic.

=II. Chief magistrate=, styled the =II. Chief Magistrate=, or President
Deutscher Kaiser. of the Republic.

_How Designated._--The election of _Term of Office._--Elected for seven
Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as years by the National Assembly, and
German Emperor (1871) was by vote of is re-eligible.
the Reichstag of the North German
Confederation, on the initiative of The National Assembly meets for the
all the reigning Princes of Germany. purposes of this election, as for the
The Imperial dignity is hereditary revision of the Constitution, at Ver-
in the House of Hohenzollern, and sailles. The revision of the Consti-
follows the law of primogeniture in tution and the election of President
the male line. He must be occupant of are its only functions.
the throne of Prussia under the pro-
visions of Prussian law. _Qualifications._--Must be a citizen,
not a member of any family which has
_Term of Office._--Holds office for occupied the throne of France.
life,and cannot be removed.

_Salary or Income._--Royal Civil List _Salary._--$140,000.
of Emperor, $3,700,000.
_Responsibilities._--May be impeached
by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried
by the Senate, in case of high
treason.

_Powers and Duties._--Commander-in- _Powers and Duties._--Has command of
Chief of the imperial army. the army and navy.

Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes May convene the Chambers on extraordi-
the two Houses. He may dissolve the nary occasions.
Reichstag upon advice of the Bundes-
rath. May adjourn the Chambers at any time
for a period not exceeding one month.
All measures passed by the Bundes- Can close a regular session of the
rath are presented to the Reichstag Chambers at his discretion after it
in the name of the Emperor. has continued five months; an extra
session when he pleases. Can with the
Bills passed by the two Houses must consent of the Senate dissolve the
be promulgated by the Emperor. Chamber of Deputies even before the
expiration of five months. This puts
In cases where he regards them as in- an end to the session of the Senate
volving a change in the Constitution, also, but not to its life. The Presi-
he need not promulgate them if four- dent must order a new election in
teen votes have been cast against case of dissolution.
them in the Bundesrath.
At the commencement of a new session
All official acts of the Emperor re- of the Chambers the President of the
quire the counter-signature of the republic sends a message, which is
Chancellor. read by one of the Ministers.

Appoints and may, at his pleasure, Bills passed by the Chambers must be
remove the Imperial Chancellor. Ap- signed by the President, and counter-
points and may, with the counter- signed by one of his Ministers.
signature of the Chancellor, remove
all minor officers in the imperial Has no veto power, but is authorized
service. to demand a reconsideration of any
measure by the Chambers.
May declare war if defensive, and
make treaties and peace; but for de- Has power to appoint and remove all
claring offensive war the consent of officers of the public service, sub-
the Bundesrath must be obtained. ject to the counter-signature of the
Minister whose department is affected
Has power to grant pardons. in each case.

May make treaties of peace, alliance
and commerce, but cannot declare war
without the advice of the Chambers.

Has power to grant pardons.

_Succession._--In case of his death,
resignation, or removal, the Council
of Ministers act until the National
Assembly can meet and elect a new
President.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

_Imperial Chancellor_.--He has no _Powers and Duties._--As a Cabinet,
counterpart in any other constitu- the Ministers represent the adminis-
tional government. He is the Em- tration in the Chambers; as a Coun-
peror’s responsible proxy, control- cil, they exercise a general over-
ling the politics of the Empire. sight of the administration of the
laws, with a view of giving unity of
_Appointment and Tenure of Office._-- direction to the affairs of the
Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one State. The President may be present
of Prussia’s seventeen representa- at all Council meetings.
tives in the Bundesrath. His term is
dependent upon the pleasure of the _Cabinet and Council of Ministers._--
Emperor. Both the Cabinet and the Council con-
sist of the same persons. The Cabinet
_Responsibility._--Does not consist is a political body; the Council, an
in a liability to be forced to re- administrative body.
sign, but consists simply in amena-
bility to the laws. _Appointment._--Chosen by the Presi-
dent, generally from among the mem-
bers of the Chambers.

_Powers and Duties._--Must give an _Members of the Cabinet._--Membership
account of the administration to the may vary somewhat:
Reichstag, and submits the annual
budget. He is the center and source _Premier and Foreign Minister._
of all the administrative depart-
ments, dominating the entire imperial _Ministers of State._
service. He superintends the ad-
ministration of the laws of the Em- _Minister of Justice and Vice-
pire by the States. As chairman of President of the Council._
the Bundesrath he is simply a
Prussian representing the King of _Minister of War._
Prussia, as the Emperor has no place
in the Bundesrath. _Minister of Marine._

The army and navy, however, are not _Minister of the Interior._
directly controlled by him, but by
the General Field-Marshal. _Minister of Finance._

The following are the imperial _Minister of Agriculture._
authorities or Secretaries of State;
they do not form a Ministry or _Minister of Public Works._
Cabinet, but act independently of
each other, under the general super- _Minister of Commerce._
vision of the Chancellor:
_Minister of Colonies._
_Chancellor of the Empire._
_Minister of Instruction and
_Secretary for Foreign Affairs._ Minister of Inventions affecting
National Defense._
_Imperial Home Office_ and
_Council of State._--Gives advice on
_Representative of the Chancellor._ all projects of law which the Cham-
bers or the Government wish to submit
_Imperial Admiralty._ to it, and on administrative regula-
tions and by-laws. Its decision is
_Imperial Secretary of Justice._ final in all disputes arising in
matters of administration.
_Imperial Treasury._
Is presided over by the Minister of
_Imperial Post-Office._ Justice, and is composed of Council-
lors, Masters of Requests, and
_Secretary for the Colonies._ Auditors, all appointed by the Presi-
dent of the republic.
And, in addition, the following
presidents of imperial bureaus: _Relations to the Chambers._--Are the
leaders of the Chambers.
_Railways._
Whether members of the Chambers or
_Imperial Exchequer._ not, they have as Ministers the right
to attend all sessions of the Cham-
_Imperial Bank._ bers and take a specially privileged
part in the debate.
_Imperial Debt Commission._
_Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon
_Administration of Imperial Rail- the favor of the Chambers; for, if
ways._ not sustained, they must all resign.

_Imperial Court Martial._

Acting under the direction of the
Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-
rath represents also a supreme ad-
ministrative and consultative board,
and as such has twelve standing com-
mittees--namely, for army and forti-
fications; for naval matters; tariff,
excise and taxes; trade and commerce;
railways, posts and telegraphs; civil
and criminal law; financial accounts;
foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine;
for the Constitution; for the
standing orders; and for railway
tariffs.

=III. The Government.= =III. The Chambers.=--Consist of the
Senate and House of Deputies.
The legislative functions of the
Empire are vested jointly in the Bun-
desrath or Federal Council which re-
presents the several states, and by
the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm,
which represents the German nation.
The Emperor has no veto on laws
passed by these bodies. All laws for
the Empire must receive the votes of
an absolute majority.

The consent of the Federal Council
and Reichstag is necessary in regard
to certain specified treaties. The
Emperor has the right to summon,
open, adjourn, and close the Reichs-
tag. The Federal Council and Reichs-
tag must be summoned to meet every
year; the Reichstag cannot be sum-
moned without the adherence of the
Federal Council.

_BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council_, is _THE SENATE_ is composed of three
composed of sixty-one votes repre- hundred members chosen by the Depart-
senting the individual states. They ments and Colonies for nine years,
are appointed by the governments one-third of the members retiring
(_i. e._ the Executives) of the every three years.
States for each session.
Until 1884 the Senate contained
The apportionments of representa- seventy-five life members, the life
tion in the Bundesrath among the list having been originally made up
States of the Empire is as follows: by election by the National Assembly
Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, of 1875, and vacancies being filled
Saxony and Würtemberg four each, by the Senate itself. In 1884 this
Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each arrangement was abolished, and since
three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and that year vacancies in the life roll
Brunswick each two, the other States have been filled by ordinary nine-
(seventeen) one apiece. year Senators.

_Qualifications._--Must be a French-
man, and at least forty years of age.

_Remuneration._--Receive no pay. _Remuneration._--15,000 francs
($3,000).

_Organization_--_Quorum._--The Im- _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority
perial Chancellor or his substitute of members. Elects its own President
(at regular meeting). The Imperial and Vice-Presidents.
Chancellor presides. Votes with the
other Prussian representatives, whose
votes must be undivided; and, in case
of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.

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