Chapter I: Period of Authentic Discovery and Exploration, From 1492 to 1607 (10)

BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE

DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES

WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES

DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE

CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY

CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS

BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH -- FUNDAMENTAL RULES -- THE ORGAN OF
SPEECH -- VOWELS -- CONSONANTS -- TABLE OF CONSONANTS -- RULES OF
PRONUNCIATION -- COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION -- EXPRESSION --
INFLECTION OF THE VOICE -- WRITTEN ENGLISH -- RULES RELATING TO
STYLE -- GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION -- RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN
SPEAKING AND WRITING -- USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS -- ABBREVIATIONS,
CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES -- PUNCTUATION -- RHETORICAL FIGURES OF
SPEECH -- FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH -- LETTER WRITING OR
CORRESPONDENCE -- OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS -- NARRATION --
(BIOGRAPHY -- FICTION AND DRAMA -- NEWS) -- EXPOSITION -- (ESSAY --
EDITORIALS) -- DESCRIPTION -- ARGUMENT -- POETRY AND POETICS --
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES -- PRONOUNCING
DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES -- ENGLISH
AND AMERICAN LITERATURE -- OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN
AUTHORS -- DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: FAMOUS BOOKS, POEMS,
DRAMAS, LITERARY CHARACTERS, PLOTS, PEN NAMES, LITERARY SHRINES AND
GEOGRAPHY, AND OTHER MISCELLANY -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF
MYTHOLOGY: GODS, HEROES, AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES -- CHART OF GREEK
AND ROMAN MYTHS, THEIR ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT.

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

Correctly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech.

=Five Fundamental Rules.=--The essential steps toward securing the unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows:

1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of representation.

2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such words as are most liable to be mispronounced.

3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best dramatic theaters.

4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation.

5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values.

=The Organ of Speech.=--The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a particular position.

Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth.

To produce a different sound you must change the position.

Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring.

The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the emission of the required sound.

The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech.

It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language.

The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

=Vowels.=--Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar; more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these words.

The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The last vowel is uttered from the throat.

If the sound _a_ (long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more.

In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long sound of _ä_, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass, castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc.

In pronouncing the four words--meer merry, marry, mar--the mouth is gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly recognized.

Repeat slowly:

1 2 3 4
meer merry marry mar
mee mé mâ mä
ee é â ä

_O_ is a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes double, being combined with the sound--oo (as in too, tooth, woo)--thus:

so is pronounced so-oo
no is pronounced no-oo
go is pronounced go-oo

The short _o_ sound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God.

_O_ followed by a double consonant is short:

off not awf
office not awfice
coffee not cawfee
cross, dross, loss, toss

The sound _oo_ unites with the open sound _ä_ to form the double sound in such words as--cow, how, now:

cä-oo cow
nä-oo now
dä-oo-n down
ä-oo-t out

The sound _u_ is a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is really a continued flow from _ee_ to _oo_.

The letter is pronounced exactly as the word _you_. Speak the vowel very slowly.

The intermediate sound of û may be represented thus:

u is ee-û-oo
duke is dee-û-oo-k
tube is tee-û-oo-b
mute is mee-û-oo-t

The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew.

The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be cut very short for a good style.

_Ru_ and _lu_. When _u_ is preceded by _r_ or _l_, the first portion of the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard--the last part also being cut very short.

=Consonants.=--Speak slowly and pronounce every letter.

INITIAL CONSONANTS.--Of these only two require special attention:

_th_ and _sh_ followed by _r_.

Children frequently say:--one, two, _free_; and grown-up people will speak of--shrimps as _srimps_.

Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud; through, shrew.

FINAL CONSONANTS.--The slurring or omission of final consonants is a greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker.

_R._ It is sometimes stated that there is no _r_ sound in English.

In singing the _r_ is always made distinct.

It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus: _father_ and _farther_ are quite distinct. So, too, _ma_ and _mar_.

The _t_ belongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure, fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure.

The consonant values of _w_ and _y_ are never terminal in a syllable, but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt.

_H_ cannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounce _ha_, _he_, _hi_, _ho_, _hu_, _hy_. Notice that the office of _h_ is _to cover the following vowel with breath_. It will be seen, on careful examination, that any attempt to sound _h_ alone will result in whispering a vowel with it.

_Wh_ has for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through the lips placed in position for _w_. As a whole the digraph is sounded as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed, thus, _hw_; as, _when_, _while_, _whip_, pronounced _hwen_, _hwile_, _hwip_.

Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds of _s_ and _th_.

The sound of _s_ is formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of the tongue and the upper gum.

_Th_ is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonant _th_ is heard, as in _this_; if unvocal breath, then non-sonant _th_ is produced, as in _thin_--this last is the sound made for _s_ by those who lisp (lithp).

TABLE OF CONSONANTS

===============+===============+=========================+========+=====
=Name according| =Checks= | =Spirants, Breathings= | =Liq- |=Na-
to exit of | | [13] | uids |sals=
sound= | | | Trills=|
---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----
=Name according|=Tenues|=Mediæ |=Sharp Hard=| =Flat Soft=| |
to quality of | Sharp | Flat | | | |
sound= | Hard= | Soft= | | | |
---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----
{Labials | p | b |... | w | ... | m
O {Labiodentals|... |... |... | v | ... |...
r {Dentals | t | d | th in | th in this | l | n
g { | | | thunder | | |
a { |... |... |{ s | z | ... |...
n { |... |... |{ |{ j in (Fr.)| ... |...
i { | | |{ sh |{ jour | |
c { |... |... |{ |{ s in | ... |...
{Palatals | | |{ |{ pleasure | |
N { |... |... |{ ch in | j in John | r |...
a { | | |{ church | | |
m { |... |... |{ ch in | y in you | ... |...
e { | | |{(Germ.) ich| | |
s {Gutturals |k, q, c|g in go|ch in Scotch|g in (Germ.)| ... | ng
{ | | | (loch) | tage | |
---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----

[13] Some of the _Breathings_ are often called _Aspirates_.

ACCENT OF WORDS

One syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in pronouncing, _more force_ than another. This stronger force is called ACCENT, and the syllable which receives this force is said to be _accent´ed_.

MARKS OF ACCENT.--The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique stroke, thus: _ob´ject_, _object´_, _discov´er_. The secondary accent is marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light strokes, thus: _lem[´]on-ade´_ (or _lem´´on-ade´_).

UNACCENTED VOWELS.--Every vowel, when under either the primary or the secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is evident, as short _a_, long _i_, broad _o_, etc. In an unaccented syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances, however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: ăttĕn´tĭve, ăn´ĕcdōte, cōmprēhĕnd´, ăllēgā´tiȯn, chăp´ĕl, prĕs´_e_nt, ĕm´ĭnĕnt, prāi´rĭe, a̤u´dĭĕnce, căl´loŭs.

RULES OF PRONUNCIATION

RULE I.--The letter _u_ should not be sounded as _ōō_, except when immediately preceded by the sound of _r_.

Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh.

Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tūne, mūle, institūte, constitūtion, sūture, dūty, lūcid.

RULE II.--_A_ constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian _a_.

Examples: cȧnine´, lȧpel´, ȧgain´, ȧlas´, fȧtal´ity, al´kȧli, or´nȧment, pal´ȧtȧble.

When the _a_ of terminal _ary_ or _any_ is immediately preceded by an accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italian _a_; thus, pri´mȧry, epiph´ȧny.

RULE III.--_E_ or _o_ constituting or ending a syllable is long.

Examples: ēvent, mēmentō, lōcōmōtion, sōciety, nōtōriety, sōbriety, supērior, infērior, thēōries, cōteriē, lōcō-fōcō.

RULE IV.--_I_ constituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.

Examples: Dĭvide, dĭrect, fĭnance, phĭlosophy, imĭtate, pĭazza, tĭrade, intĭmate, indĭvisĭble, nobilĭty.

In the _initial_ syllables _i_, _bi_, _chi_, _cli_, _cri_, _pri_, _tri_, however, _i_ is generally _long_.

Examples: īdea, īdle, īsothermal, bīology, Chīnese, chīrurgery, clīmatic, crīterion, prīmeval, trīangular, trīpod.

RULE V.--_E_ before terminal _n_ should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken, riven, fallen.

But in the following words _e_ must be sounded:

Aspĕn, chickĕn, glutĕn, kitchĕn, lichĕn, lindĕn, martĕn, mittĕn, suddĕn.

It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal _en_ is immediately preceded by _l_, _m_, _n_, or _r_.

Examples: womĕn, lĭnen, omĕn, barrĕn, Helĕn, Allĕn, Ellĕn, woolĕn, pollĕn.

RULE VI.--_E_ before terminal _l_ should usually be sounded.

Examples: levĕl, bevĕl, novĕl, nickĕl, cancĕl, vessĕl, chapĕl, gravĕl, hovĕl, camĕl, channĕl, kernĕl, Abĕl, Mabĕl, panĕl, modĕl, funnĕl, flannĕl.

But in the following words the _e_ before terminal _l_ must not be sounded:

Betel (bē´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel, mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel, weasel, and their derivatives.

RULE VII.--In all but the following words, _i_ before terminal _l_ or _n_ must be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin.

Pronounce Latĭn, satĭn, matĭn, spavĭn, anvĭl, civĭl, cavĭl, councĭl, perĭl, javelĭn, lentĭl, pistĭl, resĭn, fusĭl, coffĭn, codicĭl, axĭl.

RULE VIII.--The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path, wreath, and these only, require sonant _ths_ in the plural.

Pronounce m_oth_s, p_ath_s, truths, o_ath_s, heaths, cl_oth_s, b_ath_s, l_ath_s, deaths, wr_eath_s, mo_uths_, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths, lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths, breaths.

RULE IX.--_O_ in a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant, frequently verges toward the sound of short _u_; as in custom, felon, bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.

When, however, the termination _on_ is immediately preceded by _c_, _ck_, _s_ or _t_, the _o_ is commonly suppressed.

Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson, damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson, person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season.

RULE X.--_I_ accented in most words from the French has the sound of long _e_.

Examples: pĭque, caprĭce, guillotĭne, quarantĭne, routĭne, suĭte, fatĭgue, valĭse, antĭque, Bastĭle, critĭque, palanquĭn, tambourĭne, regĭme (rā-zheem´), cuĭsĭne (kwe-zeen´), unĭque, intrĭgue, magazĭne.

RULE XI.--_Ou_ in most words from the French has the value of _ōō_, but in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound of _ow_, as in _cow_.

Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound.

Note.--_Ou_ has also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could, ought, hough (hŏk), trough.

RULE XII.--_X_ followed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable beginning with a silent _h_, has the sound of _gz_.

Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine, exalt´, exec´utive.

RULE XIII.--The termination _tion_ is always _shun_, except when it follows the letter _s_ or _x_, as in question (kwestyun), bastion, combustion.

Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion, transition (tranzish´un).

RULE XIV.--The termination _sion_ immediately preceded by an accented vowel is _zhun_; when not so preceded it is _shun_.

Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion, explosion, adhesion, delusion.

RULE XV.--_C_ is soft (_s_) before _e_, _i_ and _y_, and hard (_k_) in other positions.

Examples: _ca_, _ce_, _ci_, _co_, _cu_, _cy_.

Exceptions: _c_ is hard (_k_) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the following words it has the sound of _z_: sacrifice (fīz), sice, suffice, discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and their derivatives, and also in the termination _scle_, as in _muscle_, _corpuscle_.

RULE XVI.--_G_ is generally soft (_j_) before _e_, _i_ and _y_, and always hard (_g_) before other vowels.

Examples: _ga_, _ge_, _gi_, _go_, _gu_, _gy_.

Note.--The exceptions to the rule that _g_ is usually soft before _e_, _i_ and _y_ are many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words, such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig, giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard.

RULE XVII.--In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel before _r_ followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or another _r_ has its short sound.

Examples: Ărab, ărabesque, ărid, Ăristotle, Săracen, bĕryl, pĕril, delĭrious, ĭrritate, mĭracle, delĭrium, abhŏrrence, flŏrid, cŏroner, fŏreign, tŭrret, bŭrrow, cŭrry, coŭrage, fŭrrow, py̆rrhic, empy̆real.

RULE XVIII.--_N_ ending an accented syllable has the sound of _ng_, if immediately followed by hard _g_ or _k_, or any equivalent of _k_ (_c_, _q_, or _x_).

Examples: co̱ṉ´gress, ga̱ṉ´grene, co̱ṉ´cord, tra̱ṉ´quil, u̱ṉ´cle, a̱ṉ´ger, hu̱ṉ´ger, mo̱ṉ´key, sa̱ṉ´guine, si̱ṉ´gle, cla̱ṉ´gor, exti̱ṉ´guish, bla̱ṉ´ket, twi̱ṉ´kle, co̱ṉ´course, Li̱ṉ´coln.

Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some others.

RULE XIX.--_C_, _s_, or _t_, when immediately preceded by an accented syllable and followed by _e_, _i_ or _u_, has usually the force of _sh_, and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation.

RULE XX.--In pronouncing the terminal syllables, _ble_, _cle_, _dle_, _fle_, _gle_, _kle_, _ple_, _stle_, _tle_, and _zle_, no vowel sound is heard. Terminal _cre_, however, is pronounced _kẽr_. The combination of any of these terminations with _ing_ forms but one syllable.

Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling, shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling, rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling, massacring.

COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION

1. Do not pronounce _ing_ like _in_; as _eve´nin_ for _eve´ning_, _writ´in_ for _writ´ing_.

Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing, stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating.

2. Do not pronounce _ow_ like _ur_ or _uh_; as _hol´lur_ or _hol´luh_ for _hol´low_, _shad´ur_ or _shad´uh_ for _shad´ow_.

Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low, wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing.

3. Do not pronounce _ed_ like _id_ or _ud_; as _unit´id_ or _unit´ud_ for _unit´ed_, _provid´id_ or _provid´ud_ for _provid´ed_.

Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed, exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed.

4. Do not pronounce _ess_ like _iss_; as _good´niss_ for _good´ness_, _bold´niss_ for _bold´ness_.

Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less, clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press.

5. Do not pronounce _el_ like _il_, nor _et_ like _it_, nor _est_ like _ist_; as _cru´il_ for _cru´el_, _bask´it_ for _bask´et_, _for´ist_ for _for´est_.

Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et, hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est, small´est, young´est, strong´est.

6. Do not pronounce _ent_ like _unt_, nor _ence_ like _unce_; as _si´lunt_ for _si´lent_, _sen´tunce_ for _sen´tence_.

Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment, mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´lĭ-ment), pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence.

7. Do not insert the sound of short _u_ before a final _m_; as _hel´um_ for _helm_, _chas´um_ for _chasm_.

Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism, pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm.

8. Do not give the drawling sound _ăōō_ for _ou_ (i. e. _äōō_); as _căōō_ for _cow_, _hăōōs_ for _house_.

Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town, gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´.

9. Do not sound _sh_ before _r_ like _s_; as _srub_ for _shrub_, _srink_ for _shrink_.

Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el, shrunk´en.

10. Do not sound _wh_ like _w_; as _wen_ for _when_, _wat_ for _what_.

Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white, whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle.

11. Do not omit to give the sound of _r_ after a vowel in the same syllable, as in _arm_, _form_, etc., not _ahm_, _fawum_, etc.

Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´, course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´, report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing, reform´ing.

12. Do not add the sound of _r_ to a final vowel or dipthong; as _lawr_ for _law_, _ide´ar_ for _ide´a_.

Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma, Em´ma.

13. Do not shorten the sound of long _o_ in certain words by leaving off its vanishing element _ōō_.

Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb, dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke, spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster.

14. Do not omit the sound of _d_ when preceded by _n_; as _stan_ for _stand_, _frenz_ for _friends_.

Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, wĭnds, wīnds, depends´, defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful.

15. Do not omit the sound of _d_ in the terminal letters _lds_; as _wīlz_ for _wilds_, _fēlz_ for _fields_.

Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´, child´s.

16. Do not omit the sound of _t_ when preceded by _c hard_ in the same syllable; as _aks_ for _acts_, _exak´ly_ for _exact´ly_.

Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´, inducts´, instructs´, correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly.

17. Do not omit the sound of _t_ in the terminal letters _sts_; as _fis´s_ for _fists_, _pes´s_ for _pests_.

Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´.

18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; as _ev´ry_ for _ev´er-y_, _his´try_ for _his´to-ry_.

Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite, des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary, com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery, part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous.

19. Do not suppress the sound of _e_ or of _i_ before _l_ or _n_ in those words in which it should be articulated; as _lev´l_ for _lev´el_, _civ´l_ for _civ´il_, _kitch´n_ for _kitch´en_, _Lat´n_ for _Lat´in_.

Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el, chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten, sat´in.

20. Do not sound _e_ or _i_ before _n_ or _l_ in those words in which it is properly silent; _e´ven_ for _e´vn_, _heav´en_ for _heav´n_, _ba´sin_ for _ba´sn_, _haz´el_ for _ha´zl_, _e´vil_ for _e´vl_.

Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en, wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen.

21. After _r_, _ch_, or _sh_ do not give the sound of long _u_ when the simple sound of _oo_ (long or short) should be heard; as _rule_ for _rool_, _fruit_, for _froot_.

Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.

22. Do not substitute the sound _oo_ for that of long _u_; as _toon_ for _tune_, _doo´ty_ for _du´ty_.

Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.

23. The vowel _a_, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of _ä_ (as in _far_) somewhat shortened; as _com´ma_ not _com´mĭ_ nor _commā_.

Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.

24. Give to the vowel _a_ in the unaccented terminal syllables _al_, _ant_, _ance_, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.

Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance.

25. Do not give to the vowel _a_ (as in _far_), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭbase´_ for _abase´_, _ŭrouse_ for _arouse´_.

Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.

26. Do not give to long _e_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭvent´_ for _event´_, _soci´ŭty_ for _soci´ety_.

Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety.

27. Do not give to long _o_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭbey´_ for _obey´_, _prŭpose´_ for _propose´_.

Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.

28. Do not sound short _o_, when unaccented, as short _u_; as _ŭbscure´_ for _obscure´_, _cŭmmit´tee_ for _commit´tee_.

Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.

29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; as _pri´ma´ry_ for _pri´mary_, _ex´act´ly_ for _exact´ly_.

Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.

30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly.

In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance, _cab´bage_ in common conversation might be _cab´bij_, _pal´ace_, _pal´ăs_, etc.

a. When _a_ at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable by _n_ or _r_, it has nearly the sound of short _e_, as in _mis´cel-la-ny_, _cus´tom-a-ry_.

b. In the unaccented final syllable _ate_, of adjectives and nouns, the vowel _a_ generally has a sound verging toward short _e_, as in _del´i-cate_, _con-sum´mate_ (_adj_.).

EXPRESSION

Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.

Correct pronunciation: requires--1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants.

Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking.

Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling.

The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence.

When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row.

INFLECTION OF THE VOICE

Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer.

Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority.

The voice has three pitches:--upper, middle, lower.

The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant.

Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.

The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use.

The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.

WRITTEN ENGLISH.

Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered.

To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent.

We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.

Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.

There are many forms of written English, or composition--from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise--but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words: _Accuracy_, _Clearness_, _Strength_ and _Grace_.

_Accuracy_ and _Clearness_ are requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought.

_Strength_ and _Grace_ are more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry.

=Grammatical Connections.=--No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds:

(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.

(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (See Right and Wrong Use of Words.)

RULES RELATING TO STYLE

GOOD STYLE POOR STYLE

{Correct forms }Wrong forms.
{and concords. }Solecisms.
{
PURITY {Classic or good }Barbarisms.
prescribes {English words. }
the use of {
{Proper words, _i.e._,}
{words fit for the }Improprieties.
{occasion. }

{ {Roundabout, inflated
{ {or pedantic
{Simplicity. {words or
{ {phrases.
{
{ {Tautology.
PERSPICUITY {Brevity. {Pleonasm.
prescribes { {Verbosity.
{
{ {Ambiguity or
{ {Obscurity.
{ { _a._ In words.
{Precision. { _b._ In sentences
{ { from bad
{ { arrangement.

CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS.--Good usage--the usage of the best writers and speakers--sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage.

The term _Barbarism_ is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following:

1. _Obsolete_ words, words gone out of use.

2. _Provincialisms_, words peculiar to some locality.

3. _Colloquialisms_, words peculiar to familiar conversation.

4. _Solecisms_, ungrammatical expressions.

5. _Archaisms_, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry.

The term _Impropriety_ is used to designate reputable words misapplied.

_Slang_ is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.

Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.

Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.

Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.

Use idioms wherever it is possible.

_Coherence_ demands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact.

The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm.

A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.

All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.

A _Dangling Element_--one that modifies nothing--must be avoided. Example: _Looking into the water_, a fish was seen.

A “_Squinting Construction_” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, _when he comes_, I will be ready.

_Redundancy_--A weak repetition of an idea--must be avoided.

_Pleonasm_ consists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.

_Tautology_, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.

_Verbosity_ or _Prolixity_ is the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words.

Don’t begin a sentence with--and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.

THE PARAGRAPH.--A _Paragraph_ is a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.

_Massing_ demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places.

_Coherence_ demands that thoughts shall be closely connected.

The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.

THE SENTENCE.--Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced.

A _Periodic_ sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.

A _Loose_ sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests.

A _Balanced_ sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.

The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.

Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas coördinate that are not of equal importance.

Examples of lack of unity:--

1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker could write such a good book.

2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a pasture.

_Massing_ in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed where it will “readily catch the eye.”

RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING

=A and An.=--_a_ is used before a consonant sound; _an_, before a vowel sound; as, “_a_ boy;” “_an_ eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as in the word _eulogy_, _a_, and not _an_, is required. In the case of words beginning with _h_, _an_ is always required when _h_ is silent; as, “_an_ heir;” when _h_ is aspirated, _a_ is required, unless the accent is on the second syllable, when _an_ is used; as, “_a_ history;” “_an_ historian.”

=Abbreviations.=--Such abbreviations or contractions as _e’er_, _ne’er_, _o’er_, _e’en_, _’tis_, _’mid_, and _’neath_, are legitimate in verse, but should not be used in prose.

=Ability for capacity.=--_Ability_ is the power of doing; _capacity_ the faculty of receiving. “The _ability_ is in me to do him good.” “Man’s _capacities_ have never been measured.”

=Abortive.=--That is _abortive_ which is premature, not brought to completion. A plan may be _abortive_ but not an act. We may speak of an _abortive_ effort.

=About.=--Not to be used as _almost_. “The day is _almost_ gone,” not “The day is _about_ gone.”

=Above= is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given _above_,” not “The _above_ address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “_above_ section.”

=Accept of.=--Never use the preposition after this verb. We _accept_ invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like.

=Accept and Except.=--_Accept_ means to take when offered; _except_ means to leave out, to exclude. I _accepted_ the gift. All _except_ two will go.

=Accord.=--To _accord_ means to render or bestow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was _accorded_ him.”

=Administer.=--The man died from blows _administered_ by the policeman. Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are _administered_. Blows are _dealt_.

=Affect, Effect.=--To _affect_ means to influence or to pretend. To _effect_ means to bring about. “He _affected_ intoxication.” “He _affected_ the audience strongly.” “I shall _effect_ a reform.”

=Afraid.=--The adjective _afraid_ should not be used for the verb _fear_; thus: we say, “I am _afraid_ of fire,” but “I _fear_ I cannot go,” not “I am _afraid_ I cannot go.”

=Aggravate= means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it for _annoy_ or _provoke_.

=Ain’t.=--This is illiterately employed as a contraction for _are not_, _am not_, _is not_. Even as a contraction of _am not_ it is censured by many critics, the form _I’m not_ being universally preferred. “Am I not?” is required in interrogative sentences.

=Allow.=--This word is frequently misused for _think_, as “I _allow_ that I shall go to town.” Say, “I _think_ that,” etc.

=Allude= means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as _mention_. “By _mentioning_ his lifelong companion he _alluded_ to his wife.”

=Almost.=--Careless speakers sometimes err in saying _most_ for _almost_, as, for example, “I have read _most_ all the books in the library,” for “_almost_ all.”

=Among and Between.=--_Among_ is distributive, and may apply to any number more than two; _between_ is used of only two persons or things; as, “They discussed this _among_ themselves;” “This is _between_ us two.”

=Among One Another.=--“_Among one another_” is censured by critics, “_with_ one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as preferable.

=And= should not be used instead of _to_ in such sentences as “I’m going to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try to do it.”

=Angry At and Angry With.=--“Angry _at_” is used when expressing anger for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry _with_,” for a human being; as, “He is _angry at_ his dog;” “He is _angry with_ his brother.”

=Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.=--The predominance of usage seems to be in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition.

=Any One, One,= _anybody_, _each_, _any one_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, _one_, _some one_, _somebody_, should be followed by singular pronouns, or verbs.

_Any one_, _anybody_, _each_, _every one_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, _nobody_, _some one_, _somebody_, may be followed by _he_ or _his_.

“_Any one_ of these patterns _is_ suitable.” “_Every one_ of the ladies _is_ here.” “_Each one_ of the soldiers _has_ a new uniform.” “_If any one wishes_ to make a suggestion, I wish _he_ (or she, or he or she) would make it.” “_Anybody_ in _his_ senses would have done it.”

_One_ should be followed, by _one_ or _one’s_. “_One_ dislikes to be told of _one’s_ errors.”

=Appreciate= means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.” means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.”

=Apt, Likely, Liable.=--_Apt_ means _quick_ or _skillful_. “He is apt to learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect. _Liable for_ means responsible for; _liable to_ means subject to. “He is liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not pay.”

=Apprehend and Comprehend.=--_Apprehend_ means to _perceive_; as, “I _apprehend_ danger.” _Comprehend_ means to _understand_; as, “I _comprehend_ your meaning.”

=As= should not be used for _that_ in such constructions as, “I do not know _that_ I do.”

=As--As, So--As.=--Use the former in affirmative and the latter in negative propositions. “We are _as_ wise _as_ our teachers.” “I am not _so_ young _as_ I used to be.”

=As If It Was.=--_Were_, and not _was_, is required after _as if_, for the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks _as if it were_ all right,” not “it looks _as if it was_ all right.”

=As though= is often used for _as if_. In the sentence “He walked _as though_ he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be evident. “He walked _as_ (he would walk) _though_ he were lame.” _As though_ is seldom correct.

=At, At and To, At All.=--The presence of _at_ improves such constructions as “He is _at_ home,” instead of “He is home.” _At_ and _to_ are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. _At all_ is superfluous in such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.”

=Authoress, Actress.=--The terms “author_ess_,” “doctr_ess_,” “editr_ess_,” “poet_ess_,” “lectur_ess_,” are no longer used, _author_, _doctor_, etc., being correct for both sexes. Act_ress_, not _actor_, however, is the required form for the feminine gender.

=Avocation, Vocation.=--_Avocation_ should not be used for _vocation_. _Vocation_ is one’s employment; _avocation_, one’s diversion from that employment.

=Awful, Awfully.=--Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed force. _Awful_ should mean that which inspires awe. “The _awful_ mysteries of the world unseen.”

=Bad, Badly.=--_Bad_ is not to be used for severe, as “I have a _bad_ headache.” _Badly_ is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need money _badly_.”

=Character.=--It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a _character_. _Character_ is justly applied to the ideal personages delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are _characters_ and nothing more.

=Character, Reputation.=--One’s _character_ is what one really is; one’s _reputation_ is what people think of one. We may have a good _character_ and a poor _reputation_, and _vice versa_.

=Choose, Chosen.=--“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.”

=Combine together.=--“He combined them together.” Omit _together_.

=Commence, Begin.=--_Begin_, when followed by a verb, takes _to_ and the infinitive after it. _Commence_ should take the present participle. We “begin to do,” we “commence working.” _Begin_ may take the participle, but _commence_ should take the infinitive.

=Consonant.=--“It is _consonant to_ our nature,” is a more usual expression than “it is _consonant with_.” But _consonant with_ is not improper.

=Contractions=, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. The following is the list:

_I’m not_, _you’re not_, _he’s not_, _we’re not_, _they’re not_ are used in the declarative form, and _isn’t he_ (_she_, or _it_), _aren’t you_ (_we_, _they_) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, _You’re not_, _he’s not_, etc., are preferable to _you aren’t_, _he isn’t_, etc. _Am I not_ is not contracted, _ain’t_ being regarded as objectionable for _am I not_, and as a vulgarism for _isn’t_. [See _ain’t_.]

“He (she or it) _don’t_” for He (she or it) _doesn’t_ is always incorrect. _I don’t_, _you don’t_, _he doesn’t_, _we don’t_, _you don’t_, _they don’t_, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language.

_Mayn’t I_ (or _may I not_) is correct in the interrogative form; _you can’t_ (or _you can not_) in the declarative form. In this connection note that _may_ is used when asking and granting permission, and that _can_, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative form when denying permission; thus: “_May_ I go.” “No, you _can not_.”

The contractions _shan’t_ and _won’t_ are in accordance with conversational usage.

=Conversant.=--We are conversant _with_ men and _in_ things. _Conversant about things_ is improper.

=Converse together.=--“They conversed together for more than an hour.” Omit _together_.

=Copy.=--We copy _after_ a person; we copy _after_ actions. We copy _from_ things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy _from_ the work is also said to be a copy _after_ the artist.

=Correspond.=--_Correspond_, meaning to hold intercourse by means of letters, is followed by _with_. “I have corresponded with him for several years.” _With_ is also used with _correspond_, to signify _consistent with_. _Correspond_ is frequently followed by _to_, when it expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living corresponded to his means.”

=Cover over.=--“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.”

=Dead corpses.=--“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses of bad men.” Omit _dead_; it is implied in _corpses_.

=Dependent.=--“He is dependent _of_ his father.” Say “dependent _on_.” But with independent say _of_.

=Derogate.=--Say derogate _from_, derogatory _to_, “derogation _from_,” or _to_.

=Depot, Station.=--A _depot_ is properly a place where goods or stores are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may better be called a _station_.

=Did, Done.=--“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?”

=Differ.=--We differ _with_ a person in opinion. One differs _from_ another in other respects. The English barbarism of _differ to_, _different to_, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word _to_.

=Direct, Address.=--We _address_ a letter to a person. We _direct_ it to his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom, he will receive it. A letter _addressed_ to the president may be _directed_ to his secretary.

=Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.=--It is better to say _agreeably surprised_. The meaning most closely associated with _disappointment_ is that it is not agreeable.

=Dissent.=--We dissent _from_, not _with_.

=Distinct, Distinctly.=--“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks distinctly.”

=Divide.=--We divide things _between_ two, _among_ many.

=Drank, Drunk.=--“He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” Say “drank.” “He has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say “has drunk.” “Drunken,” the ancient form of the participle, is not now used.

=Drove, Driven.=--“They have drove very fast.” Say “they have driven.” But, using the imperfect, say “They drove the people out, and locked the gates.”

=Dry.=--“I am dry, let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am thirsty.” Using _dry_ in this sense suggests the dramshop.

=Each, Either.=--“A row of trees stood on either side of the river.” The use of _either_ in such cases is disapproved by some writers, but it is sanctioned by long and unexceptional usage, and by the deliberate judgment of well-informed critics. The use of _each_--“a row of trees stood on each side of the river” is indisputably correct.

=Each=, =Every=, =Either= are singular, and take the verb in the singular number. Such errors as the following should be guarded against: “Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say “takes.” “Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of water, teem with life.” Say “teems.” Also, instead of “one of those houses have been sold,” say “has been sold.”

=Eat, Ate, Eaten.=--Say “I ate my breakfast at five o’clock this morning,” not “I eat it,” or “I et it.” “I have eaten my dinner,” not “I have ate it,” or “I have et it.”

=Either= is followed by _or_. “I shall either send it or bring it myself.”

=Either and Neither= are used when two objects are mentioned, or two assertions are made; when there are more than two objects or assertions, they need not be employed. In such case, instead of _either_, no pronoun or conjunction need be used; instead of _neither_, _no_ or _not_ may be employed. When two persons are mentioned, “Either you or I must go.” In case of three persons, “You or I or John must go.” With two assertions, negative, “He will neither do it himself nor let any one else do it.” With three negative assertions, “He will not publish the accounts of his office, or allow the public access to them, or permit them to be examined by competent, impartial parties.” Usage on the last point is not uniform. Very many good writers use _neither_, _nor_, _nor_, with three or more negative assertions.

=Emigrant, Immigrant.=--An _emigrant_ is a person who goes out from a country or a state to reside in another; an _immigrant_ is one who comes into the state to live, from abroad.

=Equally as.=--_As_ should not be used after _equally_. Say _equally high_, _equally dear_, _equally handsome_, etc.; not _equally as high_, _equally as dear_, _equally as handsome_.

=Equally as well as.=--“I can do it equally as well as he.” Omit _equally_; it is implied in the words _as well as_.

=Equally the same.=--“It is equally the same.” Say “it is the same.”

=Everybody, Anybody.=--Refers to male and female.

For want of a pronoun of common gender, use the masculine--he, his, him--unless the other sex is specified. “They” is plural and must not be used.

Anybody can do what they like. (wrong.)

Anybody can do what he likes.

Everybody will have to make up their minds. (wrong.)

Everybody will have to make up his mind.

Everybody has their faults. (wrong.)

Everybody has his faults.

If anybody calls, let them wait. (wrong.)

If anybody calls, let him wait.

=Exceeding, Exceedingly.=--“He was exceeding kind to me.” Say _exceedingly kind_. “She was exceeding careful.” Say _exceedingly careful_.

=Except=, =Unless=, are often used confusedly. “I shall go except I am ill.” Say “unless I am ill.” “I saw them all unless two or three.” Say “except two or three.” The correct usage is easily learned by observing that _except_ should be used as a preposition, _unless_ as a conjunction.

=Fall.=--We fall _under_ reproach, notice, censure, etc. We fall _from_ our friends, _from_ virtue; we fall _upon_ our enemies, _among_ evil associations, _into_ bad habits.

=Farther, Further.=--_Farther_ refers to space; _further_ to time, degree, and extensions of thought. The distinction is not a necessary one, but it is now very generally observed.

=Fewer, Less.=--_Fewer_ relates to numbers, _less_ to quantities. “No man had less friends,” should be fewer friends. But say _less_ money, _less_ strength, etc.

=Few, Little, Many, Much.=--_Few_ and _many_ refer to number; _little_ and _much_ to quantity. In speaking of articles that are rated by counting, use _few_ and _many_; in speaking of articles which are rated by measure, use _little_ and _much_. “A few potatoes,” “so many days.”

=First.=--“The _two first_” should be “the _first two_.” There can be only one first.

=Fluent, Fluently.=--“He speaks very fluent.” Say _very fluently_.

=Forward=, _backward_, _toward_, _upward_, _onward_, _downward_, _hitherward_, _thitherward_, _afterward_, _heavenward_, _earthward_, etc., should be written without the final _s_ which is often added to them.

=Funeral obsequies.=--Say _obsequies_. The sense of _funeral_ is contained in this word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding marriage-ceremony” as of “funeral obsequies.”

=Generally=, _always_, _never_, _often_, _rarely_, _seldom_, _sometimes_, are adverbs which generally come before the verb.

=Gentleman friend, Lady friend.=--Instead of “my gentleman friend,” say “my friend Mr. ----.” Instead of “my lady friend,” say “my friend Miss ----,” or Mrs. ----.

=Gentleman, Lady.=--These titles have been applied without discrimination till they have lost almost all the meaning they once had. Many persons have ceased to use them entirely, and employ _man_ and _woman_ as good enough titles for anybody. There are no nobler titles than _man_, _woman_; no higher expressions for qualities of grace or virtue than _manly_, _womanly_.

=Get.=--“I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “is growing,” or “is becoming crazy.” “John got left by the train.” Say “was left.” We _get_ anything that we come in possession of. We may also _get_ a disease. But _get_ must be followed by a noun as its object.

=Good for Well.=--“He can do it as good as any one else can.” Say _as well_.

=Got.=--I have a pen. Not I have _got_ a pen.

=Gratuitous.=--“That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better to say “unfounded,” “unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.”

=Guess.=--_Guess_ is commonly used in the United States to mean _think_, as in “I _guess_ you are right” for “I _think_,” etc.

=Had ought.=--Provincial and incorrect. _Had_ or any form of the verb _to have_ cannot correctly be used as an auxiliary with _ought_. Use _should_ or _ought not_. Not “He _hadn’t ought_ to have gone,” but “He _should not_ have gone.”

=Hain’t.=--A vulgarism. There is no such contraction for _have not_ or _has not_.

=Hang, Hanged.=--The verb _hang_ has two forms for the past participle, _hanged_ and _hung_. _Hanged_ is used for persons; _hung_ for other objects. “The man was _hanged_.” “The coat was _hung_ on the rack.”

=He, Him.=--It is him whom.--“It is him whom you said it was.” Say “it is he.”

=Healthy, Healthful.=--That is _healthy_ which is in good health; that is _healthful_ which promotes health. “Bread and milk is a healthful food which makes healthy children.”

=I and Me.=--“They went with James and I.” Say “with James and me.”

=If I was.=--Use the subjunctive in all cases where the conditions are contrary to fact. “If I _were_ you, I should go.” “If I _were_ a man, I should practice law.” I am not you, and I am not a man. Use the indicative in cases of uncertainty. “If I _was_ in town that day, I did not see you.” I am uncertain as to whether I was or not.

=In, Into.=--Use _in_ to signify rest in a place; use _into_ to signify motion toward a place. “He was standing with his hands _in_ his pockets.” “I put my hands _into_ my pockets.” “I came _in_ an automobile.” “The stranger walked _into_ the room.”

=Indeterminate possessive.=--“Every child should obey their parents.” Say “his parents.” “No one should incur censure for being careful of their good character.” Say _his_, or _her_ if talking more particularly of women. “Let each of us mind their own business.” Say “his own business.” _Their_ is frequently used improperly, as a substitute. In such cases, _his_ or _her_ should be used, according as the object most prominent in the expression, or in the speaker’s thought, is masculine or feminine. In cases of doubt or indifference, use _his_. In the nominative we may say _one_. But in the possessive and objective we must say _his_, _him_ or _her_.

=Indifferent, indifferently.=--“He was indifferent honest.” Say “_indifferently honest_.”

=Infinitive.=--See Split Infinitive.

=Ingenuous, Ingenious.=--_Ingenuous_ is simple, honest, open, unaffected. _Ingenious_ is skillful, versatile, ready in contriving.

=Jew, Hebrew, Israelite.=--A _Jew_ is a member of the Hebraic division of the Semitic race; in consequence _Hebrew_ is the linguistic name of the _Jews_. Historically, under the theocracy, they were known as _Hebrews_; under the monarchy, as _Israelites_; and during foreign domination, as _Jews_. The modern representatives of this stock call themselves _Hebrews_ in race and language, and _Israelites_ in religion, but _Jews_ in both senses.

=Jewelry, Jewels.=--_Jewelry_ is a collective noun, and _jewels_ is a plural noun. In nice usage the term _jewelry_ designates the stock of a jeweler; _jewels_, the articles of adornment worn by a lady.

=Join issue and Take issue.=--In nice usage, “_join_ issue” means to _admit the right of the denial of a statement_. “_Take_ issue” means merely _to deny_.

=Kind of= should not be used for _somewhat_. Instead of “I am _kind of_ tired,” one properly says, “I am _somewhat_ tired.”

=Kind of a.=--A is superfluous in such constructions as, “What _kind_ of man is he?” (not “kind of _a_”). The same rule applies to _sort_.

=Kind and Kinds.=--See _These_ and _This_.

=Know, Knew, Known.=--“I knowed it.” Say “I knew it.” “I have knowed it all along.” Say “I have known it.”

=Latter end.=--“I expect to get through by the latter end of the week.” Say “by the end of the week.” “The latter end of that man shall be peace.” Say “the end of that man.”

=Learn, Teach.=--These words are often confounded. The pupil _learns_, the instructor _teaches_. One person cannot _learn_ another, but must _teach_ him.

=Leave, Lief.=--Say “give me leave to tell you,” not _lief_. But “I would as lief do it as not,” not _leave_.

=Leisure upon one’s hands.=--“If you have any leisure upon your hands.” Say “if you are at leisure.”

=Lend, Loan.=--“Loan me five dollars.” Say “lend me five dollars.” The money having been lent him, the borrower has obtained a _loan_ of that sum, or has borrowed it.

=Lengthways, Sideways, Otherways.=--These forms are erroneous. Say, and write, _lengthwise_, _sidewise_, _otherwise_.