Chapter II: English and American Literature -- Outline Charts of English and (14)

(4.) MULTIPLE OR COLLECTIVE FRUITS.--Those which result from the aggregation of several flowers into one mass (Pine-apple, Mulberry).

_Stróbile_ or _Cone_, a scaly multiple fruit, resulting from the ripening of some kinds of catkins (Hop, Conifers).

_Gálbalus_, a closed cone (Juniper-berry, Red Cedar).

SEED.

=Parts.=--_Integuments_, seed-coats. _Nucleus_, part containing the embryo.

(1.) PARTS OF INTEGUMENTS:

_Testa_ (_episperm_), the outer or proper seed-coat.

_Tegmen_ (_endopleura_), the inner coat, sometimes wanting.

_Funículus Hílum_ (_h_), _Chalāza_ (_c_), _Rhāphe_ (_r_), are the same as in ovule.

_Aril_, covering exterior to the integuments (not in the ovule) (May-apple, Water-lily).

_Coma_, a tuft of hairs on certain seeds (Silkweed).

This is to be distinguished from pappus, which is a tuft on the fruit (Achenium).

(2.) PARTS OF NUCLEUS:

_Embryo_ (_e_), the initial plantlet.

_Radicle_ (_r_), the rudimentary stem or first internode.

_Cotylēdon_ (_c_), the seed leaf at the primary node.

_Plūmule_ (_p_), the growing points above the cotyledons.

_Albūmen_ (_a_), the food for the plantlet’s first growth, stored outside the embryo.

=Kinds.=--(1.) GENERAL FORM: _Orthotropous_, ; _campylótropous_, ; _anátropous_, ; _amphítropous_, same as in ovule.

(2.) FORM OF COVERING:

_Conformed_, adhering closely to nucleus.

_Cellular_, loose (Pyrola).

_Winged_, having expanded appendages (Catalpa).

_Woolly_, covered closely with fibers (Cotton).

_Cōmose_, with coma at the end (Willow Herb).

(3.) TEXTURE OF ALBUMEN:

_Farinaceous_, mealy (Wheat).

_Oily_, mealy but mixed with oil (Poppy).

_Muciláginous_, like mucilage (Morning-glory).

_Ruminated_, wrinkled (Papaw).

(4.) NUMBER OF COTYLEDONS:

_Monocotylédonous_, (Corn).

_Dicotylédonous_, (Bean).

_Polycotylédonous_, (Pine).

(5.) POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF EMBRYO:

_Eccentric_, embryo on one side of albumen (Indian Corn).

_Perípheric_, curved around albumen (Four-o’clock).

_Accumbent_, applied to the cotyledons when the radicle is bent and lies along their edge (Water-cress).

_Incumbent_, applied to the cotyledons when the radicle rests against the back of one of them (Shepherd’s Purse).

_Conduplicate_, applied to cotyledons that are incumbent and so folded as to embrace the radicle (Mustard).

(6.) THE DIRECTION OF THE EMBRYO AS RESPECTS THE PERICARP.

_Ascending_, pointing to the apex.

_Descending_, pointing to the base.

_Centripetal_, pointing to the axis.

_Centrifugal_, pointing to the sides.

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The living plants may be divided into two grand divisions--Flowering
Plants and Flowerless Plants--with five main subdivisions, according
to the complexity and structure of their reproductive organs, or
seed structure. The scientific names of these groups are the
_Thallophyta_, the _Bryophyta_, the _Pteridophyta_, the
_Gymnosperms_, and the _Angiosperms_.

Each of the five main groups is divided into a number of lesser
subdivisions, sometimes called _phyla_, orders, each of which is
composed of several families.

Most systematic botanists begin the study of plants with the lowest
forms of plants and proceed to the highest. In the following
classification, however, the usual order has been _reversed_ because
of its greater interest for a large majority of readers; the highest
division is placed first and the lowest last.

In the earlier days of the science of botany nearly every botanist’s
energies were devoted to this branch which we now call _systematic
botany_. There are now named and described close on a quarter of a
million of living species of plants altogether, including the lower
and often nearly invisible forms, and of this vast number about one
hundred and thirty thousand belong to the highest group of all--the
Angiosperms. With nearly a quarter of a million described forms to
deal with the value of such keys will be recognized.

SUB-KINGDOM I.--Flowering Plants (_Phanerogams_), or Spermophytæ.

(1) _Angiosperms_ (_anj´ĭ-o-sperms_)--Plants producing protected seeds.

The greatest group, the _Angiosperms_, with over a hundred and thirty thousand species, contains nearly all the plants that yield crops of economic importance to man, or that decorate his gardens, or that feed his sheep or cattle. They have netted-veined leaves. When this group is further examined, there are found to be two well marked divisions--Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The first has embryos with only one cotyledon or “seed leaf,” the second has embryos with two. The Angiosperms include over one hundred and thirty thousand species, divided among sixty-two orders, only the most important families of which can be given here.

ORDER I.--=Ranunculaceæ=: Herbs or small shrubs; about thirty genera.

_Anemone_ (windflower): Perennial herb. Dry copses. Massachusetts to
New Jersey and west to Colorado.

_Anemonella_ (rose anemone): Open woods. Canada to Georgia and west
through Mississippi Valley.

_Caltha_ (cowslip, marsh marigold): Perennial herb. United States
and Canada.

_Clematis_ (virgin’s bower): Perennial. United States and Canada.

_Ranunculus_ (buttercup, crowfoot): Herb, annual or perennial.
Canada, United States and Europe.

_Thalictrum_ (meadow rue): Perennial herb. United States and Canada.

ORDER II.--=Berberidaceæ=: Shrubs or perennial herbs; nineteen genera.

_Berberis_ (barberry): Fruit, a sour berry. Found in Europe;
naturalized in New England.

_Podophyllum_ (May apple, mandrake): Perennial herb. Fruit, a berry.
Found: Eastern North America; a species in Himalaya Mountains.

ORDER III.--=Papaveraceæ=: Annual or perennial herbs with milky or colored juice; about twenty-four genera.

_Papaver_ (poppy): Geographical home on southern edge of North
Temperate Zone, spreading north and south. Great opium districts are
the valley of Ganges, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Asia Minor,
China. From India, fourteen million pounds annually. Persia and
Turkey, seventy-one million pounds.

ORDER IV.--=Cruciferæ=: Herbs; about one hundred and seventy-two genera.

_Brassica_ (turnip, mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, rape): United
States, Europe, India, Syria and Russia.

_Capsella_ (shepherd’s purse): Naturalized in United States; from
Europe.

_Cochlearia_ (horseradish): Perennial. Root. Middle and southern
edges of North Temperate Zone, from Great Britain to Asia and
northeastern America.

_Isatis_ (woad): Biennial. Throughout Europe. Cultivated in Azores
and Canary Isles.

_Nasturtium_ (watercress): Europe and northern Asia. Cultivated in
Palestine, Hindustan, Japan.

ORDER V.--=Capparidaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-three genera.

_Capparis_ (caper): Small shrub. Southern France and Mediterranean
countries, Sicily, Malta.

ORDER VI.--=Violaceæ=: Herbs; twenty-one genera.

_Viola_ (violet): Perennial. Canada; United States, west to
Colorado; throughout Europe, some parts of China, Japan, India.

ORDER VII.--=Biximæ=: Shrubs; 29 genera.

_Bixa_ (arnotto): Tropical America. Cultivated in southern Europe,
Burma, Philippine Islands, Hindustan.

ORDER VIII.--=Terustrœmiaceæ=: Shrubs and small trees; thirty-two genera.

_Thea_ (tea): Shrub. China. Cultivated between parallels of 25° and
35° throughout Asia. In Kangra, Gurhwal, Assam, Cachar, Sylhet,
Chittagong, Darjeeling, Chota, Nagpur, Hindustan, Japan, Australia,
Jamaica, Brazil, North America.

ORDER IX.--=Malvaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs.

_Gossypium_ (cotton): Tropical and sub-tropical. East Indies, China,
Asiatic Islands, Greece, islands in eastern Mediterranean, Asia
Minor, northern and western Africa, Australia, West Indies, southern
United States, Venezuela, British Guiana, Brazil.

ORDER X.--=Sterculeaceæ=: Trees and shrubs.

_Theobroma_ (cocoa): Tropical and sub-tropical. Brazil and north of
Brazil, West Indies, Mexico. Cultivated in Philippine Islands,
southern Europe, India.

ORDER XI.--=Tiliaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; 40 genera.

_Corchorus_ (yellow jute): Southern belt of North Temperate Zone and
Tropics. Cultivated in southern and western Asia, Grecian
Archipelago, central and northern Africa.

ORDER XII.--=Linaceæ=: Shrubs and herbs; 94 genera.

_Linum_ (flax): Herb. Widely distributed. Hindustan, southern Egypt,
throughout Europe, southern and middle Russia, northeastern America.

_Erythroxylon_ (coca): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical. Bolivia,
Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Brazil.

ORDER XIII.--=Zygophyllaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventeen genera.

_Guaiacum_ (lignum-vitæ): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical.
Exclusively American; native to West Indies.

ORDER XIV.--=Rutaceæ=: Small trees and shrubs; eighty-three genera.

_Citrus_ (orange, lemon, shaddock): In all regions of no frost.
India. Cultivated in Persia, Syria, southern Europe, northern
Africa, Spain, China, Japan, Sicily, Australia, Brazil, West Indies,
Florida, southern California, Azores.

ORDER XV.--=Meliaceæ=: Trees; thirty-seven genera.

_Swietenia_ (mahogany): Large tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. West
Indies, Bahamas, Central America, southern Florida. Cultivated in
southern British India.

ORDER XVI.--=Iliciniæ=: Trees and shrubs; three genera.

_Ilex_ (Paraguay tea): Small tree. Paraguay. In Parana, ten million
pounds produced annually.

ORDER XVII.--=Rhamnaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; thirty-seven genera.

_Ceanothus_ (New Jersey tea): Shrub. Eastern North America.

_Rhamnus_ (buckthorn): Shrubs, small trees. Southern Persia and
southern Levant countries. Grows as far north as England.

ORDER XVIII.--=Ampelideæ=: Woody vine; few genera.

_Vitis_ (grape): Zone from 21° N. latitude to 48°. British Isles
and Portugal, east to Persia. Middle Atlantic States to California.
Cultivated in Australia.

ORDER XIX.--=Sapindaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; seventy-three genera.

_Acer_ (maple): Tree. Not south of 38° N. latitude, except in high
mountains in northern United States and southern British America.

ORDER XX.--=Anacardeaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; forty-six genera.

_Anacardium_ (cashew nut): Tropics of Asia and America, Jamaica.

_Rhus_ (sumach): North America, Canada to Gulf States; Arkansas,
Levant, and western Europe, Syria. Cultivated in Sicily, Italy,
Turkey, Spain, Portugal.

ORDER XXI.--=Leguminosæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; four hundred genera.

_Acacia_ (gum arabic): Shrubs and small trees. Tropical and
sub-tropical, but widely distributed. Australia, Africa, Asia,
America.

_Arachis_ (peanut): Sub-tropical. Southern United States, southern
and central Virginia, the Carolinas and Tennessee.

_Astragalus_ (gum tragacanth): Small shrub or herb. Sub-tropical.
Persia, Greece, east Mediterranean Islands, Syria.

_Cassia_ (senna): Tropical and sub-tropical. Widely distributed.

_Cæsalpinia_ (Brazil wood): Trees. Brazil.

_Dalbergia_ (rosewood): Trees and vines. Brazil and southern Asia.

_Glycyrrhiza_ (licorice): Small shrub and herb. Italy and southern
Europe, southern England. Cultivated in Spain and Portugal.

_Hæmatoxylon_ (logwood): Small tree. Yucatan, Guatemala, Honduras,
Isthmus of Panama, West Indies. Cultivated in Burma.

_Indigofera_ (indigo): Shrub. India, Java, East Indies, north
Africa, West Indies, Central Asia.

_Lens_ (lentil): Annual. Syria, Egypt, southern and central Europe,
Hindustan.

_Phaseolus_ (bean): Annual herb. Tropics and Temperate Zones to
forty-fifth parallels.

_Pisum_ (pea): Annual herb. Central and southern Europe, Egypt,
Syria, Japan, India, China.

_Tamarindus_ (tamarind): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. Africa.
Cultivated in Arabia, southern India, Ceylon, Java, Philippines,
northern Australia, Pacific Isles, South America.

ORDER XXII.--=Rosaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventy-one genera.

_Fragaria_ (strawberry): Herb. Widely distributed, even to Kamchatka
and Alaska.

_Prunus_ (plum): Tree. Temperate Zone, south of 60°. Europe, western
Asia. Cultivated in northeast America.

_Prunus_ (cherry): Tree. North Africa, Holland, Portugal. Cultivated
in southeastern Africa, America, Belgium, England.

_Prunus_ (apricot): Tree. Armenia, Persia, China, Japan, California.

_Prunus_ (peach): Tree. Southern half of North Temperate Zone in
Asia, Europe, America, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland.

_Pyrus_ (apple): Tree. England, France, Germany, Netherlands,
Prussia, Poland, United States, south Australia.

_Pyrus_ (pear): Tree. China, Syria, Persia, central and northern
Europe, Belgium, France, Great Britain. Cultivated in North America.

_Pyrus_ (quince): Tree. Northern Persia, east and west. Cultivated
in northeastern America, Portugal.

_Rubus_ (black raspberry and raspberry): Shrub. Temperate Zone,
between 30° and 50° latitude. In North America, Europe north to
sixtieth parallel, south to northern parts of Africa, Asia Minor,
and eastward into India; also in British Isles.

ORDER XXIII.--=Saxifragaceæ=: Shrubs, herbs; seventy-three genera.

_Ribes_ (currant): Shrub. Lapland and southern Europe; also in the
New World, northern United States to south and middle Canada.

_Ribes_ (gooseberry): Shrub. France, England, Germany and
northeastern Russia, Siberia.

ORDER XXIV.--=Combretaceæ=: Shrubs, trees; seven genera.

_Terminalia_ (myrobalano): Large trees. Tropical India, along
southern fringes of Ghaut Mountains, and in Burma.

ORDER XXV.--=Myrtaceæ=: Trees; seventy-six genera.

_Bertholletia_ (Brazil nut): Large tree. Tropical South America,
Panama.

_Eugenia_ (cloves): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Brazil, West
Indies.

_Eugenia_ (allspice): Jamaica.

_Myrtus_ (myrtle): Tropical and sub-tropical. Southeastern Italy.
Cultivated in all Mediterranean countries.

ORDER XXVI.--=Lythraceæ=: Tropical trees; thirty genera.

_Punica_ (pomegranate): Persia. Cultivated in Syria, Asia Minor,
Levant, southern Europe, China, Japan, South and North America.

ORDER XXVII.--=Cucurbitaceæ=: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

_Citrullus_ (watermelon): Herbaceous vine. Africa. Cultivated in
southern Europe and southern and middle North America.

_Cucumis_ (cucumber): Northeastern India. Cultivated in Levant,
southern Asia, southern Europe, Africa, southern Russia, United
States.

_Cucumis_ (muskmelon): British India, Baluchistan, West Africa,
Guinea, banks of Niger. Cultivated in Mediterranean States, India,
China, Japan, middle and southern United States.

_Cucurbita_ (squash): Annual. Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in
Pacific Islands, southern Asia, Africa.

_Cucurbita_ (pumpkin): Warm climates.

ORDER XXVIII.--=Umbelliferæ=: Herbs; one hundred and fifty-two genera.

_Apium_ (celery): Biennial. Great Britain, western Europe,
Mediterranean shores, Peloponnesus, Caucasus, Palestine, South
America, and western coast of North America to southern California.

_Coriandrum_ (coriander): Annual. Tartary. Cultivated in Hindustan,
Burma, middle, southern and western Europe, North America.

_Carum_ (parsley): Biennial. Mediterranean countries and Asia Minor.
Cultivated in Japan, England, and northeastern America.

_Carum_ (caraway seed): Lapland to Siberia. Cultivated in Great
Britain and Continent south of 60°, North Africa, Hindustan, Burma,
northeastern America.

_Cuminum_ (cumin): Northern Africa, middle and southern Europe,
Syria, Hindustan, Bombay, Burma.

_Daucus_ (carrot): Biennial. Herb. All over Europe south of 60°,
especially in France, Germany, northern Africa, southwestern Asia,
China, Japan. Cultivated in North America.

_Fœniculum_ (fennel): Biennial. Levant. Cultivated in Hindustan,
Atlantic States, France, Germany, Great Britain, southern Europe.

_Pinipinella_ (anise): Perennial. Egypt, Syria, Malta, Spain,
southern Germany, Hindustan, Japan.

_Pencedanum_ (parsnip): Biennial. Europe, southern Greece.
Cultivated in Asia and North America.

_Ferula_ (asafetida): Middle and western Asia.

ORDER XXIX.--=Rubiaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; three hundred and thirty-seven genera, including madder, coffee, tea, etc., according to most authorities.

_Cephaelis_ (ipecacuanha): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical.
Bolivia, Colombia. Cultivated in West Indies, Hindustan, India,
America.

_Cinchona_ (Peruvian bark): Trees. Tropical Andes. Cultivated in
Ceylon, Jamaica.

_Coffea_ (coffee): Shrub. Persia. Cultivated in Arabia, East Indies,
Mexico, Brazil, Guatemala, Cuba, British West Indies, Santo Domingo,
Java, Padang, Sumatra, Macassar, Ceylon, British India, Manila.

_Rubia_ (madder): Perennial. West Asia, Mediterranean countries.

ORDER XXXVII.--=Borraginaceæ=: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

_Symphytum_ (comfrey): Perennial herb. Peloponnesus and Greek
islands. Cultivated in middle Europe and older parts of the United
States.

ORDER XXXVIII.--=Convolvulaceæ=: Herb; thirty-two genera.

_Ipomoea_ (sweet potato): Perennial. Asia and America. Cultivated in
southern United States, Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware,
southern New Jersey, southern Spain, Italy.

ORDER XXXIX.--=Solanaceæ=: Herb; sixty-six genera.

_Atropa_ (deadly nightshade): Europe, western Asia. Cultivated in
North America.

_Capsicum_ (red pepper, cayenne pepper): Annual. South America,
southern Asia. Cultivated in southern Europe and in United States,
West Indies, middle Africa, southern Asia.

_Lycopersicum_ (tomato): Annual. South and Central America.
Cultivated in Italy, southern France, Spain, Greece, northern
Africa, Islands of southern Asia, England (under glass), Virginia,
Carolinas.

_Nicotiana_ (tobacco): Santo Domingo, South Atlantic States of
United States of America. Cultivated in Virginia, Kentucky,
Carolinas, Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil, Connecticut, Pennsylvania,
Holland, Flanders, France, Alsace, Hungary, European Turkey, China,
Japan, southern Africa, Australia.

_Solanum_ (potato): Chile. Cultivated wherever cereals flourish.

ORDER XL.--=Pedalineæ=: Herb; ten genera.

_Sesamum_ (sesame): Sunda Islands. Cultivated in India, western
Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, America.

ORDER XLI.--=Verbenaceæ=: Tree; fifty genera.

_Tectona_ (teak): Tropical. East Indies, Burma, Philippines.

ORDER XLII.--=Labiatæ=: Herb; one hundred and thirty-six genera.

_Lavandula_ (lavender): Greece and Grecian Isles. Cultivated in
Hindustan, Atlantic States of North America, Levant.

_Marrubium_ (hoarhound): Perennial. Levant, Peloponnesus, etc.
Cultivated all over Europe, and in Temperate Zone in Asia, and
Atlantic States in North America.

_Mentha_ (pennyroyal): England, Hindustan, Japan, Persia, India,
Egypt. In a belt from eastern side of Mississippi Valley to Japan.

_Mentha_ (spearmint): England, etc., as above.

_Nepita_ (catnip): Perennial or annual. Europe, western Asia,
Levant, North America.

_Origanum_ (marjoram): Levant, Mediterranean countries, Europe, as
far north as fiftieth parallel. Sweet marjoram, native in Greece.

_Rosmarius_ (rosemary): Evergreen. Southern Europe, Greek islands in
the Peloponnesus. Cultivated in western Europe, Japan, Egypt,
Hindustan, Asia.

_Salvia_ (sage): Mediterranean countries. Cultivated in
middle-southern Europe, British Isles, North America, British India.

_Thymus_ (sweet thyme): Perennial. Spain, southern Europe,
Mediterranean States, mountains of Greece, and islands of
Archipelago, British Isles, southern Siberia.

ORDER XLIII.--=Chenopodiaceæ=: Herb; eighty genera.

_Beta_ (beet): Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Europe, west
Africa, temperate British India, North America.

_Spinacia_ (spinach): Annual. Persia. Cultivated in middle of North
Temperate Zone, from Hindustan to western shores and islands of
Europe, eastern United States of North America, South Pacific
Islands.

ORDER XLIV.--=Polygonaceæ=: Herb; thirty genera.

_Fagopyrum_ (buckwheat): Central Asia and Tartary, Russia.
Cultivated in Canada, northern United States, northern and central
Europe.

_Rheum_ (rhubarb): Perennial. Tartary. Cultivated as far north as
fiftieth parallel, China, especially in provinces of Shensi, Kansu,
and Szechuen.

ORDER XLV.--=Piperaceæ=: Shrub; eight genera.

_Piper_ (pepper): Southern Asia. Cultivated in southern India, Java,
Sumatra, and Malabar.

ORDER XLVI.--=Myristicaceæ=: Trees, shrubs; one genus.

_Myristica_ (nutmeg): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Sumatra, Island
of Bourbon, Mauritius, Madagascar, West Indies.

ORDER XLVII.--=Lauraceæ=: Tree; thirty-four genera.

_Cinnamomum_ (cinnamon): East India Archipelago. Cultivated in
Ceylon, West Indies, South America, Pacific Isles.

_Cinnamomum_ (camphor): Trees. Japan, Formosa, China, Borneo. The
camphor gum of commerce was introduced into Europe by the Arabs.

ORDER XLVIII.--=Santalaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-eight genera.

_Santalum_ (sandalwood): Trees. East Indies, Asia, Malaysia, Pacific
Islands, India, China.

ORDER XLIX.--=Euphorbiaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; one hundred and ninety-five genera.

_Buxus_ (box): Evergreen, shrub, and small trees. Southern Europe,
western Asia, Syria, Persia, and south of Black Sea. Cultivated in
middle States of North America and Virginia.

_Croton_ (croton-oil plant): Cultivated in southeastern Hindustan
and East India Islands.

_Hevea_ (caoutchouc): Large tree. South America. Cultivated in
southern Asia, middle Africa, northern Australia.

_Manihot_ (tapioca): Tropical and sub-tropical South America.
Cultivated in southern Asia and western Africa.

_Ricinus_ (castor-oil plant): Annual. Southern Asia, eastern Africa.
Cultivated in Japan, Bengal, eastern and northern Africa, southern
Europe and United States, especially Kansas.

ORDER L.--=Urticaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; one hundred and eight genera.

_Cannabis_ (hemp): Annual. Chinese Tartary, northern India,
southwestern Siberia. Cultivated in China, Japan, Persia, Hindustan,
Egypt, southern Africa, Russia, European states, Canada, United
States.

_Ficus_ (fig): Tree. Subtropical. Western Asia. Cultivated through
Mediterranean countries west to Canary Isles.

_Humulus_ (hop): Perennial herb. Middle Europe, Siberia, Levant,
Asia Minor, Japan, North America, foot-hills of Rocky Mountains, and
along upper Arkansas River, Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, Lake
Winnipeg, North Atlantic States. Cultivated in Egypt.

_Morus_ (mulberry): Tree. Cultivated in western New England,
southern upper Canada, Dakotas, Kansas and the South. White mulberry
is a native of China and Japan. Cultivated in Italy, Greece, Asia
Minor, Armenia.

_Ulmus_ (elm): Tree. From Mediterranean countries to the middle of
European Russia, from southern banks of St. Lawrence River to Gulf
of Mexico, and westerly to foot-hills of Rocky Mountains.

ORDER LI.--=Juglandaceæ=: Trees; five genera.

_Juglans_ (butternut): Northeastern North Africa. Cultivated in
middle Europe and England.

_Juglans_ (walnut): Southwestern New York and southward to Gulf of
Mexico and westward beyond Mississippi River. Cultivated in eastern
middle States and southern New England, England and southern Europe.

_Hicoria_ (hickory nut): North and middle States of North America
from Atlantic to Mississippi River, and cultivated in corresponding
latitude in Europe.

_Hicoria_ (pecan nut): Southern North America. Cultivated in Prussia
and England.

ORDER LII.--=Cupuliferæ=: Trees; ten genera.

_Castanea_ (chestnut): Eastern coast of North America, west to
eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. Cultivated in middle and southern
England, middle and southern Europe, northern Africa, Levant, and
southern and eastern Asia.

_Corylus_ (hazelnut): Levant. Cultivated between 35° and 55°
latitude in Northern Hemisphere, eastern parts of Western
Hemisphere, and western Old World.

_Fagus_ (beech): Temperate Zones up to 60° north latitude, south to
50°.

_Quercus_ (oak): Temperate Zones above 35°, and in a zone between
30° and 60° around the globe.

ORDER LIII.--=Salicaceæ=: Shrubs, trees; numerous genera.

_Salix_ (weeping willow): Western and southern Asia. Cultivated in
southern England.

_Salix_ (curled willow): England. Cultivated in eastern United
States.

ANGIOSPERMS (LEAVES PARALLEL-VEINED)

ORDER LIV.--=Orchidaceæ=: Woody vine; three hundred and thirty-four genera.

_Vanilla_ (climbs over lofty trees): Tropical and sub-tropical
southern Mexico, coast of Vera Cruz. Cultivated in Guatemala,
Mauritius, Bourbon, Madagascar, Java.

ORDER LV.--=Zingiberaceæ=: Herbs; thirty-six genera.

_Curcuma_ (turmeric): Farther India and Asiatic isles, southern Asia
and Malay Peninsula. Cultivated in Hindustan, Cochin-China, southern
India, Bengal, Java, Pacific Isles.

_Elettaria_ (cardamom): Perennial. Tropical Asia. Cultivated in
southern India, Madras, Allepy, Ceylon.

_Maranta_ (arrowroot): Tropical America, Florida.

_Musa_ (banana): Asia. Cultivated in Indian Archipelago, China,
Cochin-China, Hindustan, Australia, Pacific Islands, Madagascar,
western Africa, Sicily, southern Spain, Mexico, Central America,
Colombia, Peru, northern Brazil, Guiana, West Indies, southern
Florida, and Louisiana.

_Musa_ (manila): Philippines. Cultivated in India and southern Asia.

_Zingiber_ (ginger): Sub-tropical. Southern Asia. Cultivated on
western coast of Africa, in the West Indies, and southern slopes of
Himalayas.

ORDER LVI.--=Bromeliaceæ=: Herbs; twenty-seven genera.

_Ananassa_ (pineapple): Perennial root. Tropical. Bahama Islands.
Cultivated in South America, Florida, southern shores of Europe,
East Africa, Pacific Isles, India.

ORDER LVII.--=Iridaceæ=: Herbs; fifty-seven genera.

_Crocus_ (saffron): Throughout southern parts of North Temperate
Zone.

ORDER LVIII.--=Dioscoreaceæ=: Shrubs; eight genera.

_Dioscorea_ (yam): Tropical and sub-tropical Africa.

_Dioscorea_ (Chinese yam): America, Asia, Malaysia. Cultivated in
Japan, East Indies, Siam.

ORDER LIX.--=Liliaceæ=: Herbs; one hundred and eighty-seven genera.

_Asparagus_: Perennial herb. Japan, Levant. Cultivated in England,
Holland, central Europe, Mediterranean countries, sandy places of
Poland, southern Russia, Hindustan, North America.

_Aloe_: Southern Asia, Arabia, southern Africa. Cultivated in
southern Europe, northern Africa, British West Indies.

ORDER LX.--=Palmæ=: Shrubs and small and large trees; one hundred and thirty-seven genera.

_Areca_ (betelnut): Sunda Isles, Philippines, Cochin-China, Sumatra,
southern India.

_Cocos_ (cocoanut): East India Archipelago, Arabia, Persia, Malay.
Cultivated in eastern Africa, western America, Brazil, West Indies,
islands of Central America.

_Metroxylon_ (sago palm): Malacca, southern China. Cultivated in
Eastern Archipelago.

_Phœnix_ (date palm): Between 15° and 30° north latitude, from
Atlantic Coast to the River Indus; Sahara oases. Cultivated in Acre,
Palmyra, Jaffa.

ORDER LXI.--=Gramineæ=: Herbs; one thousand two hundred and ninety-eight genera.

_Avena_ (oats): West central Asia, east central Europe. Cultivated
in Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Canada, United States.

_Hordeum_ (barley): Annual. Temperate western Asia. Cultivated in
northern Russia, Siberia, etc.

_Oryza_ (rice): Southern Asia. Cultivated in India, China, Japan,
East Indies, Africa, southern Europe, Hungary, South America,
southern United States.

_Setaria_ (millet): China, Japan, India. Cultivated wherever oats
and rye are, except in United States.

_Saccharum_ (sugar-cane): Perennial. Cochin-China. Cultivated in
West Indies, Brazil, Mexico, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri,
Mauritius, southern India, Pacific Islands, northern Australia.

_Sorghum_ (broom corn): Annual. Middle Africa. Cultivated in
southern India, northern Africa, southern and middle Europe,
throughout United States.

_Secale_ (rye): Southern Russia and north of Black and Caspian Seas.
Cultivated in northern Germany, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Russia,
western Europe, United States.

_Triticum_ (wheat): Cultivated in western Asia, western America,
southern Russia, central and western Europe, southern Italy, Turkey,
Syria, northern and southern Africa, Brazil, Chile, Australia. Great
wheat-growing regions are southwestern plains of Russia and central
plain of North America, and in southern California, northern India,
England.

_Zea_ (Indian corn or maize): America. Cultivated in United States,
upper Canada, South America, Mexico, southern Europe, Africa,
western Asia.

ORDER LXII.--=Coniferæ=: Shrubs, trees; thirty-two genera.

_Abies_ (fir): Northeastern North America, Quebec, New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia, middle States, western Wisconsin. Cultivated in
England.

_Chamæcyparis_ (cypress): Evergreen, cypress. Cultivated between 30°
and 42° N. latitude in both hemispheres, Carolinas, Georgia,
Florida.

_Lumpirus_ (cedar): Trees and shrubs. Middle and western Europe,
northern Asia, North America.

_Larix_ (larch): Mountains of middle Europe, north of New York to
Pacific Ocean.

(2) _Gymnosperms (jĭm´ṉō̇-sperms)._--Plants producing naked seeds (_i. e._, seeds not inclosed in an ovary), as the common pine and hemlock.

This second division of flowering plants (_phanerogams_) includes four living groups: (a) Coniferæ, including all evergreen trees, such as pine, fir, redwood (_Sequoia_), etc.; (b) Cycadaceæ, trees such as cypress, palmetto, etc.; (c) Gnetaceæ; (d) Ginkgo. There are about five hundred living species.

ORDER LX.--

ORDER LXX.--

SUB-KINGDOM II.--Flowerless Plants, or Cryptogamia (_krĭp´ṯō̇-gā´mĭ-ȧ_).

(3) _Pteridophyta (tĕr-ĭ-dŏf´ĭ-ta)._

This group does not include over five thousand species altogether. All its members have a well-marked differentiation into leaves and stems, some with large leaves like the Bracken fern and some with small leaves like the Club-moss. All are provided with well-differentiated wood and phlœm, which are arranged in bundles in the stem. All the members, also, have a well-marked alternation of generations, but it differs from that of the bryophytes, for the leafy plant which is conspicuous is the spore-producing generation, while the sexual generation is a very small and inconspicuous little structure, as simple as an alga except for its sexual organs. To this cohort belong all the ferns, all the Equisetums, or Horsetails, and the Club-mosses and Selaginellas.

(4) _Bryophyta (brĭ-ŏfĭ´-tȧ)._

The _Bryophyta_ form a much smaller group, reported to have about sixteen thousand species. Some of these appear, as do the mosses, to have true leaves, but their apparent leaves are not really like those of the higher plants. They have no true wood or vessels. They have a definite alternation of generations, but the spore-producing generation grows on to the “leafy” sexual generation, and is generally, but wrongly, called its “fruit capsule.” To this group belong the Mosses and Liverworts.

(5) _Thallophytes (thāl´ō-fitz)._

The _Thallophytes_ have the largest number of species after the Angiosperms, and number about eighty thousand species all told. They are all comparatively simple in structure and have no differentiation into stems and roots. The Thallophytes include the algæ, the large fungi, the toadstools, and all the parasitic and disease producing forms of plants.

ALGÆ are divided into FLORIDEÆ, the Red Seaweeds, and the orders _Dictyoteæ_, _Oösporeæ_, _Zoösporeæ_, _Conjugatæ_, _Diatomaceæ_, and _Cryptophyceæ_.

FUNGI include the molds, mildews, mushrooms, puffballs, etc., which are variously grouped into several sub-classes and many orders. The _Lichenes_ or Lichens are now considered to be of a mixed nature, each plant partly a Fungus and partly an Alga.

=THREE CELEBRATED PICTURES OF ANIMAL FAVORITES=

BOOK OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL TYPES

ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS:

=I. Wild Animals:=

(1) THE MAMMALS: (_a_) The Monkey Tribe; (_b_) Animals of Prey;
(_c_) Gnawing Animals; (_d_) Hoofed Animals; (_e_) Toothless
Animals; (_f_) Thick-Skinned Animals; (_g_) Pouched Animals;
(_h_) Flying Animals; (_i_) The Seals; (_j_) The Whales.

(2) THE BIRDS: (_a_) Birds of Prey; (_b_) Climbing Birds; (_c_)
Singing Birds; (_d_) Wading Birds; (_e_) Swimming Birds; (_f_)
Running Birds; (_g_) Game Birds.

(3) THE REPTILES: Lizards; Chameleons; Snakes; Crocodiles;
Tortoises; Turtles.

(4) AMPHIBIANS: Frogs; Toads; Salamanders.

(5) THE FISHES: (_a_) Bony Fishes; (_b_) Cartilaginous Fishes;
(_c_) Armored Fishes; (_d_) Lungfishes.

(6) THE MOLLUSCS: Snails; Cuttlefish; Squids; Octopus; Tusk
Shells; Bivalves; Oysters.

(7) JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS: Crabs; Lobsters; Scorpions; Spiders;
Insects; Grasshoppers.

(8) BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS: Straight-Winged Insects; Ants and Bees;
Flies.

(9) STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS.

(10) SIMPLEST FORMS OF LIFE.

=II. Domesticated Animals:=

(1) DOMESTICATED MAMMALS: Alpaca; Ass; Camel; Cat; Cattle; Dog;
Elephant; Gayal; Goat; Guinea Pig; Horse; Llama; Rabbit;
Reindeer; Sheep; Swine; Yak; Zebu.

(2) DOMESTICATED BIRDS: Canary; Chickens or Fowls; Guinea; Goose;
Ostrich; Parrot; Peacock; Pigeon; Swan; Turkey.

(3) DOMESTICATED INSECTS: Bee; Cochineal; Silkworm Moth.

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS CONCERNING ANIMALS

WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL LIFE

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. MAMMALS: The Monkey Tribe;
Animals of Prey; Hoofed Animals; Gnawing Animals; Thick-skinned
Animals; Toothless Animals; Pouched Animals; Flying Mammals; The
Seal Family; Whales. BIRDS: Song Birds; Birds of Prey; Game Birds;
Running Birds; Wading Birds; Swimming Birds. CROCODILES AND OTHER
REPTILES. FROGS AND OTHER AMPHIBIA. FISHES. LOBSTERS AND CRABS.
INSECTS: Beetles, Butterflies and Moths; Ants; Bees and Wasps;
Spiders; Grasshoppers and Locusts; Flies and Mosquitoes. SIMPLE
MARINE ANIMALS: Starfish; Jellyfish; Corals; Sponges; Protozoa.
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS: Domesticated Mammals; Domesticated Birds;
Domesticated Fish and Insects. DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS.

Of all the sciences, Zoology is the most extensive. It is estimated that over two million species of living creatures exist in the world. Between the elephant and the whale, the giants of animal creation, and the mite that is just discernible with the human eye, there are myriads of creatures differing in size, form and habit.

WHY AND HOW ANIMALS ARE CLASSIFIED

It is highly desirable, therefore, to have before us a bird’s-eye view of the Animal Kingdom even if it is only occasionally brought into actual use by the average reader. Classification, it should be understood, is only a process of comparison for the purpose of enabling us to determine the exact place of each animal in the plan of Nature. In other words it is simply a scientific method of naming the various animals from the relation of their resemblances.

We are chiefly indebted to the great Swedish scientist Linnæus for the scientific method of naming animals. For his purpose, Linnæus used the Latin as the universal language of science. For example, he named the dog in his classification _Canis familiaris_, using a generic word and a specific word--just as they are used in the name of George Washington. In scientific classification, however, these names have become abstract terms, and they represent certain grades or degrees of resemblance which are spoken of as species, genera, families, orders, classes, and so on.

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE DOG

In this way we determine the exact place of each animal. The dog belongs to the kingdom _Animalia_, sub-kingdom _Metazoa_, class _Mammalia_, order _Carnivora_, family _Canidæ_, genus _Canis_, species _Familiaris_, variety _Hound_ (possibly) and its individual name, perhaps, is “Rover.”

The important thing is that the reader should have a picture of the actual animal representing each class in his mind’s eye. He should master the distinctions between the _great groups_, or classes, before proceeding to a more minute classification.

TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL TYPES

The present day classification of animal life falls into two great divisions: (1) _Protozoa_, representing those composed of a single cell; and (2) _Metazoa_, those whose bodies are composed of many cells. The Protozoa, so far as known, form a single division or branch of the animal kingdom, and the Metazoa comprise various higher branches. In the following table the divisions are given from the highest forms to the lowest, rather than in the reverse order frequently given, and sets out the chief characteristic and animal examples of each division.

ANIMAL KINGDOM (_Kingdom Animalia_)

SUB-KINGDOM METAZOA (Gr. _meta_, after; _zȯon_, animal).--Animals with
cellular tissues, true eggs, and blastoderm. The group comprises all
animals except the Protozoa.

CLASS I. =Mammalia= (Lat., _mamma_, breast).--Animals which suckle
their young, bringing them into the world alive. _Examples_: man,
monkey, ox, elephant and whale.

ORDER I. =Primates= (Lat., _primus_, first).

_Sub-Order I._
=Bimana= (Lat., _bis_, twice; _manus_, a hand).--Two-handed
animals. _Example_: man.

_Sub-Order II._
=Quadrumana= (Lat., _quatuor_, four; _manus_, a hand).--Four-
handed animals. _Example_: the monkey.

ORDER II. =Chiroptera= (Gr., _cheir_, a hand; _pteron_, a wing).--
Hand-winged animals. _Example_: the bat.

ORDER III. =Insectivora= (Lat., _insecta_, insects; _voro_, “I
devour”).--Insect-eaters. _Examples_: the hedgehog and mole.

ORDER IV. =Carnivora= (Lat., _caro_, _carnis_, flesh).--Flesh-
eaters. _Examples_: lion, tiger, fox and weasel.

ORDER V. =Rodentia= (Lat. _rodere_, to gnaw).--Gnawing animals.
_Examples_: rat, rabbit and beaver.

ORDER VI. =Ungulata= (Lat., _ungula_, nail, claw or hoof).--Hoofed
animals.

_Sub-Order I._
=Hyracoidea= (Gr., _hyrax_, shrew-mouse).--_Example_: Syrian
hyrax.

_Sub-Order II._
=Proboscidea= (Lat., from the Gr., _proboskis_, an elephant’s
trunk; literally a front-feeder), proboscis-bearers.
_Example_: elephant.

_Sub-Order III._
=Perissodactyla= (Gr., _perisos_, superfluous; _daktulos_,
finger or toe), odd-toed animals. _Examples_: tapir,
rhinoceros, horse, ass, and zebra.

_Sub-Order IV._
=Artiodactyla= (Gr., _artios_, equal; _daktulos_, finger or
toe), equal-toed animals.

GROUP I. =Pecora= (Lat., plural of _pecus_, cattle) or
Ruminantia (Lat., _rumen_, a paunch).--Ruminating or cud-
chewing animals. _Examples_: ox, sheep, goat, antelope, deer
and giraffe.

GROUP II. =Tragulina= (Gr., _tragos_, goat), or Deerlets.
_Example_: kanchil.

GROUP III. =Tylopada= (Gr., _tylos_, a knob or swelling, and
_pous_, _podos_, a foot).--Ruminants with digits encased in
cutaneous pads. _Example_: camel.

GROUP IV. =Suina= (Lat., _sus_, a pig).--Swine-like animals.
_Examples_: swine, peccary and hippopotamus.

ORDER VII. =Sirenia= (Lat., _siren_, a sea nymph).--Sea-cows.
_Examples_: manatee and dugong.

ORDER VIII. =Cetacea= (Gr., _ketos_, a whale), animals of the
whale kind. _Examples_: whale and dolphin.

ORDER IX. =Edentata= (Lat., _edentatus_, toothless).--Toothless
animals. _Examples_: sloth, anteater and armadillo.

ORDER X. =Marsupialia= (Lat., _marsupium_, a pouch).--Pouched
animals. _Examples_: kangaroo and opossum.

ORDER XI. =Monotremata= (Gr., _monos_, single; _trema_, orifice).
--Egg-laying mammals. _Examples_: duckbill or water mole.

CLASS II. =Aves= (Lat., _avis_, a bird).--Birds, animals produced
from eggs by the application of heat, usually supplied by the body
of the mother bird in close contact with them. They are always
clothed with feathers, which are a part of their special
construction for flight. _Examples_: eagle, swan, ostrich and lark.

ORDER I. =Birds of Prey= (_Raptores_).--Sharp, curved beak and
talons; strong legs; three toes front, one behind. _Examples_:
vultures, falcons, secretary birds, owls.

ORDER II. =Perching Birds= (_Insessores_).--Short, slender, legs;
three toes front, one behind. _Examples_: swallows, trogons,
kingfishers, humming-birds, warblers, thrushes, crows, starlings,
finches, hornbills, birds of paradise.

ORDER III. =Climbing Birds= (_Scansores_).--Toes paired; beak
usually hooked. _Examples_: toucans, parrots, woodpeckers,
cuckoos.

ORDER IV. =Doves and Pigeons= (_Columbæ_).--Legs weak; wings long
and pointed. _Examples_: doves, pigeons.

ORDER V. =Game Birds= (_Gallinæ_).--Legs stout, short; beak stout,
arched. _Examples_: pheasants, grouse, partridge, turkey, peacock,
guinea, prairie chicken, domestic chickens.

ORDER VI. =Ostrich Family= (_Cursores_).--No keel or breast bone;
rudimentary wings; stout legs. _Examples_: ostrich, cassowary,
bustard.

ORDER VII. =Wading Birds= (_Grallatores_).--Legs and neck long;
knee free from body. _Examples_: cranes, herons, snipes, plovers,
storks, flamingo.

ORDER VIII. =Swimming Birds= (_Natatores_).--Web-footed.
_Examples_: swans, ducks, geese, pelicans, petrels, auks,
penguins, gulls, cormorants.

CLASS III. =Reptilia= (Lat., _repo._ “I creep”)--Reptiles, cold-
blooded animals, protected by scales and not infrequently by hard,
bony plates. They are mostly oviparous, but developed from the eggs
more or less casually by the heat of the sun. “Reptile” is not an
apt name, for there are many members of the class that do not creep.
_Examples_: crocodile, lizard, tortoise and snake.

ORDER I. =Serpents= (_Orphidia_).--Body long, cylindrical, scaly,
usually limbless; numerous vertabræ and ribs; no eyelids. Lower
jaw loosely united in front. _Examples_: rattlesnakes, vipers,
boas, pythons, cobras, copperheads, water snakes.

ORDER II. =Lizards= (_Lacertilia_).--Body with long tail; usually
four limbs; scaly; bones of the jaw firm. _Examples_: striped and
green lizards, horned toads, chameleons, iguana.

ORDER III. =Tortoises and Turtles= (_Chelonia_).--Horny and bony
shell within which the head and limbs can be drawn; no teeth;
eyelids; four legs. _Examples_: turtles, tortoise, gophers,
terrapins.

ORDER IV. =Crocodiles and Alligators= (_Crocodilia_).--Covered
with scales and bony plates, teeth in sockets; heart with four
cavities; eyelids and earlids. _Examples_: Crocodile and
alligator.

CLASS IV. =Batrachia= (Gr., _batrachos_, a frog), or Amphibia (Gr.,
_amphibios_, having a double life).--Animals that can exist for a
considerable time on dry land or in water. They are oviparous,
hatched by the heat of the sun from eggs, covered with a soft,
glutinous membrane, which the mother had laid in the water, and
develop through tadpole stages. In the early period of their
existence they are fishlike in their structure, breathing by means
of gills and a two-chambered heart; in the later stages of their
development they acquire lungs and a heart of three chambers. A true
amphibian possesses at once both lungs and gills. _Examples_: frog,
toad, newt and salamander.

CLASS V. =Pisces= (Lat., _piscis_, a fish).--Fishes, oviparous
animals covered with scales, which form an important part of their
special organization for life in the water. Their gills, acting as
lungs, extract air from the water instead of from the atmosphere.

ORDER I. =Sharks and Rays= (_Elasmobranchii_).--Shagreen skin;
gills fixed and uncovered; cartilaginous skeleton.

ORDER II. =Ganoids= (_Ganoidei_).--Enameled plates or scales;
gills free; skeleton partly cartilaginous. _Examples_: garpikes,
mud-fish, lung-fish.

ORDER III. =Bony or Fin Fishes= (_Teleostei_).--Skeleton bony;
scales; fins; usually four pairs of gills; mostly oviparous.
_Examples_: bass, perch and ten thousand other kinds.

CLASS VI. =Arthropoda= (Gr., _arthron_, joint; _pous_, foot).--
Metazoa, with definite number of segments; jointed legs; distinct
feet and hard, external skeleton.

ORDER I. =Crustacea= (Lat., _crusta_, a crust or shell).--Water-
breathing; having gills and more than eight jointed legs; four
antennæ. _Examples_: fairy-shrimp, water-fleas, goose barnacle,
acorn barnacle, opossum-shrimp, prawn, lobster, crayfish, cancer-
crab, rock-crab, pill-bug, sand-hopper.

ORDER II. =Arachnida= (Gr., _arachne_, spider).--Eight legs; air-
breathing. _Examples_: garden-spider, tarantula, bird-spider,
trap-door spider, mite, tick, king-crab or horseshoe crab.

ORDER III. =Insecta= (Lat., _insectum_, cut in, owing to the
grooves surrounding the body).--Distinct head, thorax and abdomen;
air-breathing. _Examples_: fishmoth, springtail, cockroach,
grasshopper, cricket, katydid, locust, dragon-fly, caddis-fly,
may-fly, white ants or termites, ant-lion, water-boatman, water-
bug, back-swimmer, chinch-bug, squash-bug, lice, plant-lice,
scale-insect, gnat, mosquito, flea, house-fly, stage-beetle, wood-
beetle, water-beetle, potato-beetle, ladybug, firefly, moth,
butterfly, ants, honey-bees and bumblebees, wasps, hornets,
yellow-jackets, centipeds.

CLASS VII. =Mollusca= (Lat., _mollis_. soft),--Soft-bodied,
unjointed Metazoa, with muscular skin (“mantle”), generally
protected by a calcareous shell; two or three-chambered heart; three
main pairs of nerve-ganglia. _Examples_: Clams, oysters, snails,
cuttlefish, devil-fish, nautilus.

CLASS VIII. =Echinodermata= (Gr., _echinos_, a hedgehog; _derma_,
skin).--Radiated Metazoa, with distinct alimentary canal and well
developed nervous system; body-walls secreting calcareous plates;
parts in multiple of five. _Examples_: starfish, sea urchins, sea
cucumbers, sea lilies, serpent or brittle stars, basket stars.

CLASS IX. =Worms= (Lat., _vermes_).--Bilateral Metazoa, with no
jointed legs, nor primitive stripe. _Examples_: earth worm, leech,
tube worm, tape worm, bristle worms, vinegar eel, rotifers.

CLASS X. =Cœlenterata= (animals with combined body and stomach
cavity).--Radiated Metazoa, with distinct digestive cavity,
tentacles and nettling thread-cells. _Examples_: jellyfish, sea-
anemones, coral polyps.

CLASS XI. =Porifera= (Lat., _porus_, pore; _fero_, to carry).--
Sponges, Metazoa, with numerous ingoing openings, one or few
outgoing orifices, a skeleton, independent cells. _Example_:
sponges.

SUB-KINGDOM PROTOZOA (Gr., _protos_, first; _zoon_, animal).--One-
celled animals of microscopic size. Simplest forms of animal life.
_Examples_: amœba, bell animalcule (_vorticella_), euglena.

ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS

_THE MAMMALS_ (_Mammalia_)

Mammals constitute the highest class of animal creation, and include
Man. They have a hard, bony skeleton and a vertebral column or
backbone; warm red blood flows in their veins; they breathe by means
of lungs, and suckle their young, which they bring forth alive.
Their bodies are generally covered with hair. More than three
thousand species of mammals are known.

THE MONKEY TRIBE (_Quadrumana_)

Monkeys are animals whose four feet are hand-like, and hence their
scientific name, Quadrumana, which means four-handed. They are
distinguished from the other animals by their docility, and, more
especially, by their power of imitation. It is evident at the first
glance that they are nearer related to man than any other animal.

The monkeys have long, loosely hanging arms, with elongated,
claw-like fingers; their feet resemble hands. They swing themselves
with ease from branch to branch and from tree to tree; they are good
climbers, and bring down fruit from the topmost branches. But
notwithstanding the aptitude of their hands for climbing, the latter
cannot equal the dexterity of the human hand, which is justly
described as the tool of all tools.

Monkeys differ outwardly from man in many respects: their foreheads
are low, and almost disappear under the overhanging hair; their ears
are directed upwards; their nose is exceedingly flat and scarcely
projects; their teeth resemble those of the animals of prey; their
chin is receding; their entire skin is hairy, except in a few
places; and their movements are, in most instances, only possible
with the assistance of their long arms.

The intellectual qualities of monkeys are not of very high order. In
this attribute, they are surpassed by the dog, the horse, and the
elephant. There is especially no trace of those qualities of
fidelity and gratitude which we so highly value in the animals last
mentioned.

All of the American monkeys are true monkeys, but in the old world
there is no line between ape, baboon, gibbon, macaque and monkey.
Most of the American species (the marmosets excepted) have one more
molar tooth on each side of each jaw than does man, but the forms of
the eastern continent are like man in that respect, as they are in
having nails rather than claws on at least some of the fingers and
toes. Many of the new world species have prehensile tails, but this
never occurs in the others, the tail exhibiting a tendency to be
reduced, at last disappearing in the man-like apes.

The American apes have the nostrils widely separated and opening
sidewise, while in the others they open in front and downward as in
man.

Monkeys are extremely interesting because of their caricature of
man. Some make most interesting pets, and others are disagreeable,
in looks, temper, and habits. Most of them are vegetarians for most
of their diet, but they are fond of eggs and young birds, as well as
insects. None stray far out of the tropics and only one enters
Europe at Gibraltar.

There are over one hundred various kinds of monkeys, only a few of
which it will be necessary to describe with more detail.

=Baboon= (_Cynocephalus babuin_).--The Greek name, signifying “dog’s-head,” is very appropriate to the baboons, for they resemble a dog both in the shape of the head and in the hairy covering of the skin, and even in the tone of the voice.

They are very powerful animals, with protruding jaws like those of a bull-dog. Their jaws, supplied with immense incisor teeth, would do honor to any beast of prey, and their whole expression is fierce and malicious. Their limbs are strikingly short in comparison with those of the monkeys mentioned above. The baboons are found in Africa and the East Indies, and live chiefly in rocky and hilly regions, avoiding the woods as far as possible.

Their food consists of all kinds of plants, fruits, herbs, grasses, bulbs, etc., and also of small animals, especially snails, insects, and spiders. The structure of their body prevents them from walking upright, and their whole behavior, whether at rest or when running and jumping, exhibits a malicious disposition. Notwithstanding the fierceness of their nature, they may be tamed and made obedient when young; but their innate malicious nature reappears in old age. They are then no longer obedient, but again grin, scratch and bite.

=Chimpanzee= (_Simia troglodytes_) attains to the same height as the orang-outan; its body is covered with dark hair, and its hairless face is of a leathery yellow. It lives in forests, and is social and much livelier than the orang-outan, but it is also extraordinarily fierce. It builds hut-like constructions in the trees. The chimpanzee cannot live longer than a few years in our climate.

=Douc= (_Semnopithecus nemæus_).--The douc, or variegated monkey, is a native of Cochin-China. Its tail is almost as long as its body. From its variegated external appearance this monkey might be called a clown; its jacket is grey; its breeches, head-band, and gloves are black, its stockings brownish red; its sleeves, beard, loins, and tail white; its face yellow; and its necktie brownish red.

It is timid and shy, and at the sight of man quickly makes off into the recesses of the forest. It does not live long in captivity.

=Galago= (_G. senegalensis_).--They vary from the size of a rabbit to that of a rat, are covered with thick, soft, wooly fur, have somewhat bushy tails longer than the body, and hind-legs longer and stronger than the arms. The head is round like a cat’s; the eyes are large with oval pupils contracting in daylight to vertical slits; the ears are naked and very big, expanded during activity, but rolled together when the animal rests. The digits are strong and well adapted for grasping the branches; all bear nails except the second on the hind-foot, which is clawed. The galago proper is a pretty animal with wooly fur, grayish fawn above, whitish beneath. It seems to be distributed throughout tropical Africa, and is known in Senegal as “the gum animal” from its frequent habitat in mimosa or gum-acacia forests.

=Gorilla= (_Simia gorilla_) is the largest of the monkeys, growing to a height of six feet. Its grey, sparkling eyes are deeply sunk, and the powerful bony forehead gives the face an expression of wild ferocity. The mouth is wide, and the lips are sharply cut, without any red at the edges; the jaws are extremely powerful, and are armed with strong incisor teeth. The eyes stand wide apart, and the nose is more prominent and the head better formed than is the case with the other monkeys.

=Howling Monkey= (_Mycetes niger_).--The coat of the male is black, that of the female rather brown. Their tails are what are known as prehensile tails, and are of great service to them when climbing. The howling monkeys are found in South America. They live chiefly in the dense, damp woods, and along the banks of rivers. Every morning and evening their dismal howling fills the hearer with horror. They sit or lie about in the trees, and sometimes hang from the boughs by means of their prehensile tails. Their faces have a serious expression, and are surrounded by long beards. Their dismal chorus is begun by one of the old monkeys, and the whole company afterwards join in, the concert often lasting several hours.

The Indians hunt the howling monkey and eat its flesh; but it very often escapes the hunter, even after having been mortally wounded; for while in the act of falling down from the tree it will twist its tail around a bough, and remain there suspended long after death.

=Mandrill= (_C. mormon_).--This monkey has a repulsive appearance. The high puffed-up cheeks are blue with red lines, the nose a fiery red, the hair of the head greyish green, and the whiskers lemon yellow. It is as malicious and violent as it is rapacious, and is found on the west coast of Africa. It is much feared on account of its strength. As it feeds chiefly on plants, it frequently does a great deal of damage; troops of these animals are said to have invaded the inhabited districts on the coast.

The mandrill does not fear man, and is never to be frightened by a gun-shot; the smallest trifle suffices to put it in a most violent rage. The natives very rarely dare to enter the forests in which the mandrills are known to live.

=Marmoset= (_Hápale Jacchus_).--One of the few monkeys that can with truthfulness be termed pretty is the Marmoset. There are several species, and all are beautiful, with the gentle, engaging manners. Only seven or eight inches long, or about as big as a full-grown rat, the thick, soft fur and the long, bushy tail, a foot in length, give it the aspect of a considerably larger animal. The color of the coat is a peculiarly rich brown, which appears quite ruddy when the hairs are blown aside. The tail, which is not prehensile, is light grey, ringed with black, and there is a prominent tuft of white hair on either side of the head, standing out before the ears. The Marmoset has claws instead of nails except on its great toe. Its voice is a low, gentle whistle, quickly repeated when alarmed. It is common in many parts of South America. Its chief food consists of fruit, but it is very fond of insects.

=ANIMALS THAT INTEREST US AT THE ZOO=

=Orang-Outan= (_Simia satyrus_).--The orang-outan is found in the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. It attains to a height of four and a half feet. The face and the inside of its hands are hairless, and are of a bluish-grey tint; but the other parts of its body are covered more or less thickly with hair, generally of a rusty-brown color. Its hands reach almost to the ground.

When at liberty it feeds on plants only, and especially on tree-fruits. Hard shelled-fruit, as big as a human head, which a man could only open with an axe, the orang-outan tears asunder with its hands. It is by no means so lively as the monkeys, and sits for hours at a time in a melancholy mood on the bough of a tree, exhibiting only the natural fierceness of its class when attacked.

In youth it is sociable, and lives with others of its kind, but when old it leads a more solitary life; the old males are especially fond of solitude. With increasing age the orang-outans scarcely ever climb the trees. On the ground, however, they move with difficulty, and their gait is awkward and clumsy. They build a kind of nest in the thick branches nineteen or twenty feet above the ground. Their attachment to their young is very touching.

=Wanderoo= (_Macacus silenus_).--A remarkable species which the Ceylonese call Black Monkey, on account of the color of its long fur. On the top of its head the hair is particularly long, falling on either side of its face like the full-dress wig of a judge. It also possesses a long grey beard, so that it has quite a venerable aspect. Unlike the other macaques, it has a tuft of hair on the end of its tail, much like that of a lion. The wanderoo is furnished with cheek pouches of considerable size; and probably the rapidity with which it feeds is due to the fact that it is storing away a portion of its food for future use. The animal stands about thirty inches high, weighs as much as eighty pounds, and is possessed of considerable muscular power.

THE ANIMALS OF PREY

The animals of prey proper are very powerful, and some of them are
even dangerous to man; they feed on the flesh of other animals. The
Insectivora, or insect eaters, are, on the contrary, small; they
feed chiefly on insects and worms, and are therefore useful. Of
these several groups are distinguished: the cat-like, hyaena-like,
dog-like, marten-like, and bear-like animals of prey.

=Badger= (_Meles taxus_).--The compact body of the badger is covered with blackish fur, with white stripes at the neck and head. It lives in forests, near fields and vineyards, where it digs burrows, with about six to eight passages leading to a kettle-shaped chamber, which lies from four to six feet under the surface. It sleeps in the daytime and during the winter, but at night it goes out on its predatory excursions. Its food consists of insects, worms, snails, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs, young birds, and young hares; nor does it despise fruit, roots, and honey. The badger is very wary, and defends itself with great courage in its burrow. It is hunted chiefly for its fur; its flesh is rarely eaten. Paint brushes are made from its hair.

=Bear, Brown= (_Ursus arctos_), also called the common or European bear, has a shaggy light or dark brown fur. It is only about five feet long, and attains a weight of five hundred to six hundred pounds. Its home is in the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Although not so strong as the polar bear, it is not to be despised as an adversary. It is the king of the northern forests. When attacked it will place itself in an erect position, and try to tear its enemy with strokes of its paws. In the fables of animals it is represented as an awkward, foolish simpleton, who is always brought to shame and disgrace by the cunning of the fox. It can easily be tamed, and nearly everybody has seen its clown-like performances. Its habitation is in caverns or hollow trees. Its flesh is eaten, and its fur used like that of the polar bear.

=Bear, Polar= (_Ursus maritimus_).--Its fur is quite white. Its body attains eight feet in length, and weighs from fifteen hundred to sixteen hundred pounds. It inhabits the most northern parts of Europe, Asia and America. Its movements are equally quick on water and land; and it is a terrible animal of prey, attacking even man with the greatest fury. It pursues its predatory excursions on the numerous islands of the northern polar regions, and its chief food is fish and seals. Sometimes it will come into more southern latitudes, when it causes terrible havoc among the herds, and only with the greatest difficulty can this strong and fearless animal be killed. The polar bear has its home in the regions of everlasting snow, and can only obtain the necessaries of life by means of never-ceasing activity. It often uses a sheet of ice as a raft to transport itself to spots where it can obtain its prey. Its flesh is eaten; its fat is used for food and fuel, and its fur for carpets and rugs.

=Caracal= (_Felis_ or _Lynx caracal_), a species of lynx found in the warmer parts of Asia and throughout the whole of Africa. It is larger than a fox, about the same height, but much more powerful; of a uniform deep chestnut color, except two spots near each eye, the under parts of the body, and inner parts of the legs, which are white, and tufts of long black hair which terminate the ears. The young forms are spotted. The ears are about three inches in length. The caracal is powerful enough to tear a hound to pieces.

=Fox= (_Canis vulpes_).--The common fox, also called red fox, has thick, soft fur, which is, on its upper parts, a light rust red, and on its lower parts whitish. Its body attains a length of thirty inches. Its long tail is bushy, and ends in a white tip.

The fox is a common inhabitant of the whole of Europe, and of the northern parts of Asia, America, and Africa. It inhabits forests and woods, where it lives with its mate in caverns. In rapacity it is nearly equal to the wolf; but it can master its cupidity and wait for better opportunities if danger should threaten. No animal is the subject of so many fables. “Master Reynard” is always the cunning rogue, who outwits his adversaries. Only on behalf of their young will the male as well as the female fox risk their lives; intense love will then overcome every fear and precaution.

The fox hunts hares, fowls, geese, and ducks, and even fish; but it always destroys a great number of mice, whereby the injury done by it is partly equalized. Its cover has always several exits. If found to be rather deep, it was not constructed by the fox, but by a badger, which either left its burrow willingly or was driven out by the new tenant. The fox is hunted in different ways.

=Hedgehog= (_Erinaceus Europæus_).--The hedgehog is likewise an inhabitant of the underground world, for it lives in holes below the roots of trees, and under heaps of stones. Its body, with the exception of its belly, is covered with sharp spines, and its feet are short and strong. It begins to hunt for its prey in the darkness of the night. Should it be disturbed it will suddenly roll itself up into a ball, its sharp spines projecting in all directions. In this condition no dog can get at it; but, if water is poured on it, it will unroll again. Its spines are also of great service to it in other ways; for when rolled up it can let itself down the steepest precipices, and fall from walls ten feet high, without sustaining the smallest injury.