The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

Chapter I: Period of Authentic Discovery and Exploration, From 1492 to 1607 (4)

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_Committees._--There are three _Committees._--Each month the members
standing committees and eight commis- are divided by lots into “Bureaux.”
sions, two of which are appointed by These select all the special commit-
the Emperor, five wholly by the Bun- tees to which bills are referred,
desrath, and one in part by the Bun- except when the House chooses itself
desrath, being made up principally of to elect a committee.
members _ex-officio_.

Each commission consists of represen-
tatives of at least five States of
the Empire.

_Powers and Duties._--May originate _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence
bills to be sent to the Reichstag. with the Chamber of Deputies, makes
Its consent is indispensable to the the laws, and has in law-making the
validity of all legislation. Members same prerogatives as the Chamber,
may speak on the floor of the Reichs- except that bills relating to revenue
tag. Acting under the direction of originate with the Chamber. It is a
the Imperial Chancellor, it is the court of justice for trying the
supreme administrative board. It is President of the republic and the
in some cases the highest court of Ministers. It may originate, and, in
the Empire. Is the court of appeal concurrence with the Senate, pass
between two or more States of the resolutions and bills; but bills re-
Empire. lating to finance must be originated
by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power
to bring accusations against the
President of the republic and the
Ministers.

_REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet_, is _THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES_ is composed
composed (in 1917) of three hundred (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-
and ninety-seven members, and four Deputies, distributed among the
elected for five years by universal Departments and certain colonies in
suffrage. the proportion of one Deputy to
seventy thousand inhabitants. The
Deputies are chosen for a term of
four years by universal suffrage, the
Arrondissements serving as electoral
districts.

_Qualifications._--Must be at least _Qualifications._--Must be a citizen
twenty-five years of age, and have of France, and at least twenty-five
lived at least one year in one of the years of age.
German States.

_Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority
of members. Elects its own presiding of members. Chooses its own Presi-
officer, who is called the President. dent, Vice-President and other
officers.

_Remuneration._--3,000 marks ($750) _Remuneration._--15,000 francs
per session, with deduction of twenty ($3,000).
marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence;
they have free passes over German
railways during session.

_Powers and Duties._--Has power to _Powers and Duties._--May originate,
originate and, with the advice and and, in concurrence with the Senate,
consent of the Bundesrath, to enact pass resolutions and bills; but bills
the laws. It also exerts a control- relating to finance must be origi-
ling influence through its power to nated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has
give or withhold its sanction to power to bring accusations against
certain ordinances to whose validity the President of the republic and
the Constitution makes its concur- Ministers.
rence necessary, through its right to
inquire into the conduct of affairs;
and in many other ways not suscepti-
ble of enumeration.

_Committees._--There are no standing _Committees._--Each month the members
committees, but select committees are are divided by lot into eleven
occasionally appointed by election “Bureaux,” which select all the
from the seven “Sections” into which special committees to which bills are
the members are divided by lot for referred, except when the Chamber
committee work. chooses to appoint a committee di-
rectly.

=IV. Judicial Department.= =IV. Judicial Department.=

The laws of the Empire take prece- The judicial system is under direct
dence of the Federated States within control of the government. All Judges
the scope of the Constitution of the are nominated by the President of the
Empire; they are compulsory on all republic. They can be removed only by
Governments of the Empire. a decision of the Court of Cassation
constituted as the _Conseil
A uniform system of law courts exists Supérieur_ of the magistracy.
throughout the Empire, though, with
the exception of the Reichsgericht, THE COURT OF CASSATION.
all courts are directly subject to
the Government of the special State _The Court of Cassation_, which sits
in which they exercise jurisdiction, at Paris, is the highest court for all
and not to the Imperial Government. criminal cases tried by jury, so far
The appointment of the judges is also as regards matters of law.
a State and not an Imperial function.
The Empire enjoys uniform codes of _Courts of Appeal._--The highest
commercial and criminal law. courts are the twenty-six Courts of
Appeal, composed each of one presi-
IMPERIAL SUPREME COURT. dent and a variable number of mem-
bers, for all criminal cases which
_Reichsgericht_ (Imperial Supreme have been tried without a jury.
Court), to which there is a right of
appeal from all inferior courts, sits _Court of Assizes._--In all cases of
at Leipzig, and consists of one a _délit_ or a crime the preliminary
hundred judges, appointed by the inquiry is made in secrecy by an
Kaiser on the recommendation of the examining magistrate (_juge d’in-
Bundesrath. struction_), who may either dismiss
the case or send it for trial before
_The Oberlandesgerichte_ (Supreme a court where a public prosecutor
Court), which are the first courts of (procureur) endeavors to prove the
the second instance, have original charge. The Court of Assizes is
jurisdiction in serious offenses, and assisted by twelve jurors, who decide
are presided over by seven judges. by simple majority on the fact with
respect to offenses amounting to
_The Landgerichte_ (County Courts) crimes.
have a fairly extensive jurisdiction
in civil and criminal cases and in
divorce proceedings. There are five
judges in the criminal chamber of a
Landgericht, four votes being re-
quired to make a conviction valid.
Three judges from such a court pre-
side at intervals over jury courts
(Schwurgerichte), and juries do not,
therefore, form a permanent part of
the system.

Not the least important work of the
Landgerichte is to revise the deci-
sions of the Amtsgerichte, which are
the lowest courts of the first in-
stance, being controlled by single
judges, who are competent to hear
only petty civil and criminal cases.

_The Amtsgerichte_ (Police or Dis- _Justices of the Peace_ (_juges de
trict Courts) are the lowest courts, paix_) are the courts of lowest
each with a single judge competent to jurisdiction in France. They try
try petty civil and criminal cases, small civil cases and act also as
divorce cases, etc. judges of Police Courts, where all
petty offenses (_contraventions_) are
disposed of. The Correctional Courts
pronounce upon all graver offenses
(_délits_), including cases involving
imprisonment up to five years. They
have no jury, and consist of three
judges belonging to the civil tri-
bunals of first instance.

For commercial cases there are, in
two hundred and twenty-six towns,
Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of
Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns
are police courts.

=IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES=

=TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE=

=TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS=

[12] The _first_ Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later
developed into the Democratic party of today.

=TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY=

=======+=============+=====+===========================+==============
=Terms=| =Name= |=Mar-| =Wife’s Name= | =Children=
| |ried=| +------+-------
| | | |=Boys=|=Girls=
-------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------
1-2 |=Washington= |1759 |Martha (Dandridge) Custis | 0 | 0
| | |(1732-1802), widow with two| |
| | |children | |
3 |=Adams= |1764 |Abigail Smith (1744-1818) | 3 | 2
4-5 |=Jefferson= |1772 |Martha (Wayles) Skelton | 0 | 6
| | |(1748-1782), widow of | |
| | |Bathurst Skelton | |
6-7 |=Madison= |1794 |Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772- | 0 | 0
| | |1849), widow | |
8-9 |=Monroe= |1786 |Elisa Kortwright (1768- | 0 | 2
| | |1830) | |
10 |=Adams, J.Q.=|1797 |Louisa Catherine Johnson | 3 | 1
| | |(1775-1852) | |
11-12 |=Jackson= |1791 |Rachel (Donelson) Robards | 3 | 0
| | |(1767-1828), divorced wife | |
| | |of Captain Robards | |
13 |=Van Buren= |1807 |Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) | 4 | 0
14 |=Harrison= |1795 |Anna Symmes (1775-1864) | 6 | 4
|=Tyler= |1813 |(1) To Letitia Christian | 3 | 4
| | |(1790-1842) | |
| |1844 |(2) To Julia Gardiner | 4 | 2
| | |(1820-1889) | |
15 |=Polk= |1824 |Sarah Childress (1803-1891)| 0 | 0
16 |=Taylor= |1810 |Margaret Smith (1788-1852) | 1 | 3
|=Fillmore= |1826 |(1) Abigail Powers (1798- | 1 | 1
| | |1853) | |
| |1858 |(2) Caroline (Carmichael) | 0 | 0
| | |McIntosh (1813-1881), a | |
| | |widow | |
17 |=Pierce= |1834 |Jane Means Appleton (1806- | 3 | 0
| | |1863) | |
18 |=Buchanan= | ... |Unmarried | ... | ...
19-20 |=Lincoln= |1842 |Mary Todd (1818-1882) | 4 | 0
20 |=Johnson= |1827 |Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) | 3 | 2
21-22 |=Grant= |1848 |Julia Dent (1826-1902) | 3 | 1
23 |=Hayes= |1852 |Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) | 7 | 1
24 |=Garfield= |1858 |Lucretia Rudolph (1832- | 4 | 1
| | |----) | |
|=Arthur= |1859 |Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837- | 1 | 1
| | |1880) | |
25 |=Cleveland= |1886 |Frances Folsom (1864- | 2 | 3
| | |----) | |
26 |=Harrison= |1853 |(1) Caroline Scott (1832- | 1 | 1
| | |1892) | |
| |1896 |(2) Mary Scott (Lord) | 0 | 1
| | |Dimmick (1858- ----) | |
27 |=Cleveland= | ... |Frances Folsom (1864- | ... | ...
| | |----) | |
28-29 |=McKinley= |1871 |Ida Saxton (1844-1907) | 0 | 2
29-30 |=Roosevelt= |1883 |(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) | 0 | 1
| |1886 |(2) Edith Kermit Carow | 4 | 1
| | |(1861- ----) | |
31 |=Taft= |1886 |Helen Herron (1861- ----) | 2 | 1
32 |=Wilson= |1885 |(1) Helen Louise Axsen | 0 | 3
| | |(1860-1914) | |
| |1915 |(2) Edith Bolling Galt | ... | ...
| | |(1872- ----) | |
-------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------

=TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL=

=======+=============+=========+===============+=========+===============
=Terms=| =Name= | =Elected|=Residence When|=Age When| =Term of
| | Presi- | Elected= | Inaugu- | Office=
| | dent= | | rated= |
-------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------
1-2 |=Washington= | 1789 |Mt. Vernon, Va.| 57 |April 30, 1789-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1797
3 |=Adams= | 1796 |Quincy, Mass. | 62 |Mar. 4, 1797-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1801
4-5 |=Jefferson= | 1800 |Monticello, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1801-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1809
6-7 |=Madison= | 1808 |Montpelier, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1809-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1817
8-9 |=Monroe= | 1816 |Oakhill, Va. | 59 |Mar. 4, 1817-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1825
10 |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1824 |Quincy, Mass. | 58 |Mar. 4, 1825-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1829
11-12 |=Jackson= | 1828 |Hermitage, | 62 |Mar. 4, 1829-
| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1837
13 |=Van Buren= | 1836 |Kinderhook, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1837-
| | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1841
14 |=Harrison= | 1840 |North Bend, | 68 |Mar. 4, 1841-
| | |Ohio | |April 4, 1841
|=Tyler= | ... |Williamsburg, | 51 |April 6, 1841-
| | |Va. | |Mar. 4, 1845
15 |=Polk= | 1844 |Nashville, | 50 |Mar. 4, 1845-
| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1849
16 |=Taylor= | 1848 |Baton Rouge, | 65 |Mar. 4, 1849-
| | | La. | |July 10, 1850
|=Fillmore= | ... |Buffalo, N. Y. | 50 |July 10, 1850-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1853
17 |=Pierce= | 1852 |Concord, N. H. | 49 |Mar. 4, 1853-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1857
18 |=Buchanan= | 1856 |Wheatland, Pa. | 66 |Mar. 4, 1857-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1861
19-20 |=Lincoln= | 1860 |Springfield, | 52 |Mar. 4, 1861-
| | |Ill. | |April 15, 1865
20 |=Johnson= | ... |Greeneville, | 57 |April 15, 1865-
| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1869
21-22 |=Grant= | 1868 |Washington, | 47 |Mar. 4, 1869-
| | |D. C. | |Mar. 4, 1877
23 |=Hayes= | 1876 |Fremont, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1877-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1881
24 |=Garfield= | 1880 |Mentor, Ohio | 49 |Mar. 4, 1881-
| | | | |Sept. 19, 1881
|=Arthur= | ... |New York City | 51 |Sept. 20, 1881-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1885
25 |=Cleveland= | 1884 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 48 |Mar. 4, 1885-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1889
26 |=Harrison= | 1888 |Indianapolis, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1889-
| | |Ind. | |Mar. 4, 1893
27 |=Cleveland= | 1892 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 56 |Mar. 4, 1893-
| | | | |Mar. 4, 1897
28-29 |=McKinley= | 1896 |Canton, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1897-
| | | | |Sept. 14, 1901
29-30 |=Roosevelt= | 1904 |Oyster Bay, | 43 |Sept. 14, 1901-
| | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1909
31 |=Taft= | 1908 |Cincinnati, | 51 |Mar. 4, 1909-
| | |Ohio | |Mar. 4, 1913
32 |=Wilson= | 1912 |Princeton, | 56 |Mar. 4, 1913-
| | |N. J. | |...
-------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------

=TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS=

=============+========================================================
=Name= | =Career After Leaving the Presidency=
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------
=Washington= |Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief
|(1798) because of threatened war with France.
=Adams= |Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of
|1820.
=Jefferson= |Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted
|much time to the University of Virginia.
=Madison= |Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to
|University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitu-
|tional Convention, 1829.
=Monroe= |Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member
|of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830.
=Adams, J.Q.=|Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of
|Representatives; served from 1830 to his death.
=Jackson= |Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.;
|always took a deep interest in public affairs.
=Van Buren= |Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the
|presidency.
=Harrison= |Died in office.
=Tyler= |Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace
|convention held in Washington in 1861.
=Polk= |Died in office.
=Taylor= |...
=Fillmore= |Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent
|his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y.
=Pierce= |Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H.
=Buchanan= |Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing
|defense of his administration.
=Lincoln= |Died in office.
=Johnson= |Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United
|States Senator in 1875.
=Grant= |Made tour of the world and retired to private life in
|New York.
=Hayes= |Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of
|the National Prison association.
=Garfield= |Died in office.
=Arthur= |Died the year following his retirement.
=Cleveland= |Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of
|second term retired to Princeton, N. J.
=Harrison= |Professor of International law at Leland Stanford Uni-
|versity, California; afterward practiced law.
=McKinley= |Died in office.
=Roosevelt= |In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to
|Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian
|Institution; resumed literary work and politics.
=Taft= |Kent Professor of Law at Yale University.
=Wilson= |...
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+========================================================
=Name= | =Writings of the Presidents=
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------
=Washington= |_Maxims_; _Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence_.
=Adams= |_Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws_; _Defense of the Ameri-
|can Constitution_.
=Jefferson= |_A Summary View of the Rights of America_; _The Declara-
|tion of Independence_; _Act for Freedom of Religion_.
=Madison= |_Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Con-
|federation and Federal Congress_; _Essays_.
=Monroe= |_A View of the Conduct of the Executive_; _The People_;
|_The Sovereign_.
=Adams, J.Q.=|_Poems of Religion and Society_; _Lectures on Rhetoric
|and Oratory_; _Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;”_
|_Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality_
=Jackson= |...
=Van Buren= |_Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties
|in the United States_.
=Harrison= |_A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the
|Ohio_.
=Tyler= |...
=Polk= |...
=Taylor= |...
=Fillmore= |...
=Pierce= |...
=Buchanan= |_Résumé of My Administration_.
=Lincoln= |_Orations_.
=Johnson= |_Speeches_.
=Grant= |_Shiloh_; _Vicksburg_; _Chattanooga_; _The Wilderness_;
|_The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant_.
=Hayes= |...
=Garfield= |_Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory_;
|_Garfield’s Words_.
=Arthur= |...
=Cleveland= |_Writings and Speeches_.
=Harrison= |_Speeches_; _This Country of Ours_; _Views of an Ex-
|President_.
=McKinley= |_Speeches_.
=Roosevelt= |_The Naval War of 1812_; _Essays on Practical Politics_;
|_The Winning of the West_; _Hero Tales From American
|History_; _American Ideals_; _Life of Oliver Cromwell_;
|_African Game Trails_.
=Taft= |...
=Wilson= |_Congressional Government_; _The State_; _An Old Master,
|and Other Political Essays_; _Mere Literature and Other
|Essays_; _George Washington_; _A History of the American
|People_.
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+========================================================
=Name= |=Presidential Sobriquets=
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------
=Washington= |“Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.”
=Adams= |“Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.”
=Jefferson= |“Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.”
=Madison= |“Father of the Constitution.”
=Monroe= |“Last Cocked Hat.”
=Adams, J.Q.=|“Old Man Eloquent.”
=Jackson= |“Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.”
=Van Buren= |“Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.”
=Harrison= |“Tippecanoe.”
=Tyler= |“Young Hickory.”
=Polk= |Also “Young Hickory.”
=Taylor= |“Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.”
=Fillmore= |“The American Louis Philippe.”
=Pierce= |“Purse.”
=Buchanan= |“Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.”
=Lincoln= |“Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.”
=Johnson= |“Sir Veto.”
=Grant= |“Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.”
=Hayes= |“President de Facto.”
=Garfield= |“The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.”
=Arthur= |“Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.”
=Cleveland= |“Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.”
=Harrison= |“Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.”
=McKinley= |“Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.”
=Roosevelt= |“Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous
|President.”
=Taft= |“The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.”
=Wilson= |“The Scholar in Politics.”
-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=CANADA.=--What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000 square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census figures for 1911 were:

Area Popula-
sq. mi. tion
Prince Edward Island 2,184 93,728
Nova Scotia 21,428 492,338
New Brunswick 27,985 351,889
Quebec 351,873 2,002,712
Ontario 260,862 2,523,274
Manitoba 73,732 455,614
British Columbia 355,855 392,480
Alberta 255,285 374,663
Saskatchewan 251,700 492,432
Yukon (Territory) 207,076 8,512
Northwest Territories 1,921,685 17,196
--------- ---------
Total 3,729,665 7,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.

NEWFOUNDLAND.--The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles (population 3,949).

=Physical Features.=--Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes, Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska, is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of the World for elevations.)

=Lakes and Rivers.=--Canada is well watered, the country presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America and United States.)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence; and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

=Climate.=--The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

=Products and Industries.=--The chief industries of Canada are those of agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber, fish, and furs, with dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron, asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon (Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world--to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system, but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors, window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

=People.=--The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south, along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French settlers; they are called _habitans_; many of them speak an archaic French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch, French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch, Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or French.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION.--There is no state religion in Canada, and absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans, and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation are as follows:

=PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA=

=====+========+=============+=========+=============+======+=====+=======
Orga-|Colleges| Location | Control | President or| In- | Stu-|Volumes
nized| | | | Chairman of |struc-|dents|in
| | | | Faculty | tors | |Library
-----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------
1881|Alma |St. Thomas, |Methodist|Robt. I. | 21 | 200| 2,500
|College |Ont. | |Warner, D.D. | | |
1838|Arcadia |Wolfville, |Baptist |Geo. Barton | 24 | 250| 2,500
|Univer- |N.S. | |Cutten, D.D. | | |
|sity | | | | | |
1818|Dal- |Halifax, N.S.|Non-Sect.|A. Stanley | 86 | 417| 28,000
|housie | | |MacKenzie, | | |
| | | |B.A. | | |
1894|Havergal|Toronto, Ont.|... |N. W. Hoyles,| 65 | 350| 1,000
|Ladies’ | | |Kc. | | |
|College | | | | | |
1789|Kings |Windsor, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.W. | 13 | 91| ...
|Univer- | |Epis. |Powell. D.D. | | |
|sity | | | | | |
1844|Knox |Toronto, Ont.|Pres- |Rev. Alfred | 9 | 140| 22,000
|Theo. | |byt’n. |Gandier, D.D.| | |
|College | | | | | |
1907|Mac- |A. de Belle- |Non-Sect.|F.C. | 50 | 407| 9,000
|donald |vue, Q. | |Harrison, | | |
|College | | |D.Sc. | | |
1906|McGill |Vancouver, |Non-Sect.|Geo. E. | 24 | 340| 1,600
|Univ. |B.C. | |Robinson | | |
|Col. | | |(Act.) | | |
1821|McGill |Montreal, |Indepen. |Wm. Peterson,| 280 |2,104|140,000
|Univer- |Can. | |M.A. | | |
|sity | | | | | |
1887|McMaster|Toronto, Ont.|Baptist |A.L. | 30 | 300| 20,000
|Univer- | | |McCrimman, | | |
|sity | | |M.A. | | |
1873|Montreal|Montreal, |Prot. |E.I. Rexford,| 5 | 30| 7,000
|Diocesan|Can. |Epis. |M.A. | | |
|Theo. | | | | | |
1863|Mt. |Sackville, |Methodist|Byron C. | 21 | 250| 12,000
|Allison |N.B. | |Borden, D.D. | | |
|Univer- | | | | | |
|sity | | | | | |
1874|Ontario |Whitby, Ont. |Methodist|Rev. J.J. | 22 | 185| 7,000
|Ladies’ | | |Hare, M.A. | | |
|College | | | | | |
1867|Presby- |Montreal, |Pres- |John | 21 | 80| 20,000
|terian |Can. |byt’n. |Scringer, | | |
|College | | |D.D. | | |
1855|Provin- |Truro, N.S. |State |David Soloam,| 20 | 425| 4,000
|cial | | |LL.D. | | |
|Nor. | | | | | |
|College | | | | | |
1847|Queen’s |Kingston, |Non-Sect.|Very Rev. | 125 |1,610| 67,000
|Univer- |Ont. | |D.M. Gordon | | |
|sity | | | | | |
1888|Ridley |St. Cath’n’s.|Anglican |Rev. J.O. | 15 | 160| 2,500
|College |Ont. | |Miller, M.A. | | |
1899|St. |Toronto, Ont.|... |Rev. D.B. | 18 | 250| ...
|Andrew’s| | |Macdonald, | | |
|College | | |M.A. | | |
1851|Trinity |Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.C.S. | 24 | 180| 15,000
|College | |Epis. |Macklem | | |
1845|Univ. of|Lennoxville, |Prot. |Rev. R.A. | 9 | 60| 11,500
|Bishop’s|Que. |Epis. |Parrock | | |
|Col. | | | | | |
1912|Univ. of|Calgary, Alb.|Non-Sect.|F.H. Dougall | 11 | 268| ...
|Calgary | | |(Act.) | | |
1852|Univer- |Quebec |Non-Sect.|Mgr. Amedee | 70 | 474|100,000
|site | | |Gosselin, | | |
|Laval U.| | |M.A. | | |
1877|Univ. of|Winnipeg, |State |James A. | 43 | 881| 12,790
|Manitoba|Man. | |MacLean, | | |
| | | |Ph.D. | | |
1800|Univ. of|Fredericton, |State |Cecil C. | 18 | 165| 10,000
|New |N.B. | |Jones (Chan.)| | |
|Bruns- | | | | | |
|wick | | | | | |
1907|Univ. of|Saskatoon, |State |Walter C. | 41 | 381| ...
|Sas- |Sask. | |Murray, M.A. | | |
|katche- | | | | | |
|wan | | | | | |
1855|U. of |Antigonish, |Catholic |H.P. | 19 | 225| 22,000
|St. |N.S. | |MacPherson, | | |
|Fran. | | |D.D. | | |
|Xav. | | | | | |
|Col. | | | | | |
1841|Victoria|Toronto, Ont.|Methodist|Rev. R.P. | 28 | 610| 25,080
|Col. and| | |Bowles, M.A. | | |
|Univ. | | | | | |
1873|Wesleyan|Montreal, |Methodist|Rev. J. | 4 | 100| 5,000
|Theo. |Can. | |Smyth, B.A. | | |
|Col. | | | | | |
1877|Wycliffe|Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Thos. R. | 8 | 118| ...
|College | |Epis. |O’Meara, | | |
| | | |LL.D. | | |
-----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------

=Government.=--Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete autonomy.

=The Legislature.=--The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta, fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of the Executive.

=The Judicature.=--Justice is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench, Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

=Cities.=--The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St. Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401; Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619; London, Ont., 46,300.

=Ottawa= is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet). Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General--an old fashioned building, called Rideau Hall--is about a mile from the city. The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

=History.=--In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec, of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France. Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American provinces--except Newfoundland--took place in 1867-1871, and the prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911 saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the Dominion.

=MEXICO= (or _Méjico_; Span. pron. _Meh´hē-co_, from a native word), a federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however, have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary together.

=Surface.=--For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl (“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the descent is more gradual.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--From their rapid fall the rivers of such a mountainous region could never be of value for transport or communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest interior river--the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the Pacific--is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico, fully fifty miles in length.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Though Mexico lies just on the border of the torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast, where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the plateau.

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The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of AnswersChapter I: Period of Authentic Discovery and Exploration, From 1492 to 1607 (4)

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