Chapter II: English and American Literature -- Outline Charts of English and (13)

Modern cotton mills are of immense size. The bales are opened, the cotton cleaned, carded, and twisted into slivers, rovings, and finally into yarn. Raw cotton, cotton yarn and cotton fabrics are all important in trade. About half the crop of the United States is exported in bales to be manufactured in the mills of other countries.

England has an enormous foreign trade in cotton fabrics. The United States exports chiefly unbleached muslin, more of which goes to China than to any other country.

It is certain that cotton was in use in India three thousand years ago, and in Egypt more than two thousand years ago. It was well known to the ancient civilizations of Mexico, Peru, Central America and the West Indies. When the European voyagers, Columbus, Pizarro, and Cortez, visited for the first time these ancient civilizations, the manufacture of cotton was in a flourishing condition, and the quality and beauty of the cotton goods of a high order.

=Flax= (_Linum usitatissimum_) has been cultivated for centuries. Along the upright stalk, of eighteen to twenty inches high, small narrow leaves grow; the blossoms appear in July and August, and are light blue.

Flax is grown for fiber in Russia, Belgium, Italy, France, Holland, Ireland and Egypt. Little flax fiber is produced in the United States. Plants for fiber production are straight stemmed, while the varieties grown for seed have many branches. Flax seeds are produced in Russia, India, Argentina and the United States. Plants harvested for fiber are pulled up by the root in order to obtain the greatest possible length. The fiber is separated from the stalk of the plant by retting, a process of partial decay, breaking and scutching to remove the woody parts and hackling or combing. In the best grades of flax most of this work is done by hand.

Flax or linen fiber and linseed oil are the chief products of the plant. Tow is a by-product in making linen and flax yarns and fabrics.

Linseed oil is used in paints, varnishes, printer’s ink, oilcloth and linoleum. Linseed oil-cake is a valuable cattle food. Flax seeds find limited use in medicine.

Flax yarns are used in making rope, twine, bagging and coarse, unbleached fabrics. Linen yarns are made into products of the better grade, including fine linens, cambrics, laces, etc.

Linen is bleached by exposure to the sun and by treatment with a dilute solution of chloride of lime. Linen rags are the stock for the best qualities of paper.

The United States imports flax fiber mainly from Europe, as well as large quantities of linens, laces, etc. Some flax seeds are imported and large amounts of linseed oil-cake are sent to Europe.

=Guava= (_Psidium Guayava_), small trees of tropical America belonging to the Myrtle family. The fruits vary very much in size, shape and color, the most valued being the _white guava_, with pear-shaped, yellow or whitish fruits the size of a hen’s egg. The inferior _red guava_ which is more apple-shaped, is also used in preparing guava-jelly and guava-cheese, which preserves, owing to the perishable character of the fruit, are the only forms in which the fruit is imported. The tree has been naturalized in the East, and is commonly grown from Mexico to Peru at date of Spanish discovery. Since widely diffused in East and West India Islands, India, and China. Recently established in Florida and California.

=Hemp= (_Cannabis sativa_) is cultivated in many countries. It is about three feet in height, has finger-like leaves and the fruit has the form of a little nut. The home of the hemp is the East Indies. The stalks are dried in the sun, then steeped in water or upon wet (moist) meadows, and again exposed to the sun, when the woody parts are stripped off. The remaining fibers are manufactured into cables, ropes, sail-cloth, linen and paper.

Other hemps of different botanical origin and having quite different qualities are called by such names as manila hemp, sisal hemp, tampico hemp, Mauritius hemp, sunn hemp, bowstring hemp, etc. Strictly speaking, none of these is true hemp.

It is cultivated in Russia, the warm countries of Asia, the shores of the Mediterranean, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois and California. Russia produces more hemp fiber than all the rest of the world. Russia and Italy are the largest exporters.

As with other cordage fibers of this character, the long, combed fibers are called line and the short strands, tow. The commercial fiber is longer, coarser and less strong than flax. It can not be bleached perfectly white, although used in so-called coarse linens. Russian, Italian and Kentucky, as applied to hemp, denote the country of origin. Italian hemp is the finest, Kentucky the strongest.

Hemp oil is pressed from the seeds. It is used in paints, varnishes and soap. The oil-cake is a cattle food.

=Hop= (_Humulus lupulus_), sometimes grows wild in hedges and bushes, and is also frequently cultivated. Its stalk, which leans to the right, is eighteen to twenty-four feet high; its petiolate leaves are heart-shaped, with three to five lobes. The blossoms of its stamens form panicles; the female cones stand either singly in the axils of the leaves or in clusters. In these cones a yellow, bitter resin, the hop-powder or lupulin, is secreted, which yields the wort for beer, and is also used by chemists. Hops are cultivated in almost all parts of Europe, especially in England, Germany and Austria. In the United States, California, Oregon, Washington, New York and Wisconsin produce the largest crops.

Hops are added to the malt, liquor, or wort before fermentation and give a bitter flavor to malt liquors. Hops are not exported on a large enough scale to be an important item in commerce.

=Jute= is an East Indian plant whose fibers are strong, coarse, dark in color and sometimes twelve feet long. The fibers are largely employed in the manufacture of coarse bagging and sacking called gunny cloth. Gunny bags, in which pepper, ginger, sugar, cotton, rice, gums, etc., are shipped are made of it. Jute is also largely mixed with silk, as it has a gloss that can scarcely be distinguished from silk when woven with it. Attempts have been made to manufacture paper out of jute, but it is difficult to bleach it white, and only a coarse kind of brown paper is obtained.

=Licorice= (_Glycyrrhiza_) is a plant having long, pliant, sweet roots, and generally creeping rootstocks; pinnate leaves of many leaflets, and terminating in an odd one; and whitish, violet-colored flowers in spikes, racemes, or heads. The roots of licorice depend for the valuable properties on a substance called _Glycyrrhizine_, allied to sugar, yellow, transparent, uncrystallizable, soluble in both water and alcohol, and forming compounds both with acids and with bases. They are a well-known article of materia medica, and were used by the ancients as in modern times, being emollient, demulcent, very useful in catarrh and irritations of the mucous membrane. It is a native of the south of Europe and of many parts of Asia, as far as China. It is cultivated in many countries of Europe. The only American species grows in the plains of the Missouri.

=Ramie= is the bast fiber from a plant (_Boehmeria nivea_), commonly called China grass, or rhea, although fibers from other plants sometimes receive these names. It is usually strong and silky in appearance but difficult to clean and bleach.

It is used largely in China for weaving grass cloth, or Canton linen. The fiber is very difficult to “de-gum.” Many experiments have been made to find a satisfactory process. It is now used in making fabrics which resemble linen, laces, underwear, plushes, etc.

=Raphia,= a strong and useful fiber is obtained from the leaves of _Raphia Ruffia_, a palm cultivated in Madagascar, Mauritius, and neighboring islands, and of the Jupati palm, of Brazil. Madagascar raphia is the only important grade. A similar soft fiber used locally is produced in West Africa.

It is exported in considerable amounts from Madagascar and used by gardeners for tying plants; and also for making mats and basketry and in kindergartens.

=Rattan= is the stem of a species of climbing palm, natives of Asia, though some occur in Australia and in Africa. They have slender, reed-like but solid stems, seldom more than one or two inches in diameter, which grow to great lengths, clambering up among the branches of trees by means of the hooked prickles on the stalks of their leaves. The Indian and Malayan species are the source of the largely-imported rattan canes, used for the seats of chairs, and, in their native countries, for cables and a variety of other purposes.

=Sisal= (henequen or sisal hemp) is a hard, strong fiber from the leaves of a century plant (_Agave rigida_). It is cultivated in Yucatan and the Bahamas. Plantations of henequen, or maguey, have been established in Cuba, Hawaii, India, German and British East Africa and the Philippines. The home of the agave plants is Mexico and Central America and this part of the world produces most of these fibers.

On modern plantations machines have superseded the primitive hand methods of cleaning the fiber. Sisal is the chief product of Yucatan and its greatest export. The bulk of the production is used in the United States in making rope, twine and sacking. All of the other agave fibers are of less commercial importance than sisal or henequen.

The fiber of this species is especially valuable for ship cables, as it has been found to resist the action of sea-water better than most other materials.

=Tobacco Plant= (_Nicotiana tabacum_) is three to four feet in height; its leaves longish and lancet-shaped; its corolla pink; its fruit is a capsule, with many seeds. It is indigenous to America. Its leaves are either used for chewing, for smoking, or for snuff. It belongs to the poisonous plants, and contains no nutritious substance; its flavor and odor are disagreeable; nevertheless it furnishes much enjoyment to a large portion of mankind.

More tobacco is raised in the United States than in any other country and Kentucky raises more than any other state. India is the second largest producer. In Europe it is cultivated in Austria-Hungary, Russia, Germany, Netherlands, France, Belgium and Turkey. Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, Central and South America, China, Java, Sumatra, Philippines, Ceylon, Syria and Cape Colony are important producers.

Commercial grades are named from the locality of production as Havana, Sumatra, Mexican, Turkish, Virginia, etc. Certain grades are appropriate for use as cigar wrappers and others for fillers and are so named in the trade.

The United States exports over half of the tobacco raised, chiefly to England in the form of leaf tobacco. Few cigars are exported, but cigarettes and plug tobacco go to the East Indies, China and Australia.

_IX. POISONOUS PLANTS_

A number of plants contain so powerful a poison that we should take
especial care to avoid them. As the danger may be better avoided by
a general knowledge of these plants, a detailed description of them
is highly desirable. Many of them are also important medicinal
plants; and we should therefore by no means regret the existence of
these poisonous growths; for, if we apply them to their proper uses,
they serve to supply us with valuable medical aids.

=Darnell= (_Lolium temulentum_) is from eighteen to thirty-six inches high, and often found in cornfields. Its seeds contain a poison, which is narcotic and stupefying.

=Deadly Nightshade= (_Atropa Belladonna_) is common in the woods. The sappy stem is from three to six feet high; the egg-shaped leaves are covered with down; the brownish-red blossoms are arranged solitary in the axils of the leaves. The bright black berry is as large as a cherry. The nightshade is our most dangerous poisonous plant, and there is little hope for children who have eaten of its berries. From the fresh leaves atropine is prepared, which is a very powerful remedy in certain diseases of the eye.

=Black Hellebore= (_Helleborus niger_) blooms in December, January and February, and is a native of the mountainous woods of South Germany and Austria. The black root, which is white inside, is poisonous.

=Fool’s Parsley or Dog’s Parsley= (_Aethusa Cynapium_) is a common weed, growing in gardens, fields, and also on rubbish. It is easily mistaken for parsley. As it is very poisonous, it is well to remember that it can be easily recognized by three long pendent floral leaves on solitary umbels; the leaves are odorless, and only when crushed emit a faint, garlic-like scent.

=Hellebore= (_H. viridis_ and _H. fœtidus_) is also rightly described as a poisonous plant. One species is used for killing lice and vermin on cattle, horses, and other live stock.

=Henbane= (_Hyoscyamus niger_) grows on rubbish and waste ground. The entire plant is covered with sticky hairs, and has a repulsive odor. The stem is about thirteen inches high; the longish leaves are widely serrated; the flowers are pale yellow, streaked with dark-violet veins; the fruit is a capsule, which opens with a spring lid. The henbane is also a dangerous, poisonous plant, but its leaves and seeds supply an important medicine.

=Herb-Paris= (_Paris quadrifolia_) grows in hedges and shady woods. On its upright stem there are four oval leaves. It has never more than one blossom, consisting of greenish-yellow petals, eight stamens, and one pistil. Its fruit is a dark blue, round berry, which ripens in July and August. The latter when eaten causes diarrhœa, convulsions and other disturbances.

=Marsh Crow’s-Foot= (_Ranunculus sceleratus_) grows in ditches and marshes. The upright branching stem is from twelve to eighteen inches high; the leaves are divided in the shape of a hand, and the blossoms are small and yellow. The marsh crow’s-foot contains very poisonous juices, which cause blisters and ulcers to rise on the skin, and when taken inwardly nearly always cause death. The other species of crow’s-foot found in meadows, fields, woods, etc., are also more or less poisonous.

=Meadow Saffron= (_Colchicum autumnale_) is a bulbous plant, which blooms in dry meadows in September and October. The flesh-colored blossoms appear in the autumn, and leaves are thrown up in the following spring; between the leaves are large capsules, each containing numerous seeds. The seeds and the bulbous root contain poison, and the former are used in medicine.

=Mezereon= (_Daphne Mezereum_) grows solitary in the woods. It is a tough plant, from one to three feet high; the lanceolate leaves are arranged in tufts at the end of the shoots; the rose-colored blossoms appear before the leaves, and are generally situated in clusters of three on the branches; the fruit is a red stone-fruit. The whole plant is poisonous; a medicine is prepared from the bark.

=Purple Foxglove= (_Digitalis purpurea_) is a common wild flower, and grows to a height of fifty inches. The longish leaves are felt-like, and the large purple flowers stand in a cluster; the fruit is a capsule. The purple foxglove is poisonous, and its leaves are used in medicine.

=Spotted Hemlock= (_Conium maculatum_) grows upon rubbish, hedges, fences, and highways. The stem is three to six feet high, marked with blue and bluish-red spots; the leaves are tripennate; the white blossoms also stand in flat umbels. The leaves when bruised emit a very peculiar mouse-like odor which is very noticeable on hot summer days. The root, especially, is poisonous, and when eaten causes the most fatal consequences. Hemlock is a powerful sedative, and is used medicinally.

=Thorn Apple= (_Datura Stamonium_) originally came from the East Indies, but is now widely spread, growing on rubbish and in gardens. Never more than a few plants are found. Its forked stem is from eighteen inches to three feet high; the petiolate leaves are widely serrated; the large blossoms are a pure white; the fruit resembles the horse chestnut, and contains numerous black seeds. The thorn apple has a very repulsive odor, a disagreeable flavor, and is poisonous in all parts. The leaves and seeds are used in medicines.

=Water Hemlock= (_Cicuta virosa_), is very common in many localities on the banks of streams, ditches, and in flooded fields; in other localities it is rare. The thick, fleshy root is hollow, and divided in the interior into sections; the upright stem is hollow and smooth; the leaves are tripennate; the small white blossoms are arranged in umbels of ten or more rays. The poison is chiefly contained in the red root, which, when eaten by children, who mistake it for an edible root, nearly always causes death, unless medical aid is immediately at hand. The other parts of the plant also contain a poison, which is so strong that its odor alone will produce headache and giddiness.

=Wolf’s-Bane or Monk’s-Hood= (_Aconitum Lycotonum_) is a rare plant from eighteen inches to three feet high; the leaves are shaped like a hand, with three, five or seven lobes. The blossom is yellow. The wolf’s-bane contains a virulent poison, especially in the root and in the seeds. This description also applies to the _Aconitum Napellus_, which is grown as an ornamental plant in gardens; its tubers are used medicinally.

_X. SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE_

We usually think of plants as quite harmless things, almost wholly
at the mercy of the animal creation. This, however, is only one side
of the story, for quite a number of plants have a very cunning plan
whereby they entrap flies and other insects. The ingenuity with
which these plants lure their victims on to death is simply amazing.
Everything is done to tempt the creature to visit the death traps of
the plants, and, on the other hand, no means are spared to make an
escape impossible.

THE MOST CRUEL PLANT IN THE WORLD

One of the most singular instances of this is to be seen in a little plant which is only found growing in the bogs of the Carolinas. This has been rather cynically called the Venus Fly Trap (_Dionæa muscipula_), a fanciful name which hides its cruel practices. Few plants have adopted a more certain plan than the Dionæa. Every leaf which the plant produces is the most perfect device for the securing of prey that could be imagined.

The mechanical construction of this remarkable vegetable trap is somewhat on the following lines. The leaf is borne at the end of a curiously broad stalk, and is divided into two lobes; these are joined together by a hinge-like arrangement. The outside borders of the lobes are fringed with from a dozen to twenty long teeth. When fully expanded the leaf lies back on the moss amid which the plant grows.

If we examine the inside surface of the lobes we shall see that these are in the middle colored a rosy red. Just at this point will be discovered three hairs arranged in triangular fashion.

It is interesting to consider the actual manner in which the plant carries out its fly-catching.

As is well known, bright colors have a great attraction for insects. In this case it is apparently the red areas on the lobes of the leaves which possess such an attraction for insects of all kinds. Possibly they secrete a sweet substance, but this is not definitely known. All goes on well as long as the creatures avoid doing one thing; unhappily, this they are almost certain to do sooner or later. Nothing happens unless the insect brushes up against one of the hairs previously mentioned as being on the surface of the lobes. The succeeding happenings are disastrous for the fly.

With really astonishing rapidity the sides of the leaf snap together so that the spines on the borders of the lobes meet. Thus, in a very brief time a most perfect little cage is devised from which any sort of escape is absolutely impossible. During the next half hour the sides draw in still closer, so that the spines overlap. At this stage the leaf pours out a copious discharge of digestive fluid, which enables the plant to make use of the nutritious element in the fly.

The light streaming through the transparent spaces induces the prisoner to waste its strength in a vain effort to escape through them.]

After an interval of several days the leaf of the Dionæa opens and allows the hard carcass of the fly to roll away. The plant is then ready for another meal, and unable to realize the fate which is in store for it, another fly falls a victim. Quite often the Venus Fly Trap is able to capture large insects.

THE STRANGE HABITS OF THE NEPENTHES

Scattered over the tropics of the old world there is a remarkable group of plants known as Nepenthes. Many of these are of a climbing habit, rooting in bark crevices where a little moist soil may have collected. To augment their food supply they have produced pitchers, which in some species are of great size. Indeed, in one kind of receptacles will hold as much as two quarts of water. In all cases these pitchers have a thick, corrugated rim, and it is this which plays a big part both in the luring and the capturing of the insects. On this rim, as well as on the lid of the pitcher, there are honey secreting glands, and these, of course, make the strongest appeal to hungry insects.

Absorbed in the delights of the feast, the insect wanders with fatal ease down the fluted rim. Once below the inside edge of this, escape is almost impossible, for the border is adorned with sharp, teeth-like processes, all pointing downward to the pit of destruction. Moreover, the inside walls of the pitcher are specially smoothed with a wax-like secretion, which makes climbing up a very difficult feat. Even insects with wings seem to find a great difficulty in making good their escape.

The pitchers of the Nepenthes are usually about half filled with fluid; this is not entirely collected rain or dew, but is largely formed by a definite secretion of the plant. Into this fluid the exhausted insect tumbles sooner or later, there to end miserably among a mass of drowning victims. It has been definitely proved that this fluid is an acid secretion--not unlike the digestive juices of an animal--which enables the plant to extract the nutriment it needs from the bodies of its victims.

THE NEPENTHES CATCH EVEN MICE AND BIRDS

It is in connection with the fluid contained in the pitchers of the Nepenthes that these plants catch much larger prey than insects. In the tropics it is not always an easy matter for birds and other small animals to secure a drink readily. The half-filled pitchers entice many a small creature to creep over the fluted rim in order to secure a draught of the fluid, which is not unpleasant to the taste. Now and again the venturesome visitor loses his hold and tumbles into the pitcher. Even in the case of mice and small birds the pitcher proves a veritable death-trap. The slippery sides are almost insurmountable, while the sharp hooks round the rim still further check an escape. Sooner or later the victim falls back into the fluid and is drowned. Strange as it may appear, after such a capture the plant grows vigorously, for the decaying body of its victim is rich in just the food material of which it stands in need.

THE DEATH PITCHER OF THE SARRACENIAS

A very singular group of plants, the Sarracenias, are quite common in the bogs of North America. These are of an elegant shape, and may be as much as one foot or two feet in height. Nearly always they are highly colored, and altogether so attractive do they appear that insects of all kinds simply crowd to them. On arrival at the lip of the pitcher, the insects find a feast of honey spread out for their delectation. With almost devilish ingenuity this becomes sweeter and more plentiful the farther down into the pitcher one traverses. At a certain point, however, the nectar ceases, and the insect thinks that he will retrace his steps. But although it has been easy enough to go down, it is almost impossible to get back, for the surface of the inside of the pitcher is thickly covered with sharp bristles, all pointing downward.

Some flying insects may escape, but even these do not find it easy, as witness the fact that the plant often catches a large number of winged creatures. In the lower part of the Sarracenia pitcher a fluid is secreted, and it is into this that the creatures ultimately fall, and, of course, perish. How successful are the Sarracenias in their insect-catching may be gathered from the fact that pitchers have been discovered well nigh full of flies and other small creatures.

A PLANT WITH PRISON WINDOWS

The California Darlingtonia seems to have been specially devised for the securing of winged creatures. The plant is most singular in appearance, and the upper part of the pitchers bear a remarkable resemblance to the head of a snake. Part of the hood and also the two protruding leaves are gaily colored in crimson. It should also be noted that the upper portion of the hood is adorned with transparent patches, like so many little windows. Now, the only opening into the pitcher of the Darlingtonia is quite a small hole on the under side of the hood. As in the case of the other pitcher plants, the orifice of this hole is freely supplied with honey, and this extends well into the interior of the receptacle.

Owing to the attraction of the little windows, which have been already mentioned, the flies do not attempt to get out of the hole to the extent which might be supposed. The light streaming through the transparent spaces seems to convince the insects that in that direction lies the path to freedom. At all times it is possible to see perhaps a dozen flies bobbing against the windows in a vain endeavor to escape. Finally, wearied to death by their hopeless endeavors to escape, the insects fall down into the lower part of the pitcher and become suffocated by the fluid it contains.

AN AUSTRALIAN PLANT WITH TWO KINDS OF LEAVES

A curious little Australian plant which has adopted a very similar plan of fly catching to that to be seen in the Nepenthes is the Cephalotus. One singular feature about this Australian pitcher plant is that it produces quite ordinary leaves in addition to the highly specialized fly-catching ones.

PLANTS THAT KILL EVEN THE POWERFUL LION

The Martynias of South America produce fruits with hooks sometimes five or six inches in length, which get imbedded into the flesh of animals. The African Grapple-plants (_Harpagophyton procumbens_) are even worse in the amount of suffering which they cause; thousands of antelopes, goats, and other creatures are lamed by them every season. The seed vessel of this plant is provided with a large number of curved hooks by which it attaches itself to the coats or hoofs of animals and is thus transported from place to place. It has been known to choke and cause the death of lions.

HOW PLANTS TRAVEL

Many plants provide their seeds with an apparatus which forms a singularly effective flying machine. Some of these are among the most beautiful and ingenious contrivances in the plant world.

NATURE’S AVIATORS AND SEED-SOWERS

By far the commonest method of ensuring a wide distribution of a seed is that in which the object is attached to some light, feathery substance which prevents a speedy falling. Of this there is no better instance than the common dandelion, which at seed time produces the handsome “clock” so prized by the children.

Here each seed is attached to a feathery process which plays the part of a parachute. On a dry day, when the dandelion heads are parting with their fruits, we may see how well the scheme works. Each puff of wind releases a few of the seeds, and these, unlike the ordinary parachute with a load, are so light that they rise upwards on the air currents.

Curiously enough, the fruits seem to travel farther when the breezes are light, and a very rough wind blows them back to earth, where they may catch in the grass or become damaged. Thus, like the airman, the dandelion seed stands the best chance of a safe journey when the weather is not too boisterous.

A very similar arrangement is to be seen in the case of the goat’s-beard fruit and that of the coltsfoot, which, by reason of its flying device, secures a very wide distribution.

THE WILLOW ALSO PRODUCES FLYING SEEDS

After flowering the Willow Herb develops long, pod-like processes. During damp and stormy weather these pods remain tightly closed. On a day when the air is dry and the breezes are light, the sides of the case split open and reveal a prodigious number of perfect flying machines. The seed itself weighs a mere trifle, and to this is attached a beautiful arrangement of feathery hairs. The whole thing is so well adapted for an aërial voyage that it mounts rapidly upward on the faintest puff of air. It should be here explained that by experiment it has been shown that the air currents tend to move upward. So light are some of these flying fruits that they often rise to an immense height. It is not an uncommon thing for them to be found on mountains thousands of feet above sea-level.

Of course, many foreign seeds have remarkable flying appendages. That of the South African Stapelia has a vast mass of fluffy hairs which will support it on quite a long aërial voyage. In the case of the cotton plant man has turned to good account the hairs by which the seed flies.

SEEDS OF THE SYCAMORE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLYING MACHINE

In a large number of cases the conveyance of the seeds to a distant point is accomplished by the adoption of the screw-propeller principle. An excellent example of this is to be seen in the fruits of the sycamore. Here the actual seed is large and heavy, but it is attached to a wing-like expansion. When the fruit falls from the tree the wing revolves with great rapidity, very much on the lines of a propeller blade. This has the effect of controlling the rate of fall, so that the whole contrivance is carried to some distance before the seed is actually brought to earth.

PLANT TRAVELERS ON LAND

Some kinds of touring plants send out long trailing stems to search for fresh rooting places. A little Alpine saxifrage is curious in this respect, for the plant will traverse over many feet of barren rock to reach a suitable position. Directly the shoot touches the soil, a new plant is formed, and as this grows up, the connection between it and the parent is severed. A kind of lily has an even more singular way of traveling about. Here, after the plant has flowered, buds arise on the stems which bore the blossoms. Eventually they take root in fresh positions. This plant if left alone would rapidly cover many yards with its offspring, and this without setting a single seed.

A strange group of plants are those which actually break themselves in pieces in order to pursue their journeys abroad. A plant belonging to the Houseleek order (_Sempervivum soboliferum_) is remarkable in this respect. The species naturally finds its home in the crevices of rocks, and at a certain stage in its development numerous little ball-like offshoots are produced. In the early days these are kept at home by the stems by means of which they are attached to the parent plant. Eventually these attachments shrivel up and the offshoots go rolling away over the rocks often much helped in their journey by the wind. A considerable distance may be traversed before a little ball finds a resting-place in some niche.

HOW THE PLANTS DEFEND THEMSELVES

It is well-known to every intelligent observer that plants are menaced by a host of enemies. Though the plant cannot take up the aggressive to any extent, the weapons which it employs in its own defense are of an exceedingly efficient nature. In their way they are quite as effective as anything that animals employ in their battle for existence.

Among the commonest defenses of the plant are spines, thorns and prickles. In the sloe (_Prunus spinosa_), for example, the spines are modified branches; in gorse (_Ulex Europæus_) they are branches and leaves; and in cacti the green parts are thickened stems and the spines reduced leaves; while in holly (_Ilex aquifolium_) the prickly leaves answer the purpose of spines. The stinging hairs of the nettle which exude an irritating acid when touched are a familiar example of protection against vegetarian animals.

The way in which seeds are protected by spines is well illustrated in the case of the Sweet Chestnut. Here it would be a very knowing animal that could open one of the cases before they split naturally with the ripening of the seed.

HOW THE CACTUS DEFENDS ITS LIFE

There are few plants so well armed as the Cactus, the evident design of which is to conserve its moisture. This is accomplished in several ways. Of course, the very shapes of the plants are all in their favor. Being either round, globular, or cylindrical, they offer a limited surface to the dry air inconceivably less than a plant of the same size bearing a quantity of leaves. The thick skins, too, play a big part in keeping in the moisture, and many kinds of cacti, such as that known as Old Man’s Beard, are covered with dense masses of hair.

Many of these succulent desert plants grow to a great size. Thus the Giant Cactus sends up a tall column, often with only a very few branches, which may be eighty or even one hundred feet in height.

Curiously enough, some cacti produce the most beautiful flowers, blossoms without rival in the whole world. The various kinds bear flowers of every conceivable shade except blue, and the blooms are often of an immense size. It is not unusual for the blossoms to measure eighteen inches, or even two feet, across.

Living as they do in arid regions, cacti are peculiarly liable to be attacked by thirsty animals. Now, a common mode of defense is the covering of the plant with sharp spines. These spines are so arranged that they completely shield the juicy stem from any possibility of attack, it is said that on occasion Mexican ponies will try to knock a cactus to pieces with their heels when they are thirsty. More often than not the animals suffer cruelly for their temerity by being severely pricked.

In much the same way the Aloes and Agaves are protected, so that a hedge of these plants when placed round a field, is better than the most perfect barbed wire fence.

THE AMERICAN AGAVE, OR “CENTURY PLANT”

This plant is remarkable for its beauty, and grows to a height of twenty to thirty-five feet. It was long popularly supposed to bloom only once in a century; hence the name. Though this is a mistaken idea, the vegetative growth of the plant is many years. The plant produces flowering stems, sometimes several feet in height, ultimately terminating in a large panicle of flowers and dying of the effort. A single plant may produce five thousand flowers, so that the ground beneath is wet with the honey distilled by them. The fiber of the leaves was used by the ancient Mexicans for paper parchment, and is now largely exported for that purpose and for cordage.

THE CURIOUS MISTLETOE, A ROBBER PLANT OR PARASITE

The mistletoe is one of the most interesting of the parasite plants. It grows on various trees, and is celebrated on account of the religious purposes to which it was consecrated by the ancient Celtic nations of Europe. It is a small shrub, with oblong, somewhat leathery leaves, and small yellowish-green flowers, the whole forming a pendent bush, covered in winter with small white berries, which contain a glutinous substance. It is common enough on certain species of trees, such as apple and pear trees, hawthorn, maple, lime, and other similar trees, but is very seldom found on the oak. Its roots penetrate into the substance of the tree on which it grows, and though it may live for forty years, it finally kills the branch supporting it.

In days of old the mistletoe was looked upon with awe as a mysterious and wonderful plant. The ancient Druids held it sacred, and cut it down with a golden sickle with all sorts of strange, mystic rites. It was the symbol of peace and friendship; and that is why we hang it up at Christmas time, and when two people meet under its green leaves, they are expected to “kiss and be friends.”

A PLANT THAT GROWS IN SNOW

Strangest of all the plants is the Soldanellas, a small species which exists on the lower slopes of the Alps. When the flower stems are in their most active state of growth they release a considerable amount of heat. In this way they will bore a course up through a thick coating of ice and snow to the light and air above, when by some means the plant is aware that the spring has arrived. There seems to be something more wonderful in this than can be explained by mere mechanical causes. Indeed, the sympathy of the plant with its surroundings is surely one of those mysteries which are as inscrutable as life itself.

THE PRIMARY USE OF LIQUID RUBBER TO PLANTS

The grubs of many beetles live in wood, upon which they feed. This probably gives a clue to the primary use of the important commercial substances india-rubber and guttapercha, which are the dried sticky juices of various shrubs and trees growing in hot climates. Beetles of the wood-boring kind, which seek to pierce and lay eggs in such plants, are liable to be snarled and killed by the viscid fluids which ooze out.

Arums, and various other plants, ward off the attacks of snails and slugs in a rather curious way The outer parts of their stems and leafstalks contain bundles of excessively sharp crystals (_raphides_), composed of oxalate of lime. These pierce the soft mouths of snails and slugs like so many needles, conveying a lesson which usually needs no repetition.

=STRANGE LIFE HABITS OF UNUSUAL PLANTS=

These plants are little more than succulent stems covered with a thick skin which retains the moisture of the juicy shoot.]

The Century Plant is a native of Mexico, and is remarkable for the long intervals between the blooming periods--once erroneously thought to be 100 years.]

In defiance of the weather a few plants elect to come into bloom right in the middle of winter. The most striking of these is the Christmas Rose, or Hellebore. The flowers of this plant are protected by the encircling sepals, and are fully able to hold their own until the approach of a more favorable season.]

=SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY=

=Completely Classified, Illustrated and Exemplified=

ROOTS.

=Kinds.=--(1.) PRIMARY, growing from root-end of embryo.

(a.) SIMPLE.--_Conical_, ; _napiform_, ; _fusiform_, .

(b.) MULTIPLE.--_Moniliform_, necklace-like. _Fasciculated_, tufted, thick and fleshy. _Tubercular_, having small tubers. _Fibrous_, threadlike.

(2.) SECONDARY, growing from stems.

_Underground_, starting from stem below ground. _Aerial_, starting from stem above ground.

STEM.

=Parts.=-- _n_, _Node_, part to which the leaf is fastened.

_i_, _Internode_, portion between nodes.

_a_, _Axil_, the angle between leaf and stem, upper side.

=Class.=--_Exogenous_, outside-growing (Maple, Elm).

_Endogenous_, inside-growing (Corn-stalk, Timothy).

=Situation.=--(1.) _Above ground_, usually leaf-bearing.

(2.) _Under ground_, scale-bearing.

Stems above Ground.

=Character.=--_Herbaceous_, soft, not woody (Four-o’clock).

_Suffrutescent_, slightly shrubby (Toad-flax).

_Suffruticous_, shrubby at base (Trailing Arbutus).

_Fruticous_, shrubby (Currant-bushes).

_Arborescent_, tree-like (Flowering Dogwood).

_Arboreous_, tree (Elm).

=Direction of Growth.=--_Repent_, prostrate and rooting from the under surface (Partridge-berry).

_Procumbent_, prostrate, but not rooting (Purslane).

_Decumbent_, prostrate, except at the extremity (Poor Man’s Weather-glass).

_Assurgent_, ascending obliquely.

_Erect_, upright (Indian Corn).

_Scandent_, climbing with tendrils or rootlets (Grape, English Ivy).

_Voluble_, twining (Morning-glory).

_Declinate_, declined or bent downwards (Blackberry).

_Diffuse_, loosely-spreading (Red Currant).

=Forms of Branches.=--_Sucker_, a branch of subterranean origin that finally rises out of the ground. The Raspberry multiplies in this way.

_Offset_, a short, prostrate-rooting branch with a tuft of leaves at the end (Houseleek).

_Runner_, a long, prostrate-rooting branch with tuft of leaves (Strawberry).

_Stolon_, a branch that curves downward and takes root. The Currant multiplies in this way.

_Tendril_, a thread-like coiling branch used for climbing.

_Spine or Thorn_, a hard, sharp-pointed branch.

Stems under Ground.

=Kinds.=--_Rhizoma or Rootstock_, a perennial, horizontal stem, partially or wholly subterranean (Calamus).

_Tuber_, an enlarged stem with eyes (White-potato).

_Bulb_, a bud, usually subterranean with fleshy scales (Onion, Lily).

_Corm_, a solid bulb (Indian Turnip).

LEAVES.

=Parts.=-- _b_, _Blade_, the expanded portion.

_p_, _Petiole_, the stem.

_s_, _Stipules_, leaf-like appendages at base of petiole.

=Kinds.=--(1.) SIMPLE, having but one blade.

_Sessile_, without petiole.

_Petiolate_, with petiole.

_Stipulate_, with stipules.

_Cirrhous_, with tendril.

(2.) COMPOUND, having more than one blade.

(a.) _Pinnate_, with leaflets arranged along a common petiole.

_Abruptly pinnate_, with even number of leaflets.

_Odd-pinnate_, having an odd leaflet.

_Unipinnate_, divided but once.

_Bipinnate_, divided twice.

_Tripinnate_, divided three times.

(b.) _Palmate_, leaflets diverging from one point.

_Unipalmate_, divided but once.

_Bipalmate_, divided twice.

_Tripalmate_, divided three times.

=Framework.=--_Midrib_, the central vein.

_Ribs_, , strong veins branching from near the base of midrib.

_Veins_, the branching framework.

_Veinlets_, small veins.

=Venation.=--_Parallel_, with simple veins running parallel from base to apex.

_Feather_, with lateral veins branching at regular intervals from midrib.

_Radiate_, with strong veins branching from apex of petiole.

_Reticulate_, with veins and veinlets that unite and separate in the form of network.

=Form.=--(a.) BROADEST AT THE MIDDLE.--_Peliate_, ; _orbicular_, , _oval_, ; _elliptical_, ; _oblong_, ; _linear_, ; _acerōse_, (Pine).

(b.) BROADEST AT BASE.--_Deltoid_, ; _ovate_ ; _lanceolate_, ; _subulate_, ; _cordate_, ; _reniform_, ; _hastate_, ; _sagittate_, .

(c.) BROADEST AT THE APEX.--_Obovate_, ; _oblanceolate_, ; _spatulate_ ; _cuneate_ ; _obcordate_, ; _lyrate_, ; _runcinate_, .

=Bases.=--_Auriculate_, ; _oblique_, ; _tapering_, ; _abrupt_, ; _clasping_, ; _perfoliate_, ; _connate_, ; _decurrent_, .

=Apexes.=--_Obcordate_, ; _emarginate_, ; _retuse_, ; _truncate_, ; _obtuse_, ; _acute_ ; _acuminate_, ; _mucronate_, ; _cuspidate_, ; _aristate_, .

=Margins.=--_Entire_, ; _repand_, ; _sinuate_, ; _crenate_, ; _dentate_, ; _serrate_, ; _incised_, ; _laciniate_, ; _palmately-lobed_, ; _palmately-cleft_, ; _palmately-parted_, ; _palmately-divided_, ; _pinnately-lobed_, ; _pinnately-cleft_, ; _pinnately-parted_, ; _pinnately-divided_, .

=Surface.=--(a.) WITHOUT HAIRS.--_Glabrous_, smooth.

(b.) SOFT HAIRS.--_Pílous_, few, short; _hirsute_, few, long; _pubéscent_, dense, short; _villous_, dense, long; _seríceous_, silky; _lanūginous_, woolly; _toméntous_, matted like felt; _flóccous_, fleecy tufts.

(c.) STIFF HAIRS.--_Scābrous_, minute, hard points; _hispid_, few, short points; _sētous_, bristly; _spinous_, having spines.

=Color.=--_Glaucous_, covered with whitish powder.

_Canéscent_, grayish-white with fine pubescence.

_Incānous_, hoary-white.

_Punctate_, having transparent dots.

_Hyaline_, nearly transparent.

=Texture.=--_Succulent_, fleshy; _coriaceous_, leather-like; _scarious_, dry; _rúgous_, wrinkled.

=Phyllotaxis=, arrangement on the stem.--_Alternate_, ; _opposite_, ; _whorled_ (verticillate); _radical_, near the ground; _cauline_, on the stem; _rosulate_, clustered; _fascículate_, in bundles.

=Vernation=, arrangement in the bud.

_Induplicate_, folded crosswise (Tulip-tree).

_Conduplicate_, folded along midrib (Oak).

_Plicate_, folded like a fan (Red-currant).

_Circinate_, rolled lengthwise (Fern).

_Convolute_, rolled edgewise (Cherry).

_Involute_, both edges rolled inward (Apple).

_Revolute_, both edges rolled outward (Willow).

_Equitant_, astraddle (Iris).

_Obvolute_, half equitant (Jerusalem Sage).

_Triquētrous_ triangular equitant (Sedges).

=Duration.=--_Fugacious_, falling very early.

_Deciduous,_ falling at the close of the season.

_Persistent_, remaining through the winter.

INFLORESCENCE.

=Parts.=--_Flower_, the blossom.

_Peduncle_, the stem of a solitary flower or the main stem of a flower-cluster.

_Scape_, a peduncle that grows from the ground.

_Pedicel_, , p, the stem of each flower of a flower-cluster. _Bracts_, b, small floral leaves.

_Involucre_, a cluster of bracts.

=Kinds.=--(1.) SOLITARY, single, alone.

_Terminal_, at the summit of the stem.

_Axillary_, in the axils of the leaves.

(2.) CLUSTERED, several flowers collected in a bunch.

(a.) INDEFINITE OR INDETERMINATE, flowering from axillary buds. Inflorescence centripetal.

{_Racēme_, flowers arranged along the
{axis; pedicels about equal in length (Currant).
{
{_Córymb_, same as raceme, except that the
{lower pedicels are elongated, making the top flat
FLOWERS {(Hawthorn).
PEDICELLATE {
{_Umbel_. same as corymb, except that the
{pedicels branch from about the same point (Milkweed).
{
{_Panicle_, compound raceme (Blue-grass).
{
{_Thyrsus_, a compact panicle (Lilac).

{_Spike_, same as raceme with flowers
{sessile (Mullein).
{
{_Spādix_, a fleshy spike, generally
{{enveloped by a large bract called a _Spāthe_,
FLOWERS { (Calla Lily).
SESSILE {
{_Ȧment_ or _Catkin_, a slender pendent
{spike, with scaly bracts (Birch).
{
{_Head_ or _Capitulum_, a shortened spike,
{reduced to a globular form (Clover).

(b.) DEFINITE or DETERMINATE, flowers all terminal. Inflorescence centrifugal.

_Cyme_, flat-topped or rounded inflorescence (Elder).

_Fascicle_, a compact cyme (Sweet-William).

_Glomerule_, a cyme condensed into a head (Mint).

_Verticillaster_, two opposite glomerules joined (Motherwort).

_Scorpioid_, a one-sided and coiled cyme (Forget-me-not).

FLOWER.

=Parts.=--_Receptacle_, the part upon which the several organs of the flower are inserted.

_Calyx_, the exterior floral envelope.

_Corolla_, the interior floral envelope. The calyx and corolla constitute the _protecting organs_, sometimes called _perianth_.

_Stamens_, the fertilizing organs.

_Pistils_, the seed-bearing organs. The stamens and pistils constitute the _essential organs_.

=Kinds.=--_Symmetrical_, same number in each set of organs; _unsymmetrical_, different number.

_Complete_, all the sets present; incomplete, some sets wanting.

_Regular_ sepals and petals uniform; _irregular_, sepals or petals unlike.

_Perfect_, stamens and pistils both present; _imperfect_, one set absent.

_Staminate_, with stamens only; _pistillate_, with pistils only; _neutral_, with neither.

_Monœcious_, staminate and pistillate on same plant; _diœcious_, on different plants.

_Dichlamydeous_, having calyx and corolla; _monochlamydecous_, having calyx only; _achlamydecous_, having neither.

_Di_, _trí_, _tetrá_, _pentá-merous_, two, three, four, or five parts in each set.

_Sessile_, without peduncle; _pedunculate_, with peduncle.

DEVIATIONS FROM THE NORMAL OR PATTERN FLOWER ARISE FROM

_Augmentation_, increase of floral circles (Water Lily).

_Cherisis_, increase of organs by division. The Bleeding-heart shows the _collateral chorisis_ of stamens, and the Catchfly shows the _transverse chorisis_ of corolla.

_Anteposition_, parts opposite instead of alternate (Grape).

_Cohesion_, union of parts of the same set (corolla of Morning-glory).

_Adnation_, union of different sets. In the Cherry the stamens and corolla are inserted upon the calyx.

_Irregularity_, parts of the same set unequally developed (Violet, Pea).

_Suppression_, non-development of some parts. In the mints some of the stamens are suppressed or wanting.

CALYX.

=Parts.=--_Sepals_, the divisions of the calyx.

_Tube_, the united portion of a gamosepalous calyx.

_Teeth_ or _lobes_, the distinct or divided portions of a gamosepalous calyx.

_Throat_, the orifice or summit of the tube.

_Pappus_, in Compositæ, the calyx border consisting of scales, teeth, bristles, or slender hairs.

=Cohesion.=--_Gamosepalous_ or _Monosepalous_, sepals partially or wholly grown together.

_Truncate_, without lobes.

_Toothed_, lobes small.

_Lobed_, parted about one fourth.

_Cleft_, parted about one half.

_Parted_, separated nearly to the base.

_Polysepalous_, separated to the base.

=Adnation.=--_Inferior_, calyx free from ovary.

_Half-inferior_, calyx adherent to the ovary half-way.

_Superior_, calyx adherent to the ovary.

=Form.=--See under COROLLA.

=Æstivation.=--See under COROLLA.

COROLLA.

=Parts.=--_Petals_, the divisions of the Corolla.

_Lamina_, the expanded portion of the petal.

_Claw_, , the stem portion of the petal.

_Spur_, ; _s_, the hollow portion of certain corollas.

_Crown_, , a small projection from certain petals (Catchfly).

=Cohesion.=--_Gamopetalous_ or _Monopetalous_, petals partially or wholly grown together.

_Truncate_, _toothed_, _lobed_, _cleft_, _parted_.

_Polypetalous_, petals separate.

=Adnation.=--_Hypógynous_, corolla attached under the pistil (_gynia_, pistil).

_Perígynous_, corolla attached to the calyx. It is thus around the pistil.

_Epígynous_, corolla attached to the ovary. It is thus upon the ovary which is a part of the pistil.

=Form.=--GAMOPETALOUS and POLYPETALOUS.

{REGULAR.
{
{ _Urceoiate_, urn-shaped (Whortle-
{ berry).
{
{ _Tubular_ cylindrical (Trumpet Honey-
{ suckle)
{
{ _Campánulate_, bell-shaped (Harebell).
{
{ _Infundíbular_, funnel-shaped
{ (Morning-glory).
{
{ _Hypocraterimórphous_, salver-shaped
{ (Phlox).
GAMOPETALOUS. {
{ _Rotate_, wheel-shaped (Potato).
{
{IRREGULAR.
{
{ _Ligulate_, strap-shaped (Dandelion).
{
{ _Lābiate_, two-lipped.
{
{ _Gāleate_, upper lip arched (Catmint).
{
{ _Ringent_, both lips arched (Dead-
{ nettle).
{
{ _Personate_, throat closed (Toad-
{ flax).

{REGULAR.
{
{ _Rosāceous_, petals without claws
{ (Rose).
{
{ _Liliāceous_, petals with claws
{ gradually spreading (Lily).
{
{ _Caryophyllāceous_, long claws enclosed in a tube
{ (Pink).
POLYPETALOUS. {
{ _Crucíferous_, four clawed petals in
{ the form of a cross (Mustard).
{
{IRREGULAR.
{
{ _Papilionāceous_, butterfly-shaped
{ (Bean).
{
{ PARTS.--_Vexillum_, banner; _alæ_, wings; _carīna_,
{ keel.

=Æstivation=, the arrangement of the floral organs in the bud.

_Valvular_, pieces met by their margins (Lilac).

_Induplicate_, margins turned inward (sepals of Clematis).

_Reduplicate_, margins turned outward (sepals of Hollyhock).

_Convolute_, or _contorted_, each piece overlaps its neighbor in one direction (Geranium).

_Imbricated_, one or more petals wholly outside.

_Quincúncial_, five petals, two without and two within and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

_Triquētrous_, three petals, one without and one within, and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

_Véxillary_, having one large petal enclosing the others (Pea).

_Plicate_, the folding of gamopétalous flowers.

_Supervolute_, with folds turned obliquely in the same direction (Morning-glory).

STAMENS (ANDRŒCIUM).

=Parts.=-- _Anther_, the enlarged and essential portion.

_Filament_, the stem holding the anther.

_Pollen_, the fertilizing powder found in the anther.

=Kinds.=--_Sessile_, anther without filament.

_Sterile_, filament without anther.

_Connivent_, converging.

_Exserted_, protruding out of corolla.

_Included_, entirely within the corolla.

_Didẏnamous_, four in number, two long and two short.

_Tetradẏnanious_, six in number, four long and two short.

=Cohesion.=--_Syngenesious_, united by their anthers.

_Monodelphous_, united by their filaments into one set.

_Diadelphous_, united into two sets.

_Polyadelphous_, united into many sets.

=Adnation.=--_Hypógynous_, borne on the receptacle.

_Perígynous_, borne on the calyx.

_Epipétalous_, borne on the corolla.

_Alternate_, with the lobes.

_Opposite_, in front of the lobes.

_Epígynous_, borne on the ovary at its summit.

_Gynándrous_, borne on the style (Orchid).

FILAMENT.

=Kinds.=--_Filiform_, _subulate_, _dilated_, _petaloid_, _bidentate_.

ANTHER.

=Parts.=--_Lobes_ (_thecæ_) and _connective_.

=Adnation.=--_Innate_, anther firm on summit of filament.

_Adnate_, anther attached by its whole length to filament.

_Extrórse_, facing the petals.

_Intrórse_, facing the pistils.

_Versatile_, attached near the middle.

=Dehiscence.=--_Longitudinal_, opening lengthwise.

_Transverse_, opening crosswise.

_Porous_, opening by terminal holes.

_Valved_, opening by valves or doors.

PISTILS (GYNŒCIUM).

=Parts.=-- _Stigma_, the rough end to which the pollen adheres.

_Style_, the stem holding the stigma.

_Ovary_, the enlarged portion containing the ovules.

=Cohesion.=--_Simple_, having but one cell, placenta style and stigma.

_Multiple_, a collection of simple pistils (Blackberry).

_Compound_, simple pistils grown together, each called a _carpel_.

STIGMA.

=Kinds.=--_Sessile_, stigma on ovary: no style.

_Globose_, globular (Four-o’clock).

_Capitate_, broad and flat.

_Lobed_, rounded.

_Feathered_, like a feather (Grasses).

_Linear_, thread-like (Corn).

STYLE.

=Kinds.=--_Basal_, attached to base of ovary (Forget-me-not).

_Lateral_, attached to side of ovary (Strawberry).

_Terminal_, attached to top of ovary.

OVARY.

=Parts.=--_Placentæ_, the parts to which the ovules are attached.

_Dissepiments_, partitions.

_Cells_, cavities in which the ovules are arranged.

_Ovules_, unfertilized seeds.

=Adnation.=--_Inferior_, calyx adherent to ovary, same as superior calyx.

_Superior_, calyx free from ovary, same as inferior calyx.

=Placentation.=--_Free-central_, ovules attached to a central column in a one-celled ovary (Pink).

_Axillary_, ovules attached to a central column in a compound ovary.

_Parietal_, ovules attached to the outer walls of the ovary.

OVULE.

=Parts.=--_Nucleus_, _n_, the essential part in which the embryo is formed.

_Prīmĭne_, _p_, the exterior coat.

_Secundine_, _s_, the interior coat.

_Mícropyle_, _m_, the opening of the ovary coats.

_Funículus_, the stem to which the ovule is attached.

_Hilum_, _h_, the point of attachment on the ovule.

_Chalāza_, _c_, the place where the coverings and nucleus join

_Rhāphe_, _r_, the connection between the hilum and the chalaza.

N. B.--Through the funiculus, the rhaphe, and the chalaza the ovule receives its nourishment from the placenta. Through the micropyle it receives the tubular prolongation of the pollen.

=Kinds.=--_Orthótropous_ straight; no change in direction of parts (Buckwheat).

_Campylótropous_, curved; the micropyle brought near the chalaza (Bean).

_Anátropous_, inverted; the micropyle brought near the hilum, pointing to the placentæ. Rhaphe the whole length of the ovule (Magnolia).

_Amphítropous_, half inverted; short rhaphe (Mallow).

=Direction of Ovary.=--_Erect_, ; _ascending_, ; _horizontal_, ; _pendulous_, ; _suspended_, .

FRUIT.

=Parts.=--_Seed_, the part containing the embryo.

_Pericarp_, the covering of the seeds, including the ovary and all adnate parts. The parts of the pericarp are _epicarp_, or outer coat; _mesocarp_, or middle coat; and _endocarp_, or inner coat.

=Dehiscence.=--_Septicīdal_, opening of the partitions.

_Loculicīdal_, opening at the dorsal suture.

_Septífragal_, valves falling away from partitions.

_Circumscissile_, opening by a circular horizontal line.

=Kinds.=--_Simple_, _aggregate_, _accessory_, _multiple_.

(1.) SIMPLE FRUITS.--_Fleshy_, _Stone_, _Dry_ (formed by a single pistil).

(a.) FLESHY FRUITS.--Indehiscent (with two or more seeds).

{_Berry_, rind membranous (Grape).
{_Hesperidium_, rind leathery, separable (Orange).
Seeds immersed {
in a pulpy mass. {_Pēpo_, rind hard (Cucumber).
{
{Seeds in cells.--_Pome_, succulent calyx (Apple).

(b.) STONE FRUITS.--Indehiscent; one-celled; endocarp hard.

_Drupe_, three-coated; stone-cell entire (Peach).

_Tryma_, two-coated; stone-cell two-parted (Walnut).

_Etærio_, an aggregation of drupes (Raspberry).

(c.) DRY FRUITS.--Indehiscent, usually one seed with one coat.

_Achēnium_, coat separable from seed (Dandelion).

_Utricle_, coat inflated (Goosefoot).

_Caryópsis_, coat inseparable (Wheat).

_Glans_, invested with a cūpule, (Acorn).

_Samāra_, having winged appendages (Maple).

(c¹.) DRY FRUITS.--Dehiscent.

{_Follicle_, opening by a ventral suture
{(Columbine).
Single {
pistil. {_Legūme_, opening by both sutures (Bean).
{
{_Loment_, jointed legume (Desmodium).

{_Capsule_, any compound dehiscent fruit.
{
Compound {_Sílique_, a two-valved capsule (Mustard).
pistil. {
{_Sílicle_, a short silique (Shepherd’s
{Purse).

_Pyxis_, circumscissile dehiscence (Purslane).

(2.) AGGREGATE FRUITS, . A cluster of carpels on one receptacle taken as a whole (Raspberry).

(3.) ACCESSORY OR ANTHOCARPOUS FRUITS.--Those of which the most conspicuous portion, although appearing like a pericarp in some cases, does not belong to the pistil (Rose-hip).