Chapter II: Poetry (1)

EPIC AND NARRATIVE POETRY.--The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, ballads, pastorals, idylls, etc.

DRAMATIC (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves).--Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc.

LYRIC.--Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics.

DIDACTIC.--Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc.

LETTER WRITING, OR CORRESPONDENCE.

A _letter_ is a written communication on any subject from one person to another. In other words, it is written conversation, or “speaking by the pen.” Letters deserve very careful attention, for no species of composition is more generally used by all classes of persons. Remember that the letter “bespeaks the person,” and that many will judge of a person’s character and attainments from his correspondence.

The first endeavor of a writer should be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness.

So, before you begin to write a letter, arrange in your mind the ideas you wish to convey; then express them as if you were talking to the person to whom you are writing.

=Divisions of a Letter.=--In every business or social letter there are five things to consider: the _heading_, the _introduction_, the _body of the letter_, the _complimentary close_, and the _signature_. Business letters should have an introductory address before the salutation.

THE HEADING.--The heading consists of the name of the _place_ at which the letter is written, and the _date_. If you write from a city like St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door number, the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, its name may take the place of the door number and the name of the street. If in a small country place, give your postoffice address, the name of the county, and that of the state.

The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.

Leave at least one inch vacant on the top of the first page.

Put on the first line, and to the right, your own postoffice _address_; and, either on the same line or on the next, the _date_--that is, the month, day, and year, thus:

_25 Endicott Street, Boston, Mass.,
August 6, 1904._

THE INTRODUCTION.--The introduction consists of the _address_--the name, the title, and the place of business or the residence of the one addressed--and the _salutation_.

The _Salutation_ and the _Complimentary Close_ should be appropriate to the person addressed. (See list of forms of Salutation and Complimentary Close on page 737).

Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the address. Prefix _Mr._ to a man’s name; _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen; _Miss_ to that of a young lady; _Mrs._ to that of a married lady. Prefix _Dr._ to the name of a physician, but never _Mr._ _Dr._; _Rev._ to the name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if you do not know his christian name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write _Rev._ before the name and _D. D._ after it.

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer’s degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir_, _Rev. Sir_, _General_, _Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir_, _Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir_, _My dear Madam_, _My dear Jones_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife_, _My dear Boy_, _Dearest Ellen_, etc. Examples:

_Mr. William C. Jones,
Washington, D. C._

DEAR SIR:
Your letter, etc.

_American Book Co.,
New York City._

DEAR SIRS:
Kindly send, etc.

THE BODY.--Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the introduction consists of four lines--you may do so even if the introduction consists of but three--in which case the comma after the salutation should be followed by a dash; otherwise, on the line _below_. (See general observations as to subject matter, style, etc.)

THE CONCLUSION consists of the _complimentary close_ and the _signature_. The forms of the complimentary close are many, and are determined by the relation of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship may be used _Your sincere friend_; _Yours affectionately_; _Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business letters, use _Yours_; _Yours truly_; _Truly yours_; _Yours respectfully_; _Very respectfully yours_, etc. In official letters use _I am_, _with respect_, _your obedient servant_; _I have the honor to be your obedient servant_, etc.

The complimentary close often forms part of the last paragraph; at other times it stands separately, and then it usually begins about the middle of the line. Example:

_Very sincerely
Mary E. Shattuck_.

A married woman should sign her own given name, but indicate her proper title of address; thus:

_Mrs. J. F. Martin._

THE SUPERSCRIPTION, on the outside of the envelope, is the same as the address, consisting of the name, the titles, and the full directions of the one addressed. It should be written very plainly, and include the town, county, state, and country, if it goes abroad.

The number of the postoffice box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand corner.

=Style of Letters.=--It makes a considerable difference in our style whether we write as officials or business men, or as individual members of society.

The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be forcible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relatives, affectionate.

We may, therefore, usefully distinguish letters into three kinds--_official_ or _business_ letters and _personal_ or _social_ letters, and _ceremonial letters_ or _notes_.

=Official or Business Letters.=--These include all those written by a person in the capacity of an officer, a professional man, a merchant, a tradesman, etc. They are classed together because they are mainly subject to the same rules.

In writing business letters, the following rules should be observed:

1. Be very _clear_, so that your exact meaning cannot fail to be understood at first sight. Read your letter over with close attention to see that all your thoughts are correctly, fully, and clearly expressed.

2. Take care that the _handwriting_ be legible, else you may get _boots_ for _books_, _matches_ for _hatchets_ or _latches_, _two ponies_ instead of _one hundred pansies_.

3. Be _brief_ and to the point; business men have no time to waste.

4. Confine yourself to _strict business_. If you wish to add matters of friendship, it is well to write them on a separate leaf, that the business portion may be separately filed.

5. Write _grammatical and idiomatic_ English, and paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing.

=Personal and Social Letters.=--Under this head may be placed those letters written by any person in his private capacity as an individual. Such letters may be dictated by friendship, by charity or kindness, by politeness, by respect, by gratitude, by self-interest, or by any other reasonable motive.

Among these are the following:

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP are such as are dictated by mutual affection between relatives and friends. They should be natural, easy, frank, without the least affectation. “I wish you to open to me your soul, not your library,” said Mme. de Sévigné, who wrote exquisitely herself. Such letters may treat of any subject of common interest to the parties concerned. Their language is that of the heart. Kindness, affection, charity, good-nature should dictate, prudence and common sense supervise them.

LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION are written on occasion of the New Year, a birthday, a preferment, or when a friend has met with some uncommon good fortune, and should be dictated by genuine friendship and sincere esteem, and expressed modestly without any exaggerated praise.

LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE.--These require great skill and care. Act like the humane surgeon who touches the wound gently, and only to heal it. If your correspondent knows the sad news already, sympathize sincerely with him. If you are to announce the bad news yourself, prepare the way slowly; state the news as delicately as you can. Express your grief again before you conclude.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION OR RECOMMENDATION require special prudence. Think first whether it is proper to write such a letter at all for such a person. Avoid two dangers: do not offend the applicant for a recommendation, do not deceive your correspondent by exaggerated praise of the one recommended.

If the applicant is _worthy_ state his merits, express reasonable confidence in him. If he is _unworthy_ or doubtfully worthy, give him a letter which he will prefer not to present; for every such letter is an open letter, which the bearer is expected to read before delivering.

A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.

LETTERS OF PETITION should be modest and every way moderate. Ingratiate yourself in a manly way; state your reasons briefly but forcibly; show your appreciation of the trouble your correspondent may be put to in consequence of the favor; promise gratitude.

In answering such letters favorably be brief and show your pleasure at rendering the little service asked. In refusing show how reluctantly you do so; give good reasons for it. Express your hope of finding, some other time, a better opportunity of showing your affection or esteem.

LETTERS OF THANKS should never be neglected when a favor has been received. Express your appreciation both of the favor and of the kindness with which it was bestowed. Hope for an opportunity, not of repaying the person, but of showing your gratitude.

=Ceremonial Letters and Notes.=--Under this heading may be classed notes of _invitation_, _acceptance_, and _regret_, both formal and informal.

_Informal_ invitations, acceptances, and regrets are simply friendly notes written always in the _first_ person. They vary in form to suit the occasion. They should be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in better taste when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside items being permissible only under special circumstances which may require their mention.

An informal invitation should never, under any circumstances, be answered in the third person.

Invitation:--

_30 Rampart St.,
May 4th, 1917._

_Dear Mr. Brooks:_

_We would be very pleased to have you dine with us on Monday next, the 12th, at seven o’clock, if disengaged._

_Cordially yours,
Helen Clements._

Acceptance:

_Eastern Point,
April 29th, 1917._

_Dear Mrs. Clements:_

_I will be most happy to dine with you on Monday, the 12th, at seven o’clock._

_Faithfully yours,
Arthur Brooks._

_Formal_ notes are always expressed in the third person, and all answers to such should correspond in form and style.

Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed from engraved plates, a few forms are here given, principally to show the correct forms of reply to the several kinds of invitation.

Invitation to a reception:

_Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington
request the pleasure of your company
on Thursday evening, November tenth,
from eight until eleven o’clock,
896 Fifth Avenue._

Acceptance:

_Miss Evelyn Hall
accepts with pleasure
Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington’s
invitation for Thursday evening,
November tenth._

Dinner invitation:

_Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King
request the pleasure of
Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury’s
company at dinner
on Tuesday evening, April tenth,
at eight o’clock,
40 Maple Avenue._

Acceptance:

_14 West Street,
March 31st, 1917._

_Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury
accept with pleasure
Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King’s
invitation to dinner on
Tuesday evening, April tenth,
at eight o’clock._

=Additional Suggestions.=--Always use good paper and black ink. Decorated or highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best.

All letters and notes should be written legibly and neatly, carefully punctuated, and absolutely correct as to spelling.

All letters and notes, with a few special exceptions, require a prompt acknowledgment of receipt, if not an immediate answer.

This is especially the case in business letters and those containing enclosures of any kind.

All letters and notes should be courteous. To inferiors in station be kindly; to superiors, respectful; and to equals, friendly.

All letters and notes asking information should be re-read immediately before answering.

OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS

Titles in the United States are either official or academic.

OFFICIAL TITLES

TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, an official letter commences, _Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your most obedient servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. President._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain most respectfully_ [or _sincerely_] _yours_.

Inscription on envelope: _President Woodrow Wilson._

TO THE VICE-PRESIDENT, an official letter begins, _Sir_, or _Dear Sir_.

Conclusion: _I have, Sir, the honor to remain your most obedient servant_.

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Mr. Marshall._

Conclusion: as given for president.

Inscription on envelope: _The Vice-President, Thomas R. Marshall._

TO A JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT, an official letter begins and concludes as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _Dear Mr. Justice White_, or _Dear Justice White_.

Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_, etc.

Inscription on envelope: _Mr. Justice Edward D. White._

TO A SENATOR, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Senator Lewis._

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: _Senator Hamilton Lewis_ or _To the Hon. Hamilton Lewis_.

TO A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, an official letter begins as to a senator.

Conclusion: as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. Clark._

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: _Hon. Champ Clark._

TO A MEMBER OF THE CABINET, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.

The salutation and conclusion of a social letter are as in the case of a member of the House of Representatives.

Inscription on envelope: _Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State._

TO THE GOVERNOR OF A STATE, an official letter begins: _Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor, Sir, to remain your obedient servant._

A social letter begins: _Dear Governor McCall_ or _Dear Mr. McCall_.

Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_.

Inscription on envelope: _Governor_ [or _Hon._] _Samuel W. McCall._

TO A MAYOR, an official letter begins: _Sir_ or _Your Honor_.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Social letter begins: _My dear Mayor Rockwood_ or _Dear Mr. Rockwood_.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Inscription on envelope: _His Honor the Mayor of Cambridge, Wendell D. Rockwood._

CLERICAL TITLES

THE POPE--_His Holiness Pope Benedict XV._

TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC ARCHBISHOP, an official or a social letter begins: _Most Reverend and Dear Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your humble servant._

Inscription on envelope: _The Most Reverend John J. Keane, Archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa._

TO A CARDINAL, whether official or social, a letter begins: _Your Eminence._

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: _His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons._

TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOP, either an official or a social letter begins: _Right Reverend and Dear Sir._

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa._

TO A PROTESTANT BISHOP, an official letter begins as in the case of a Roman Catholic bishop. A social letter begins: _Dear Bishop Lawrence._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your obedient servant_, or _I remain respectfully_ or _sincerely yours_.

Address on envelope: The same as to a Roman Catholic bishop.

TO AN ARCHBISHOP OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH, an official letter begins: _My Lord Archbishop, may it please your Grace._

Conclusion: _I remain, My Lord Archbishop, your Grace’s most obedient servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Lord Archbishop._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Archbishop._

Inscription on envelope: _The Most Rev. His Grace the Archbishop of York._

TO AN ANGLICAN BISHOP, an official letter begins: _My Lord._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your Lordship’s obedient servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Lord Bishop._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Bishop, faithfully yours._

Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Oxford._

ENGLISH TITLES OF ROYALTY, NOBILITY AND OFFICE

The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or superscription on the envelope:

1. _In Letters or Conversation._
2. _The Directions of Letters._

THE ROYAL FAMILY

THE KING--

1. Sir; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty.

2. To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.

THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS, BRETHERN AND SISTERS OF SOVEREIGNS--

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.

To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.

OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY--

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Highness the Princess Mary of Cambridge.

THE NOBILITY

A DUKE, OR DUCHESS--

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Grace.

2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford.

A MARQUIS, OR MARCHIONESS--

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Lordship, or May it please your Ladyship.

2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster.

AN EARL OR COUNTESS--The same.

To the Right Honorable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury.

A VISCOUNT OR VISCOUNTESS--

1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship.

2. To the Right Honorable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford.

A BARON OR BARONESS--The same.

To the Right Honorable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John.

THE WIDOW OF A NOBLEMAN is addressed in the same style, with the introduction of the word Dowager in the superscription of her letters.

To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield.

THE SONS OF DUKES AND MARQUISES, AND THE ELDEST SONS OF EARLS, have, by courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honorable; and all the daughters have those of a Lady and Right Honorable.

THE YOUNGER SONS OF EARLS, AND THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF VISCOUNTS AND BARONS, are styled HONORABLE.

OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE

A MEMBER OF HIS MAJESTY’S MOST HONORABLE PRIVY COUNCIL--

1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honorable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may require.

2. To the Right Honorable ----,[14] His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.

AMBASSADORS AND GOVERNORS--

1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency.

2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador.

3. To his Excellency ----,[14] Lieutenant General and General Governor of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland.

JUDGES--

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Chief Justice of England.

THE LORD MAYOR OF LONDON, YORK, or DUBLIN, AND THE LORD PROVOST OF EDINBURGH, during office--The same.

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Provost of Edinburgh.

THE LORD PROVOST of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable.

THE MAYORS OF ALL CORPORATIONS (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors), and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful.

[14] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the
person addressed, as “The Right Honorable the Earl of Wimbourne.”

THE PARLIAMENT

HOUSE OF PEERS--

1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships.

2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled.

HOUSE OF COMMONS--

1. May it please your Honorable House.

2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

THE SPEAKER OF DITTO--

1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker.

2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of Commons.

A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS NOT ENNOBLED--

1. Sir.

2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.

NARRATION

Narration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or drama the _plot_ is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of the story.

If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or news, the rule of _fidelity_ to the truth is essential. It requires that not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they are known to have occurred or happened.

=Biography.=--After the _letter_, the simplest form of composition is biography. The order of events from youth to age is established.

This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners. It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting things in order.

Outline scheme of biography:--

1. When was he born?

2. Where was he born?

3. Who were his parents?

4. Where was he educated?

5. Whom did he marry?

6. What was his profession?

7. What great work did he do?

8. When and where did he die?

9. Where was he buried?

Answer each question in a complete sentence.

You have nine statements in chronological order.

Each of these can be expanded into one or more paragraphs.

=Fiction and Drama.=--If the composition is a story or drama, the principal requirements involve the following:

The story should develop one or more of the following: plot, situation, character.

The story should have interest.

1. It should begin attractively and as directly as possible.

2. It must move, and not simply “mark time.”

3. It may be made effective by dramatic situations and turning points.

4. It may use description, but the description must be closely connected with the story and must not hinder the movement.

5. It should discriminate in the number and the importance of details.

6. It may make effective use of suspense and suggestion.

7. It should have no inconsistency in the speech or the actions of the characters.

8. It should have an effective ending.

=News, or the Newspaper “Story,”= is another very important form of narrative. The newspaper is the great popular educator of the day, and in its columns are found not only excellent examples of vivid and telling narratives, but frequently excellent types of spontaneous writing.

News and news reporting require accuracy, clearness, brevity, and a style that either charms, or compels interest. Indeed, it too frequently happens that to secure the element of interest practically all else is sacrificed.

Reporting and news writing are best learned by careful study of the daily papers, and from constant practice. Shorthand is an invaluable aid in securing the exact words of the speaker if the news takes the form of an interview, or report of a public address or meeting.

The relation of the “facts” and “story” may be illustrated in the following:

Report of exact words of the speaker:--

“_I assure you, my_ friends, that _I_ for _my_ part, _will_ do all _I_ possibly _can_ to resist _this_ measure. _You know_ that _I have_ always been opposed to it; as recently as _yesterday I spoke_ against it _here_ in _this_ very hall. _Do you_ think that the people of this country _will_ tolerate such injustice? _I am_ sure they _will_ not.”

How the newspaper report appeared:--

_He assured his_ friends that _he_ for _his_ part _would_ do all _he_ possibly _could_ to resist _that_ measure. _They knew_ that _he had_ always been opposed to it; as recently as _the day before he had spoken_ against it _there_ in _that_ very hall. _Did they_ think, he asked, that the people of this country _would_ tolerate such injustice? _He was_ sure they _would_ not.

EXPOSITION

Exposition is a form of composition designed to explain. Its important characteristic is clearness, and it, therefore, makes large use of illustration.

The main points may be stated in various ways in order to make them clear.

Essays and editorials are among the best known forms of exposition.

=Essay.=--An _essay_ is a short composition upon any subject. The subject may be of any kind whatever, one fit for treatment, and with great fulness, in any of the species of discourse described above, or one without sufficient dignity for such treatment. No other species of writing ranges over so wide and varied a field of topics--nothing less than that of all others combined--and none other allows such freedom and diversity in the handling.

In _style of thought_ the essay may be dreamy and semi-poetical, and charm by its beauty, it may be simply instructive or critical, it may blaze with its brilliancy, sting with its satire, convulse with its humor, convince with its logic, inflame with its appeal and move to instant duty. The author may wander off in leisurely excursions to the right and the left, and load his pages with gleanings by the way; or, like the orator, he may keep his eye on the point he would reach, and move, with the directness of an arrow’s flight, toward it.

The _style of expression_ should fit the thought, and October woods are not more varied in color than this department of literature in utterance.

_Outline of the Essay._--1. Give a clear definition of the subject or proposition to be discussed, amplified, paraphrased, or explained.

2. Set out the reason for, or the truth of, the proposition.

3. Add the confirmation of further proofs, including demonstration of the unreasonableness of the contrary.

4. Illustrate the truth of the proposition by comparison or analogy from nature or art.

5. Give direct examples or instances to corroborate the truth.

6. Quote the testimony of standard authors.

7. Conclude by summing up, with pertinent observations.

Remember that all this working to a formula is only a training in the habit of clear thinking--a mental discipline.

When you can do without the formula, and not till then, you will begin to be a writer.

=Editorials= are, in point of fact, simply little essays, usually following closely the news or issues of the day. Their function is to elucidate, summarize, inform, persuade, or merely comment. In their highest form they are to prose writing what the sonnet is to verse; but it must be confessed that numerous editorials are so completely dominated by the so-called “editorial policy” of newspaper owners, or colored by one of the various hues of partisanship, that their otherwise beneficent influence and power are largely neutralized.

=Description.=--We mean by a _description_ the delineation of some object or scene. Narration deals with successive facts; description with objects that exist at the same time. We rarely find any literary production of great length which is entirely descriptive; but descriptions are often introduced into narratives with happy effect.

Sometimes they serve the purpose of making the narration impressive, by moving the passions of the reader. At other times they are intended to make the events more intelligible. Thus we have seen that some narratives of battles are hard to follow because the writer has neglected to give us a clear description of the battle-field.

Descriptions frequently serve as ornaments, affording an agreeable variety to the narration, and presenting scenes of striking interest to the imagination.

RULES.--The governing rules in description are the following:

1. In every good description a point of view should be established.

2. The description should be governed by the point of view.

3. The general outline of the picture should, ordinarily, be given first.

4. The number of details should be so few and so insignificant as to make a vivid picture.

5. The order of the details should be determined by the character of the object described.

=Argument.=--This form of composition is designed to prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition.

A _brief_ is a summary of an argument showing the development of the argument by a series of headings and sub-headings.

The first step in the argument should be to define the terms of the proposition or to determine the facts in the case.

State reasons to establish facts.

The conclusion should be warranted by the premises.

Illustrations may be used effectively, but not conclusively.

Analogy should be used for illustration, not as a basis for conclusions.

Arguments should usually be arranged in the order of their strength, the strongest last.

POETRY AND POETICS

Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic.

=Epic Poetry= is that which deals with the life and adventures of some real or mythic personage, called a hero.

1. The _great epic_ is considered the highest effort of poetic talent, on account of the loftiness of its conceptions, the dignity of its character, and the difficulty of its execution. Few epic poems have gained general admiration. Those most highly prized are Homer’s _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_; Virgil’s _Æneid_; Milton’s _Paradise Lost_; and Tasso’s _Jerusalem Delivered_.

2. The _Metrical Romance_ differs from the great epic in its theme, which is less serious; its metre, which is lighter; and its control of events, which is mainly human; the love element is more prominent in this form of the epic. Examples: Scott’s _Marmion_ and _The Lady of the Lake_.

3. The _Tale_ is a simple form of narrative poetry telling a complete story. Examples: Chaucer’s _Canterbury Tales_; Tennyson’s _Enoch Arden_.

4. The _Ballad_ is a direct, rapid, and condensed story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic accent. Examples: _Chevy Chase_; Coleridge’s _Ancient Mariner_.

5. _Pastorals_ and _Idylls_ have a great deal of description, often of simple country scenes, mingled with the narrative. Examples: Goldsmith’s _Deserted Village_; Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_.

=Dramatic poetry= tells a story by means of characters speaking and acting in such a way as to develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts, often five, the fifth act showing the results of the plot which has been developing.

The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and comedy.

_Tragedy_ deals with the grave situations and problems of life and engenders in the spectator noble emotions.

_Comedy_ deals with the pleasanter and more trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from everyday follies, accidents, or humors.

=Lyric poetry= expresses the deepest emotions of sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word suggests, was originally designed to be sung to the music of the lyre.

Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows:

_Song_ may be either sacred or secular.

The _Ode_ is the loftiest form of lyric, and expresses great range and depth of feeling. This range of emotion often varies the metre. Examples: Tennyson’s _Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington_; Lowell’s _Commemoration Ode_.

The _Elegy_ laments the fleeting condition of human affairs. Examples: Gray’s _Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard_; Milton’s _Lycidas_; Tennyson’s _In Memoriam_.

The _Sonnet_ is a short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a prescribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning.

Many lyrics have none of the special aims already mentioned. These may be called _Simple_ lyrics. Example: Burns’s _To a Daisy_.

=Didactic verse= is not the highest type of poetry.

Its aim is not to give pleasure, but to instruct.

Example: Pope’s _Essay on Man_.

POETICS

Poetry differs from prose in three particulars: in its _purpose_, in its _style_, and in its _form_.

The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. Of all literature it is the most spontaneous because addressed particularly to the feelings.

It has its own diction and imagery, conforming to the order, gradations and subtleties of its thought. Like other forms of genius, too, it is permitted certain liberties and variations of language or expressions in order to avoid monotony and maintain the life and music of the verse. These are more strictly rhetorical, however, and next in importance to the poetic _content_ is poetic _form_.

By poetic _form_ we mean the mould and measure whereby, in English, poetry gets itself into the expression adapted to produce its designed effect.

=Metre.=--All impassioned language, as in eloquence for instance, tends to fall into a more or less regular rhythmic swing. In poetry, which is both impassioned and imaginative, this rhythm is timed to definite lengths and called _metre_, which is the Greek word for measure.

The unit of poetic measure is the foot. A foot is a combination of syllables, two or three distinguished, after the Greek, as long and short, but more truly accented and unaccented, because our syllabic values, unlike the Greek, are more accentual than quantitative. A variety of poetic feet are employed in English, whose names and values are derived from Greek prosody.

POETIC FEET.--For brevity of description a notation is used to designate the foot: the sign (―) for a long, and (◡) for a short syllable. The kinds of feet in most common English use, here marked by their signs and illustrated by a word, are: Iambic or Iambus, a short and a long (◡ ―, e. g. forbid); Trochaic or Trochee, a long and a short (― ◡, e. g. lightly); Spondaic or Spondee, two longs (― ―, e. g. all day); Anapestic, two shorts and a long (◡ ◡ ―, e. g. arabesque); and Dactylic, a long and two shorts (― ◡ ◡, e. g. silently).

Other feet, such as Tribrach, three shorts (◡ ◡ ◡, e. g. rapidly); Amphibrach, short long short (◡ ― ◡, e. g. tremendous), and Amphimacer, long short long (― ◡ ―, e. g. undismayed), are used less frequently, and only as blends with other measures.

VERSE.--The first combination of poetic feet results in the verse or line, somewhat analogous to the clause in a prose sentence. The word verse means by derivation a _turning_; perhaps because where it reaches a certain designed length the writer turns back and begins a new line. The kinds of verse employed are named by Greek names according to the number of feet they contain; and along with this, if the measure is fully described, is named the kind of foot.

The same notation as given above is kept up through the line, the feet being separated by an upright line. Thus, taking the Iambic foot as unit, we note: Monometer, one-measure, or one foot long (◡ ―); Dimeter, two-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ―); Trimeter, three-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Tetrameter, four-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Pentameter, five-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); and Hexameter, six-measure, (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―). English names are sometimes used, as 8 and 7, or fourteeners.

A few poetic lines may here be given, with their notation, by way of illustration:

◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ―
I wan|dered lone|ly as | a cloud
(Iambic tetrameter)

― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡
Heard the | lapping | of the | water
(Trochaic tetrameter)

― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ―
This is the | forest pri|meval; the | murmuring | pines
◡ ◡ ― ◡
and the | hemlocks
(Dactylic hexameter)

◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ―
Oh, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the West
(Anapestic tetrameter)

― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡
One more un|fortunate
(Dactylic dimeter)

◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ―
This was | the no|blest Ro|man of | them all
(Iambic pentameter)

At some place within a long line, pentameter or hexameter, occurs a natural pause, called the _cæsura_. The continual varying of the place of the cæsura is one means of breaking up the monotony to which blank verse (Iambic pentameter unrhymed) tends.

=Stanzas.=--The next step of procedure as the combination of poetic elements goes on from the single verse, is some form of _stanza_ structure.

The simplest approach to the stanza, employed principally in what is called Heroic verse, is the couplet (also called the Heroic couplet), two lines, Iambic pentameter, rhymed, and generally pausing at the end of the second line. They form only partially a stanza, however, because these couplets go on, according to the requirements of the thought, to group themselves in paragraphs after the manner of prose. Pope is the great master of the heroic couplet.

Sometimes, if the lines are long, a poem is made up of couplet stanzas, as in Tennyson’s _Locksley Hall_.

There are certain standard stanza structures, such as the Elegiac stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter, rhymed either in pairs or alternately, of which Gray’s _Elegy_ (rhymed alternately) is the type; the Ballad stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter and trimeter alternating, with second and fourth lines rhymed together, sometimes also first and third; various hymn stanzas, designated Long Metre (L. M.), Common Metre (C. M.), Short Metre (S. M.), 8 and 7, 6 and 4, etc., which can be studied in any hymn-book; and most elaborate of all, the Sonnet, a fourteen-lined stanza which is also a whole poem, with a rather intricate rhyme scheme.

Generally speaking, however, the liberties and varieties of stanza structure, as to kind of measure, length of line and stanza itself, combination of long and short line, and rhyme scheme, is almost unlimited.

RHYME.--A new poetic element enters into the stanza: the element of _rhyme_. The most prominent regulative feature of English lyric verse, perhaps, is the rhyme by which recurring periods are grouped. Technically speaking, there are three kinds of rhyme, only one of which plays an important, or at least essential part, in modern English poetry.

1. _Beginning rhyme_, or alliteration (e. g. the mother of months), which in Anglo Saxon poetry was the main principle of verse, but is now introduced only furtively and delicately.

2. _Middle rhyme_, or assonance, wherein only the vowels rhyme (e. g. blarney, charming), which is introduced with even more caution than alliteration.

3. _End-rhyme_, which is so constant and essential a principle of the stanza that it needs no further definition here.

In the skillful management and disposition of the end-rhymes, to produce its poetic effects without monotony or undue obtrusiveness, there is room for the finest poetic taste and workmanship. On single rhymes (e. g. face, embrace), double rhymes (e. g. rally, sally), and triple rhymes (e. g. pentameter, sham metre), which explain themselves, there is no occasion to enlarge.

The arrangement of lines in a stanza is indicated, in brief notation, by letters of the alphabet. Thus _a a b b_ indicates a four-line stanza in which the first and second lines rhyme, and the third and fourth; _ab ab_, a stanza in which the rhymes alternate; _a b b a_, a stanza like that of Tennyson’s _In Memoriam_, in which this arrangement is reversed.

In this way, with the use of the other notation mentioned, a complete description of poetic construction, from foot to stanza, may be made in very short space.

HOW RHYTHM IS APPLIED.--Lyric poetry, of which the type is the song; was originally designed to be associated with music. It is in this class of poetry, especially, that the stanza form and the rhyme system prevail; but besides the song and the ballad, which most suggest musical accompaniment, there are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, the didactic poem, and many others, with which music, except in the natural melody of the verse, has little to do.

In epic poetry, the vehicle of great national deeds and ideals, and the enshrining of deep religious and moral truths, the verse employed is generally blank verse (i. e. unrhymed verse), in paragraphs instead of stanzas, and generally Iambic pentameter. For less sublime or universal purposes, however, this epic class has been enlarged to include narrative and romantic poetry, often rhymed, as in Chaucer’s _Canterbury Tales_ and Scott’s _The Lady of the Lake_; and sometimes in stanzas, as in Spencer’s _Fairy Queene_.

Dramatic poetry, designed for representation on the stage, and written in blank verse of a less severe and rigid artistic kind than in the epic, is modeled more after the natural rhythm of impassioned speech. The range and tone of such dramatic verse is very generous and elastic; from the free and colloquial, as in Browning’s dramatic monologues, up to the so-called closet drama, designed to be read rather than played, wherein the artistic demands are as subtle and exacting as in the epic, and the sentiment generally more intense.

While, therefore, the ancient classification remains fundamental and true, the modern art of printing and the discontinuance of the custom of reading aloud, have operated to enlarge the scope of poetry within these elemental lines till every requirement of impassioned and imaginative utterance is freely open to it, in vital and enduring forms.

WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

Including proverbs, maxims, quotations, mottoes, idioms, allusions,
references, and numerous terms used in law, literature, cookery, the
drama, social life, and everyday affairs.

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

_ä_, as in farm, father; _ȧ_, as in ask, fast; _a_, as in at, fat;
_ā_, as in day, fate; _â_, as in care, fare; _e_, as in met, set;
_ē_, as in me, see; _ẽ_, as in her, ermine; _i_, as in pin, ill;
_ī_, as in pine, ice; _o_, as in not, got; _ō_, as in note, old;
_ô_, as in for, fought; _oo_, as in cook, look; _ōō_, as in moon,
spoon; _u_, as in cup, duck; _ū_, as in use, amuse; _û_, as in fur,
urge; _th_, as in the, though; _y_, as in yet, you; _ow_, as in cow,
now; _ng_, as in sing, ring; _ch_, as in church, choose.

FOREIGN SOUNDS

_ö_ cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of
_u_ in b_urn_ is perhaps the nearest equivalent to _ö_. _ü_ cannot
be exactly represented in English. The English sound of _u_ in
_luke_ and _duke_ resembles the original sound of _ü_. N represents
the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore
(_ä_N-_kôr_´). K represents _ch_, as in German _ich_, _ach_. _zh_,
sound of _s_ in _pleasure_. _j_ and _g_ before _i_ or _e_ in
Spanish, strongly aspirated _h_.

Phrases not designated are from the French; those from other
languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.)--German; (It.)--Italian;
and (Sp.)--Spanish.

=A=

=a bas= (_ȧ bä´_), down.

=a bas le traitre= (_ȧ bä´le tretr´_), down with the traitor.

=a beau jeu beau retour= (_ȧ bō zhö´ bō retōōr´_), one good turn deserves another.

=a bon chat, bon rat= (_ȧ bô_N _rȧ´_), (to a good cat, a good rat), well matched; set a thief to catch a thief.

=a bon marché= (_ȧ bô_N _mȧr shā´_), cheap.

=abonnement= (_ȧ bôn mä_N´), subscription.

=a bras ouverts= (_ȧ brȧzōō ver´_), with open arms.

=abrégé= (_ȧ brā zhā´_), abridgment.

=absence d’esprit= (_ȧp sä_N_s des prē´_), absence of mind.

=a causa persa, parole assai= (It.), (_ä kä´ ōō zä per´sa, pä rô´lāäsä´ē_), when the cause is lost, there is enough of words.

=accueil= (_ȧ kö´ē_), reception; greeting; welcome.

=à charge= (_ȧ shȧrzh´_), at expense.

=à cheval= (_ȧ she vȧl´_), on horseback.

=à compte= (_ȧ kô_N_t´_), on account.

=à corps perdu= (_ȧ kôr per dū´_), headlong; neck or nothing.

=à coup sur= (_ȧ kōō sür´_), with certainty; surely.

=à couvert= (_ȧ kōō ver´_), under cover, protected, sheltered.

=acqua Tofana= (It.), (_ä kwä tō fä´nä_), a subtle poison.

=à demi= (_ȧ de mi´_), by halves.

=à dessein= (_ȧ de sâ_N), designedly.

=à deux mains= (_ȧ dö mâ_N_´_), (for both hands), having a double office or employment.

=adieu= (_ȧ dēö´_), (I commit you to God), good-bye.

=adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique= (_ȧ dēö´, lȧ vwȧ tür´, ȧ dēö´ lȧ bōō tēk´_), (good-bye, carriage; good-bye, shop), all is over.

=à discrétion= (_ȧ dēs krā sēô_N_´_), at discretion, unrestrictedly.

=à droite= (_ȧ drwȧt´_), to the right.

=affaire d’amour= (_ȧ fer dȧ mōōr´_), a love affair.

=affaire d’honneur= (_ȧ fer dô nör´_), an affair of honor, a duel.

=affaire du coeur= (_ȧ fer dü kör´_), an affair of the heart, a love affair.

=affiche= (_ȧ fēsh´_), a placard; a notice; bulletin.

=affreux= (_ȧ frö´_), frightful.

=à fin= (_ȧ fâ_N), to the end or object.

=à fond= (_ȧ fô_N_´_), to the bottom; thoroughly.

=à forfait= (_ȧ fôr fe´_), by contract, by the job.

=à gauche= (_ȧ gōsh´_), to the left.

=à genoux= (_ȧ zhe nōō_), on one’s knees.

=agneau= (_ä-nyō_), lamb.

=à grands frais= (_ȧ grä_N _fre´_), at great expense.

=a haute voix= (_ȧ ōt vwȧ_), loudly; openly.

=a huis clos= (_ȧ wē klō´_), (with closed doors), secretly; in camera.

=aide-toi, et le ciel t´aidera= (_ed twȧ´, ā le sēel ted rȧ´_), help yourself, and Heaven will help you.

=air distingué= (_er dēs tâ_N _gā´_), a distinguished appearance.

=air noble= (_er nôbl´_), a distinguished, patrician air, manner, or presence.

=à la= (_ä lä_), =au= (_ō_), =aux= (_ō_).--With; according to; after the manner of; as _huitres aux champignons_, oysters with mushrooms.

If a dish is cooked, or served, or made, with anything as an ingredient or garnish, the dish may be said to be “_à la_” that substance. So it may be possible to ascertain the meaning of phrases not given below by looking elsewhere in the vocabulary under the word used with the words “_à la_.”

=à l’abandon= (_ȧ lȧ bä_N _dô_N_´_), disregarded, uncared for.

=à la béarnaise= (_ä lä bā-är-nāz´_).--With a sauce of tarragon vinegar in which shallots have been boiled till it is reduced, then combined with egg yolks and butter, and beaten in a bain-marie, then seasoned with red pepper and lemon juice.

=à la béchamel= (_ä lä bā-shä-mel´_).--After the fashion of Béchamel (a French gastronomer); said of a sauce (see Bechamel); also prepared or served with this sauce.

=à la belle étoile= (_ȧ lȧ be lā twȧl´_), under the canopy of Heaven; in the open air.

=à la Bercy= (_ȧ lȧ bâr-sē´_).--Served with béarnaise sauce, stuffed green pepper and stuffed tomato.

=à la bigarade= (_ȧ lä bē-gā-räd´_).--Flavored with (Seville) orange juice or peel.

=à la bonne femme= (_ȧ lȧ bôn fȧm_).--Of, or in the style of, the housewife; specifically said of a kind of maigre soup made with fish, bouillon, legumes, and an assortment of vegetables.

=à la bonne heure= (_ȧ lȧ bô nör´_), well-timed, in good time; favorably; good.

=à la bordelaise= (_ä lä bôr-de-lāz´_).--With Bordeaux wine; said of various preparations containing it; as of a sauce, with garlic, shallots, or onions, chopped mushrooms, and a piece of marrow; also with sauce a la bordelaise.

=à la bourguignotte= (_ā lä boor-gē-nyot_).--Generally prepared with the addition of red wine of Burgundy, or of Bordeaux, or of the Midi (_i.e._, meridional provinces of France). At Bordeaux, or when made elsewhere with Gironde wine, the dish would be _à la bordelaise_.

=à la caledo´nian= (_ä lä_).--Boiled slowly in plain water and then baked with dressing of butter, chopped parsley, and a little lemon juice; said of finnan haddie when so cooked.

=à la Camerani= (_ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē_).--After the fashion of Camerani; said of a kind of rich chicken-liver soup.

=à la campagne= (_ȧ lȧ kä_N _päny´_), in the country.

=à la carte= (_ȧ lȧ kȧrt´_), by the card.

=à la Chateaubriand= (_ä lä shä-tō-brē-ä_N´).--With maitre d’hotel butter.

=à la chevreuil= (_ä lä she-vrû´y´_).--Served with a savory sauce; said of fillets of beef.

=à la chipolata= (_ä lä chē-pō-lä´tä_).--Containing an addition of the strongly flavored Italian sausages, or the mince with which they are filled.

=à la chiffonade= (_ä lä shē-fo-näd´_).--See chiffonade.

=à la cocotte= (_ä lä kō-kot´_).--Baked (as eggs) in a cocotte, with butter and cream, or with cheese, or the like, and served in a cocotte.

=à la crapaudine= (_ä lä krä-pō-dēn´_).--Like a crapaudine (the flat piece of iron on which a grate pivot rests;) said of grilled chicken, pigeon, etc., when prepared by boning, removing the legs and wings, and pressing flat.

=à la Créole= (_ä lä krā-ōl_).--With tomatoes.

=à la Croissy= (_ä lä krwä-sē´_).--Containing carrots in quantity, or at least strongly flavored with them; said specifically of a puree of onions, carrots, turnips, and parsnips stewed in coulis. According to others, containing turnips in quantity, or strongly flavored with them.

=à la daube= (_ä lä dōb_).--Stewed in daube; said specifically of dishes cooked with small square pieces of salt pork, the round slices of carrots, glaced onions, and turnips.

=à la Dauphiné= (_ä lä dō-fē-nā´_).--With various vegetables, spinach, lettuce, leek, onions, sorrel, beets, etc.; said of a kind of soup.

=à la Dauphinoise= (_ä lä dō-fē-nwäz´_).--Generally, sauced over with a thick sauce (or with egg yolk), bread-crumbed, and then fried.

=à la dérobée= (_ȧ lȧ dā rô bā_), stealthily.

=à la diable= (_ä lä dē-ä´bl_).--Deviled.

=à la faveur= (_ȧ lȧ fȧ vör´_), by the favor of.

=à la financière= (_ä lä fē-nä_N_-syâr´_).--With extract of truffles (literally, after the style of a financier); said of a variety of espagnole sauce, and of dishes served with it.

=à la Flamande= (_ä lä flä-mä_N_d´_).--Containing cabbage, but more particularly Brussels sprouts, and, usually turnips and carrots cut in big slices.

=à la Florentine= (_ä lä flō-rä_N-_tēn´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la Française= (_ȧ lȧ frä_N _sez_), in French fashion.

=à la Génevoise= (_ä lä zhā-ne-vwäz´_).--Cooked with champagne; said of certain dishes of fish.

=à la godiveau= (_ä lä gō-dē-vō_).--With balls made of mincemeat, usually of veal.

=à la Grecque= (_ȧ lȧ grek´_), after the Greek fashion.

=à la Holstein= (_ä lä hōl´ stīn_).--Fried, and served with a fried egg, sardelles, capers, pickled beets, and pickles, and sometimes scraped horse-radish.

=à la jardinière= (_ä lä zhär-dē-nyâr´_).--Made with a typical collection of cooked vegetables, as soups, ragoûts, and removes. See jardinere.

=à la julienne= (_ä lä zhü-lyen´_).--With various vegetables sliced in strips, as carrots, turnips, leeks, onions, celery, lettuce, tarragon, sorrel; said especially of a kind of rich stock soup. Also said of potatoes cut in very slender strips and fried crisp floating in hot fat.

=à l’Algérienne= (_ä läl-zhā-rē-en´_).--Cooked with slices of raw ham; said of a preparation of fowl.

=à la Languedoc= (_ä lä lä_N_g-dok´_).--Cooked with or in olive oil; with olive oil.

=à l’Allemande= (_ä läl-mä_N_d´_).--Having a German provincial peculiarity of preparation, as a garnish of sauerkraut, prunes stewed in wine, quenelles of potatoes, etc.

=à la Loren´zo= (_ä lä_).--Made of minced crab meat, put on toast spread with anchovy paste, then all covered with parmesan cheese and bread crumbs, buttered, browned in the oven, and served.

=à l’Alsacienne= (_ä läl-sä-syen´_).--With pork and frankfurters; also with onions and pork.

=à la lyonnaise= (_ä lä lē-ō-nāz´_).--With flaked or sliced fried onions; as, potatoes _à la lyonnaise_, or lyonnaise potatoes; sauce _à la lyonnaise_, or Lyons sauce, that is, espagnole sauce with flaked onions fried in oil.

=à la macedoine= (_ä lä mä-sā-dwän´_).--Made with or of a typical collection of green vegetables, mostly in white sauce; also applied to collections of ripe fruit imbedded in jellies, etc.

=à la Maintenon= (_ä lä ma_N-_te-nô_N´).--A term variously used to designate a mode of cooking mutton or lamb chops; as, (_a_) wrapped in caul; (_b_) garnished with cockscombs and truffles; (_c_) served with a soubise; (_d_) served with financière sauce; (_e_) served with d’Uxelles sauce, etc.

=à la maître d’hôtel= (_ä lä mā´tr dō-tel´_).--Prepared by a substantial, but homely, modest sort of cooking. Also served with maitre d’hotel butter.

=à la Marengo= (_ä lä mä-ren´gō_).--With some garlic and oil.

=à la Marseillaise= (_ä lä mär-sāy-āz´_).--With Marsala wine.

=à la Ma´ryland= (_ä lä_).--With a sauce of butter and cream, with or without wine. It is like à la Newburgh, but less rich.

=à l’Américaine= (_ȧ lȧ mā rē ken´_), after the American fashion.

=à la Meyerbeer= (_ä lä mâ-ûr-bâr´_).--Shirred and served with broiled kidney and truffle sauce; said of eggs.

=à la Milanaise= (_ä lä mē-lä-nāz´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la mode= (_ȧ lȧ môd´_), in the fashion; according to the custom or fashion.

=à la mode de Caën= (_ä lä mōd de kä_N).--A term used to designate tripe prepared with vegetables, leeks, wine, cognac, etc.

=à la Napolitaine= (_ä lä nä-pō-lē-tān´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la neige= (_ä lä nāzh´_).--In some form that suggests snow, as with white-of-egg froth, or in balls of white boiled rice, or the like.

=à la New´burgh= (_ä lä_).--With a sauce made of cream, egg yolks, Madeira or sherry wine, and butter shaken in a dish over a slow fire until they thicken. Said also of this sauce.

=à l’Anglaise= (_ȧ lä_N _glez´_), after the English fashion.

=à la nivernaise= (_ä lä nē-vâr-nāz´_).--Containing a nivernaise; said of a kind of soup à la julienne. See nivernaise.

=à la Normande= (_ä lä nôr-mä_N_d´_).--Generally, with apples in the composition of the dish in some shape or other.

=à la Parisienne= (_ȧ lȧ pȧ-rē-zēen´_), after the Parisian fashion.

=à la Périgord= (_ä lä pā-rē-gôr´_).--Flavored with, or consisting of, truffles--alluding to the circumstance that these mushrooms grow of excellent size and quality in the province of Perigord.

=à la Polonaise= (_ä lä pō-lō-nāz´_).--Having red beets or red cabbage, so as to have their juice, color, and taste, as Polish ragoût, or borsh, which is the type of dishes _à la Polonaise_.

=à la poulette= (_ä lä poo-let´_).--With white velouté sauce.

=à la printanière= (_ä lä pra_N-_tä-nyâr´_).--Made with a typical collection of cooked early or spring vegetables; of a somewhat wider application than à la jardinière.