Chapter XIII: Preface: To the Sixth Volume (12)

"The Emperor puts the question before you thus: In the present
condition of Imperial affairs, with an untrained army, with
limited funds, with ignorant 'literati,' and with artisans
untaught because they have no fit teachers, is there any
difficulty in deciding, when China is compared with foreign
nations, who is the strong and who is the weak? It is easy to
distinguish between the rich and the poor. How can a man armed
with a wooden stick smite his foe encased in a coat of mail?
The Emperor sees that the affairs of the Empire are in an
unsettled condition, and that his various Decrees have availed
nothing, Diversity of opinion, each unlike another as fire
differs from water, is responsible for the spread of the
existing evil. It is the same evil as that which existed in
the Sung and Ming dynasties (circa A. D. 1000 and 1500). Our
present system is not of the slightest use. We cannot in these
modern days adhere to the ways of the five Kings(circa B. C.
2500); even they did not continue exactly after the manner of
their respective predecessors. It is like wearing thick
clothes in summer and thin ones in winter. "Now, therefore,
the Emperor orders all officials, metropolitan and provincial,
from prince down to 'literati,' to give their whole minds to a
real endeavour to improvement. With perseverance, like that of
the saints of old, do your utmost to discover which foreign
country has the best system in any branch of learning and
learn that one. Your great fault is the falseness of your
present knowledge. Make a special effort and determine to
learn the best of everything. Do not merely learn the outside
covers of the books of knowledge, and do not make a loud boast
of your own attainments. The Emperor's wish is to change what
is now useless into something useful, so that proficiency may
be attained and handed on to posterity. The Metropolitan
College will be the chief one, and must be instituted at once.
The Emperor orders the Grand Councillors to consult with the
Tsung-li Yamên on the subject, and to come to a decision as
soon as possible, and then to memorialize the Throne. Any of
the compilers and graduates of the Hanlin College, the
secretaries of the Boards, the officers of the Palace Guards,
expectant Intendants, Prefects, district Magistrates, and
subordinate officials, sons and brothers of officials, the
hereditary officials of the Eight Banners, and the sons of the
military officials of the Empire, can enter the College who wish
to do so. By this means knowledge will be handed down from one
generation to another. It will be strictly forbidden to
members of the College to be careless or dilatory in their
studies, or to introduce as students any of their friends
without regard for the latter's capabilities; for such things
would frustrate the benefit of this excellent plan of His
Imperial Majesty."

A day later he issued the following: "The Tsung-li Yamên have
reported to the Throne that in obedience to instructions they
have considered the requests contained in the memorial of the
Vice-President Jung Hui, for the appointment of special
Ministers of Commerce, and the sending of members of the
Imperial family to visit foreign nations. Commercial matters
are of the highest importance, and the suggestion is one which
deserves to be acted upon. As the result of a former
consultation of the Tsung-li Yamên on the subject, commercial
bureaus have been established at the capitals of the
provinces, and the officials of each province have ordered the
leading gentry and merchants to elect from their numbers managers
of the bureaus, who will then draw up commercial regulations.
It is to be hoped that strict conformity to these Regulations
will lead to a daily improvement in trade; and the Emperor
orders the Viceroys and Governors of the provinces to direct
the gentry and merchants to strictly obey the official
instructions, and to consult together for the most speedy and
satisfactory arrangement of commercial matters; it is to be
hoped that in this way the officials will be kept in touch
with the merchants. We must not adhere blindly to our old
customs. Let the officials of each province memorialize the
Throne, and inform the Emperor how commercial affairs are
managed in their respective provinces.
{92}
With regard to the suggestion that members of the Imperial
Family should go abroad, this is a new departure, but is quite
in accordance with modern custom. The Emperor, therefore,
orders the Court of the Imperial clan to select from the
Princes of the first three ranks any who are well versed in
modern affairs and ideas, and who are on the side of modern
improvement, and to inform the Emperor of their selection. The
selected Princes will then await the Emperor's orders with
regard to their journey."

On the 15th the following imperial mandate was published:
"Wêng T'ung-ho, Assistant Grand Secretary and President of the
Board of Revenue, has of late made many errors in the conduct
of business, and has forfeited all confidence; on several
occasions he has been impeached to the Throne. At his private
audiences of the Emperor he has replied to His Majesty's
questions with no regard for anything except his own personal
feeling and opinion, and he has made no attempt to conceal his
pleasure or displeasure either in his speech or in his
countenance. It has gradually become clear that his ambition
and rebellious feeling have led him to arrogate to himself an
attempt to dictate to the Emperor. It is impossible to permit
him to remain in the responsible position of a Grand
Councillor. In former days a strict inquiry would have been
held, and his crime punished with the utmost rigour of the
law. Taking into consideration, however, his long service as
tutor to the Emperor, His Majesty cannot bring himself to mete
out to him such a severe penalty. Let Wêng T'ung-ho vacate his
posts, and retire into private life, as a warning that he is
preserved (from a worse fate)."

In transmitting this mandate to the British Foreign Office,
Sir Claude MacDonald explained that Wêng T'ung-ho was a
"reactionary," whose "influence was invariably against
innovation and progress," but personally "prepossessing,
courteous, and scholarly—an excellent type of the Conservative
Chinese statesman." But that the dismissal of Wêng T'ung-ho
did not signify the triumph of the reform party was shown the
same day by a decree commanding special honors to the Empress
Dowager, who seemed to be losing no time in reasserting
herself. "In future," said the edict, "whenever officials
receive favours or gifts from the Empress Dowager, or receive
promotion to the highest civil or military rank or to the
Vice-Presidency of a Board, they must (after thanking the
Emperor) present themselves before the Empress Dowager and
thank her; and in similar cases all provincial
Tartar-Generals, Lieutenant-Generals, Viceroys, Governors, and
Commanders-in-chief must write their thanks to the Empress
Dowager (as well as to the Emperor)."

Other radically reforming decrees that were issued by the
Emperor during June and early in July were described by the
British Minister in a despatch dated July 9, as follows:

"To effect a change in the agricultural methods of an ancient
Eastern nation would seem a very hopeless task, but from a
Decree published on the 4th instant, it appears that a censor
has made proposals for the establishment of a school of
agriculture, on which the Tsung-Ii Yamên were asked to report.
The Decree founded on their Report states that agriculture is
the basis of the States' wealth, and that measures for its
revival are urgently needed. The provincial authorities are,
therefore, directed to examine all methods of cultivation,
whether Chinese or foreign, with a view to their adoption by
the people. … The Decree proceeds to promise rewards for
successful treatment of agricultural problems, and to direct
the translation and circulation in provincial Colleges of
foreign works on the subject.

"Two Decrees, published on the 27th June and 5th July, have
reference to reforms in the Chinese army, but they throw no
light on the nature of them, and merely refer certain
suggestions to various Departments for examination. The last
Decree I shall mention, which appeared on the 5th instant,
contains a very frank admission of the need of reforms. It
states that in foreign countries commerce and industry thrive
and progress, while in China, though there is no lack of
ability, it is fettered in the bonds of ancient custom, and
cannot free itself. As one means of assisting in its
liberation it is ordained that any persons producing 'new
books' (presumably books that show originality of thought), or
being the first to use new methods, or to produce new
instruments or appliances suitable for use, are to receive
rewards from the State in the shape either of official
employment, if they are fitted for it, or of some other
distinction. In the case of inventions a certificate will be
given, and the profits secured to the inventor for a fixed
term of years—in fact patent rights will be granted. Rewards
will also be given to those who, with their own resources,
establish colleges, open up mines, or set up arsenals for the
manufacture of rifles and cannon. In conclusion, the Tsung-li
Yamên are directed to draw up Regulations for effecting the
above objects."

The zeal of the reforming movement was kept alive and its
authors held their ground throughout the summer, and nearly to
the end of September. On the 17th of that month, Sir Claude
MacDonald wrote to Lord Salisbury: "Imperial Decrees intended
to launch China on the path of reform continue to appear,
though there are few signs of any of them taking practical
effect. The Emperor is evidently learning that it is one thing
to issue a reform Edict and another to get it obeyed. Not long
ago a Decree was issued, the object of which was to make the
Throne more accessible to the subordinate portion of the
official world. At the beginning of this month a case was
brought to His Majesty's notice, in which the Board of
Ceremonies disobeyed this Decree by refusing to transmit a
Memorial sent in by a Secretary. He was much enraged, and
forthwith cashiered the six head officials of the Board, that
is to say, the two Presidents and four Vice-Presidents.

"On the 12th instant he followed this up by a fresh Decree
dwelling on the circumstances and reiterating his previous
instructions. Memorials were to be presented as they came in,
it being of the highest importance, in the present critical
state of public affairs, that all such communications should
be examined as soon as possible. Obstruction and delay were to
be punished with the utmost rigour, and special commands were
given that the previous Edicts on reform, all of which were
enumerated, were to be hung up in a public place in each Yamên
throughout the Empire, so that no one should be ignorant of
their contents.
{93}
Not satisfied with all this, he issued, also on the 12th
instant, a long and remarkable Decree calling attention to the
advantages of Western methods, and inveighing against
degenerate officials and conservative Ministers, who not only
could not assist him in adopting their methods, but spread
reports instead calculated to disturb the minds of the people.
He wanted his subjects to know that they 'could depend on
their Prince,' and appealed to them to make China powerful by
working for reform with 'united minds.' The previous orders
were amplified, and the privilege of memorializing the Throne,
which formerly stopped at officers of a high rank, is now
extended to practically every soul in the Empire.

"Next day, the 13th September, another Decree repeated the
terms of the above in clearer detail, and laid down precisely
the procedure each class was to observe in making itself
heard. The severest penalties were threatened should there be
any interference with the free exercise of this privilege by
the high officers of Government, who were commanded to report
by telegram the steps they were taking to fulfil the Imperial
wishes. The series of Decrees above quoted are naturally
creating a great commotion in the Chinese official world, and
it will be interesting to note their effect."

_Great Britain, Papers by Command:
China, Number 1, 1899, page 179-279._

The effect was soon known. It was one which brought the
reformers to grief and their reforms to an end.

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (September).
Overthrow of the Reformers.
Subjugation of the Emperor by the Empress-Dowager.
His countermanding decrees.

The Imperial reformer announced the downfall of his own
authority on the 21st of September, in the following
significant decree:

"The affairs of the nation are at present in a difficult
position, and everything awaits reform. I, the Emperor, am
working day and night with all my powers, and every day
arrange a multitude of affairs. But, despite my careful toil,
I constantly fear to be overwhelmed by the press of work. I
reverently recall that Her Majesty the Empress Dowager has on
two occasions since the reign of Tung Chih (1861) assumed the
reins of Government with great success in critical periods. In
all she did Her Majesty showed perfection. Moved by a deep
regard for the welfare of the nation, I have repeatedly
implored Her Majesty to be graciously pleased to advise me in
government, and have received her assent. This is an assurance
of prosperity to the whole nation, officials and people. Her
Majesty will commence to transact business from to-day in the
side Hall. On the 23rd September, I, the Emperor, will lead my
princes and high officials to make obeisance in the Ch'in
Chêng Hall. Let the proper officials reverently and carefully
prepare the fitting programme of the ceremony."

On the 25th he announced: "Since the 4th moon, I, the Emperor,
have been frequently ailing in health, and in spite of
long-continued treatment there is still no great improvement.
Should there be any persons, either in the capital or the
provinces, who are highly skilled in the treatment of disease,
let the officials at once recommend them to the throne and
await our orders. Should such men be in the provinces let them
be sent to the capital without the least delay."

On the 26th the unfortunate Emperor was made to send forth
another decree, countermanding the greater part of the orders
he had been giving, on the pretext that they had been
misunderstood and badly carried out. The obstructive offices
which he had abolished were restored; the permission given to
scholars and people to present memorials was withdrawn. "The
original purpose," said the decree, "was that we should see
with the eyes and hear with the ears of everybody, but the
Court has now opened wide the path of access to the throne,
and if there are useful proposals for reform made in the
statements of any of the different classes of officials they
are bound to be observed at once and set into operation. At
present, careless documents all alike in character pour in.
All are full of frivolous statements, some even touch on the
extravagant, and all are much wanting in order. Hereafter all
officers whose duty it is to speak shall say what they have to
say in fitting language. In accordance with the prescribed
rules, persons or officers who are not competent to
memorialize the throne are not permitted to submit sealed
documents. The 'Times,' official newspaper, is of no benefit
to good government and will vainly disturb men's minds: let it
be abolished at once. The Imperial colleges will be ground for
the cultivation of talent. Apart from those which are already
being gradually established in Peking and the provincial
capitals, let the local officials in all prefectures and
districts where it is proposed to establish minor colleges
consider the local conditions and the convenience of the
people. Let the temples [which were to have been turned into
colleges] in the provinces remain as before; there is no need
to make colleges of them and disturb the feelings of the
people. Over and above the matters above mentioned, there are
others which have been duly considered and put into operation,
and others which are under consideration, such as trade,
agriculture, reorganization of the army, and the development
of resources, all of which are of undoubted consequence to the
State and the people, and must imperatively be introduced
gradually. Those measures which are of no benefit to the
present system of government, and are detrimental to the
Constitution, need not be discussed. Let the six Boards and
the Tsung-li Yamên make an investigation of these matters,
consider them with special care, and submit a report to the
throne so that they may be dealt with."

The events which attended and followed these decrees were
reported by Sir Claude MacDonald on September 28, as follows:
"The Decree [of the 21st] naturally created much excitement in
Peking, and rumours of impending disaster to the most prominent
of the advocates of reform were prevalent. Subsequent
proceedings justified the alarm and assumed the character of a
coup d'etat. The same day the house of Chang Yin-huan was
surrounded by the police in search of one K'ang Yu-wei. This
K'ang Yu-wei is a Chinese scholar of high repute who was,
until lately, editor of a Chinese newspaper in Shanghae known
as 'Progress.' He was a strong advocate of reform, and was
this year recommended to the Emperor, and on his arrival in
Peking was given a position of Secretary in the Board of
Works. He is said to have acquired great influence over the
Emperor, and to have been his adviser in his recent reform
measures. K'ang Yu-wei could not be found, and it has
subsequently transpired that he has escaped and left Shanghae
on the 27th in the English mail for Hong Kong.
{94}
So keen was the hunt for him that on the 22nd all traffic was
stopped on the Tien-tsin Railway line to prevent his passage.
On the 24th instant orders were issued for the arrest of
several officials who had been in relation with him, including
Chang Yin-huan and Hsü Chih-ch'ing. The latter had recommended
K'ang to the throne, and had been recently appointed President of
the Board of Rites. Chang Yin-huan went to the Board of
Punishments and has remained a prisoner since. The precise
charge against K'ang and his friends has not transpired, but
it is supposed to be one of conspiracy against the liberty and
even the life of the Empress Dowager.

"It was reported on the 25th that Chang was to be executed the
same evening or early next morning, and I thought it advisable
to make an appeal on his behalf for at least due consideration
of any charge brought against him. The report reached me late
in the afternoon, and it was therefore necessary to take
prompt measures. It was supposed that Li Hung-chang had been
consulted by the Empress Dowager in the matter. I accordingly
addressed a letter to his Excellency pointing out the horror
with which such sudden executions were regarded by all Western
nations, and the bad effect the secret and hasty condemnation
of an official of Chang's rank, who was so well known in
Europe, would produce, and begged his Excellency to use what
influence he possessed to prevent such hurried action. I
concluded my letter by saying that I appealed to him, Li,
because he was the only Statesman now in Peking who was
conversant with European methods, and would, therefore,
thoroughly realize the disastrous impression which such a
summary execution would produce throughout the Western world.
It is well known that Li Hung-chang and Chang Yin-huan are
deadly enemies, and it was generally reported that Chang's
imprisonment was due to Li. The Grand Secretary replied saying
that he highly respected my generous and humane motives, and
he assured me that no summary action would be taken."

On the 30th Sir Claude reported: "Six of the reformers
referred to in my despatch of the 28th September were executed
on the 28th instant. They included a brother of K'ang Yu-wei,
the chief reformer, and, though subordinates, all were
graduates and men of standing. Chang Yin-huan has been
banished to Chinese Turkestan, where he is to be kept under
rigorous surveillance. No precise crime is charged against
him. The Edict announcing his punishment accuses him vaguely
of being treacherous, fickle, and a sycophant. Last night a
long Decree appeared dealing with the so-called conspiracy.
K'ang Yu-wei is declared to have taken advantage of the
Emperor's leaning towards beneficial reforms to plot a
revolution, which was to be opened by surrounding the Palace
at Wan Shoushan and seizing the Empress-Dowager and the
Emperor. The haste in executing K'ang's chief accomplices, for
it appears that the legal formalities had not been observed,
is admitted to have been caused by Memorials, whose dominant
note was fear of a revolution if punishment was delayed."

_Great Britain,
Papers by Command: China,
Number 1, 1899, pages 291-294._

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (October).
The Empress-Dowager.
Her past career.
Her character.

The Empress-Dowager, so called, who now recovered her
ascendancy over the weak young Emperor, which the reformers
had momentarily overcome, and who became again the real
Sovereign of the Empire, as she had been for the past thirty
years, "was never Empress, not even as imperial consort,
having been but the secondary wife of Hsien-fêng, the Emperor
who fled from his capital on the approach of the Anglo-French
forces in 1860 [see, in volume 1, CHINA: A. D. 1856-1860]. But
she took the title as the mother of that ill-starred monarch's
heir, in which capacity she was allowed to share with the
widow proper the regency during the minority of the Emperor
Tung-Chih (or Che, for there is no agreement as to the
transliteration of Chinese sounds). … The female duumvirate
was not what was intended—was in fact an unforeseen result of
the last will and testament of the Emperor Hsien-fêng, who
died at his hunting lodge at Jêho, whither he himself had been
hunted by the victorious invaders. …

"The fundamental law of the Ta-tsing dynasty is the Salic law.
No woman and no eunuch can ever reign or rule. Conforming to
the laws of his house, the Emperor in his will nominated a
Council of Regency during the minority of his infant son,
afterwards known as the Emperor Tung-Chih. The Council was
composed of two imperial princes and the Minister Sun-che. To
his two wives, the true but childless one and the secondary
one who was mother of the Prince Imperial, he bequeathed the
guardianship of the infant. The Emperor placed his real
confidence in the first, the legal wife; but he was fond of
the other, the mother of his heir. A serious dilemma thus
confronted him, which he thought to evade by placing in the
hands of the Empress a private and personal testament, giving
her absolute authority over her colleague, only to be
exercised, however, in certain emergencies. As a matter of
fact, the power was never called into exercise.

"The Empress-mother was twenty-seven years old, clever,
ambitious, and apparently fearless. … She conceived a scheme
by which the position might be reversed, and confided it to
her brother-in-law, Prince Kung. … The ambition which the
Empress-mother confided to Prince Kung was nothing less than
to suppress the Council of Regency, and set up in its place
the authority of the two Empresses. Inasmuch, however, as they
were ignorant of affairs, and women to boot, the Prince
himself was to be the real executive and de facto ruler of the
empire. Prince Kung yielded to the seduction, and thus became
accessory to the violation of the dynastic law. … The Regents
were returning from the obsequies of the deceased Emperor when
Prince Kung launched trumped-up charges against them of
neglect of certain funeral rites, had them arrested on the
road, and executed. By this summary violence the two Empresses
were securely established as Regents, with Prince Kung as
Chancellor of the empire. For a few years things went
smoothly. … The two Regents seldom met. … From the relative
position of the buildings in which they had their respective
apartments, the ladies were known as the Eastern and Western
Empresses, the former being the title commonly applied to the
one whom we have termed the true Empress. …

{95}

"The 'Eastern Empress' was full of gentleness, meditation, and
widowhood. … She was, therefore, unequally yoked with her
sterner sister, and the pair could never have really worked
together to any practical end. The eclipse of the weaker
luminary was only a question of time. … The life and death of
the young Emperor Tung-Chih, the son of Hsien-fêng and the
present Empress-regnante, seems little more than an episode in
the career of his imperial—and imperious—mother. He died
within two years of his full accession, removed by his own
mother as some would have us believe, but by quite other
agencies as others no less boldly affirm. … With the
disappearance of her son, the last plank in the legal platform
of the Empress-mother disappeared. But her appetite had grown
by what it fed upon. She had now had fourteen years' schooling
in statecraft, and she resolved that, 'per fas et nefas,'
reign who might, she would govern. … The story of her second
coup d'etat of January, 1875, has been often related,—how the
Empress so-called caused her own sister's child to be snatched
out of its warm bed on a bitter night and conveyed into the
Palace, whence he was proclaimed Emperor at daybreak. By this
stroke the Regent at once aggrandised her own family, made a
friend of a younger brother-in-law, the father of the child,
to replace the elder who had become an enemy, and, to sum up
all, secured for herself a new lease of power. For she who
could thus make an emperor could also make a regent."

_The Empress-Regent of China
(Blackwood's Magazine, November 1898)._

CHINA: A. D. 1898. (October-November).
Outbreaks of popular hostility to foreigners.
Guards for the Legations sent to Peking.
Chinese troops removed.

The palace revolution which overthrew the reforming party was
followed quickly by outbreaks of popular hostility to
foreigners. Two messages were cabled to Lord Salisbury from
Peking October 1st. One informed him: "A Chinese mob at a
point between Peking and the railway station yesterday
afternoon violently assaulted several foreigners who had to
pass that way from the train. Among those assaulted was Mr.
Mortimore of this Legation, and an English lady, who were
severely attacked with mud and stones; a member of the United
States' Legation had one of his ribs broken. There is a
decided spirit of disturbance among the Chinese, though the
fact that many bad characters were about yesterday in
consequence of the mid-autumn festival may go some way towards
accounting for these outrages. I have requested Admiral
Seymour by telegraph to despatch a vessel to Taku, in case a
guard should be required for the protection of this Legation,
and I am making strong representations to the Tsung-li Yamên."

In his second despatch the British Minister announced: "I do
not anticipate any danger, but a good and reassuring effect
will be produced, as after the Japanese war, by the presence
of a guard. The foreign Representatives decided this morning
to send for a small guard to protect the respective Legations.
I have asked Admiral Seymour to send me twenty-five marines
with a machine-gun. The German, Russian, Japanese, and Italian
Representatives had previously arranged for their guards."

On the 5th, Sir Claude MacDonald reported: "A meeting of
foreign Representatives yesterday decided to notify the
Chinese Government of the proposed departure from Tien-tsin
for Peking to-morrow of bodies of British, German, and Russian
marines, and to ask that all facilities, including a special
train, should be extended to them by the Chinese authorities;
the French, American, Japanese, and Italian marines to come
straight on to Peking on their arrival at Tien-tsin. The
meeting was held in consequence of the refusal of the Viceroy
of Chihli to permit any foreign soldiers to leave Tien-tsin
for Peking without special permission from the Tsung-li Yamên.
It is very likely that the Chinese Government will make a
protest similar to that of 1895, but it would be very
ill-advised at the present crisis to give way to their
protests, and it is absolutely necessary that the decision of
the foreign Representatives should be put into effect."

The Chinese government did protest, but without effect. The
legation guards were insisted upon, and, as speedily as
possible, they were provided from the war-ships of the several
powers, and quartered in Peking. Then the Chinese authorities
brought troops to the capital, and the sense of danger at the
legations grew. On the 25th of October Minister MacDonald
cabled to London: "A serious menace to the safety of Europeans
is the presence of some 10,000 soldiers, who have come from
the Province of Kansu, and are to be quartered in the hunting
park, two miles south of Peking. A party of these soldiers
made a savage assault on four Europeans (including Mr. C. W.
Campbell, of this Legation), who were last Sunday visiting the
railway line at Lukou Chiao. The foreign Ministers will meet
this morning to protest against these outrages. I shall see
the Yamên to-day, and propose to demand that the force of
soldiers shall be removed to another province, and that the
offenders shall be rigorously dealt with."

On the 29th he telegraphed again: "The Foreign Representatives
met yesterday, and drafted a note to the Yamên demanding that
the Kansu troops should be withdrawn at once. The troops in
question have not been paid for some months, and are in a
semi-mutinous state. They have declared their intention to
drive all Europeans out of the north of China, and have cut
the telegraph wires and destroyed portions of the railway line
between Lukouchiao and Pao-ting Fu. Some disturbances have
been caused by them on the railway to Tien-tsin, but the line
has not been touched, and traffic has not been interrupted. In
the city here all is quiet. The presence of these troops in
the immediate vicinity of Peking undoubtedly constitutes a
serious danger to all Europeans. The Yamên gave me a promise
that the force should be removed, but have not yet carried it
into effect."

On the 6th of November he reported that the Yamên had replied
to the note of the Diplomatic Body, acknowledging that the
troops lacked discipline and were a source of danger, and
again promising their removal, but that nothing had been done.
He added: "It was decided unanimously to address a note to the
Yamên, stating that if the troops in question were not
withdrawn by the 11th instant, our respective Governments
would adopt such measures as they considered necessary for the
protection during the winter months of foreigners in Peking and
Tien-tsin."

{96}

After several more exchanges of notes between the Diplomatic
Body and the Yamên, peremptory on one side, apologetic on the
other, the troops were removed to Chi-chow, about 80 miles
east of Peking, beginning their march November 15. A few days
previously Sir Claude MacDonald had been able to report "That
two of the ringleaders in the attack on Mr. Campbell and other
Europeans at Lu Kow-chiao [announced in despatch of October
25] were brought into Peking and flogged in Mr. Campbell's
presence at the Yamên of the Governor of the city on the 29th
October. The men were sentenced to 1,000 blows each, but Mr.
Campbell, after eighty blows had been inflicted, begged that
the flogging might cease. It turned out that two other
soldiers were struck by bullets from a small revolver, which
was used by one of the railway engineers in self-defence, and,
chiefly for this reason, I did not press for more floggings.

"I attached more importance to the punishment of the officer
in command, who, it appears, had been warned beforehand by the
railway authorities to keep his men away from the railway
bridge, but had refused to do so. I consider him the person
really responsible for what happened, and at an interview on
the 31st October I told the Yamên that I should not be
satisfied, and the incident would not be closed, until I saw
his degradation published in the official Gazette. On the 4th
November an Imperial Decree was issued ordering this officer,
a Colonel named Chu Wan-jung, to be handed over to the Board
of War for punishment. The Ministers inform me that this is
likely to mean his degradation. I have, however, again warned
their Excellencies that nothing short of this punishment will
be satisfactory to Her Majesty's Government."

_Great Britain, Papers by Command:
China, Number 1, 1899, pages 258-279, and 332._

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (December).
Reorganization of Chinese armies.
Reception by the Empress-Dowager to
the ladies of the Legations.

On the 20th of December Sir Claude MacDonald reported: "The
reorganization of the land forces in the north appears to be
occupying the serious attention of the Central Government. In
the early half of this month Edicts were issued by the Empress
Dowager approving proposals made by Jung Lu, who was appointed
Generalissimo of northern armies immediately after the K'ang
Yü-wei conspiracy. The following are the principal features of
these proposals. The armies under the command of Sung Ch'ing
and others, that is to say all the brigaded troops in North
China, are to be organized in four corps—front, rear, right,
and left—to occupy different strategical points. In addition,
Jung Lu will raise a centre corps of 10,000 men, to be
stationed presumably in or about Peking. … The importance of
bringing the other four corps into an efficient state is dwelt
upon, and the Edicts are stern in demanding the production of
sufficient funds for the purpose. The Viceroy of Chihli is
also instructed to closely scrutinize the condition of the
Peiyang drilled troops—formerly Li Hung-chang's army—and bring
them into order. They are to be under the orders of Jung Lu,
instead of the Viceroy.

"The Viceroys responsible for the Arsenals of North and Mid
China are also commanded to see to the immediate construction
of quick-firing guns and Mauser rifles and other war material,
and to the preparation of maps of the coast-line for military
purposes. Jung Lu has done nothing yet towards raising the
centre corps beyond calling in the assistance of a
German-educated officer named Yin Ch'ang, who holds a post in
the Tien-tsin Military Academy. He is reputedly able, and
probably one of the best Chinese available for the work, but I
question whether he will be given sufficient powers of
control. He is now engaged in drawing up a scheme."

Bearing the same date as the above, we find a despatch from
Sir Claude MacDonald descriptive of a reception given by the
Empress-Dowager, on the 13th, to the wives of the foreign
representatives at Peking, "to accept their congratulations on
the occasion of Her Imperial Majesty's birthday." "The
ceremony," said the British Minister, "passed off extremely
well. The Empress Dowager made a most favourable impression by
her courtesy and affability. Those who went to the Palace
under the idea that they would meet a cold and haughty person
of strong imperious manners were agreeably surprised to find
Her Imperial Majesty a kind and courteous hostess, who
displayed both the tact and softness of a womanly
disposition." "Thus ended," writes Sir Claude, in closing his
despatch, "the incident which may be considered to mark
another step in the nearer relations of China and foreign
nations."

_Great Britain, Papers by Command:
China, Number 1, 1900, pages 12-15._

CHINA: A. D. 1898-1899.
Rioting in Shanghai consequent on
French desecration of a cemetery.
French demand for extension of settlement ground in Shanghai.
English and American protests.
The outcome.

On the 18th of July, 1898, the following was reported by the
British Consul-General at Shanghai:

"Serious rioting took place in the French Settlement on the
16th und the morning of 17th instant, in the course of which
some fifteen natives lost their lives. The disturbance was due
to an attempt of the French authorities to take possession of
certain temple land known as the Ningpo Joss-house Cemetery.
The ground is full of graves, and it is also used for
depositing coffins until a favourable opportunity presents
itself for removing them to the native districts of the
deceased. The cemetery is within the limits of the French
Settlement; originally it was far removed from the inhabited
portion of the Settlement, but by degrees new streets have
been laid out, and houses have been built, until the cemetery
is surrounded by dwellings.

"Twenty-four years ago the French Municipality attempted to
make a road through the cemetery, but such serious rioting
broke out that the French Consul thought it prudent to abandon
his claim to the ground, and gave the Ningpo Guild to
understand that they would be left in undisturbed possession.
As years have gone on, the nuisance of having a cemetery in
the midst of a crowded Settlement has made itself more and
more felt, and some months ago the French Municipal Council
decided to expropriate the owners and to pay them
compensation. The Ningpo Guild and the Chinese authorities
were duly apprised of the intention, and they were urged to
make their own arrangements for removing the coffins to some
other site.
{97}
They would not admit that the French had any right to
dispossess them, and they refused to vacate the land. The
French Consuls then gave the Chinese officials notice that the
Municipal Council would take possession on a certain day; and
as the day drew near the Taotai became very uneasy, and
appealed to the Foreign Consuls to interfere in the matter,
giving hints that serious rioting and loss of life, would
result if the French Consul persisted in his intentions.

"On the morning of the 16th, the day appointed for taking
possession of the cemetery, a detachment from the French
cruiser 'Éclaireur' and a strong body of police marched to the
cemetery, and afforded protection to the workmen who were told
off to make a breach in the cemetery wall by way of taking
possession. An angry mob watched these operations, and, as
time went on, the streets filled with crowds of men, who moved
about making hostile demonstrations, but the French showed great
self-restraint, and no serious collision took place on that
day. All night long the crowds filled the streets, and many
lamps were smashed and lamp-posts uprooted.

"Early on Sunday morning a determined attack was made by the
mob on one of the French police-stations, and when the small
body of men within saw that their lives were in danger, they
opened fire. About the same time the police and the
'Éclaireur's' men attacked bands of rioters in other quarters,
with the result that on Sunday morning, as far as can be
ascertained, fifteen men were shot dead or bayoneted, and
about forty were seriously wounded. After that the rioters
seemed to have become intimidated for a time, and the streets
were left to the police. Meanwhile many of the shops in both
Settlements were closed, and orders were sent to all Ningpo
men—and they form 50 per cent. of the population—to go out on
strike.

"Some of the principal Ningpo merchants came forward in the
afternoon, and through the good offices of a peacemaker came
to an understanding with the French Consul, under which it was
agreed that the French should postpone taking possession of the
cemetery for one month, during which time the Ningpo Guild
trust to come to some amicable arrangement. The French Consul
has given them to understand that he will not recede from his
position; the cemetery must be given up, but he is willing
that this should be done in any way that will be most pleasing
to the Ningpo residents."

On the 23d of August it was announced by telegram from
Shanghai that "the dispute arising out of the Ningpo Josshouse
is about to be settled by French withdrawing their claims to
remove the buildings in consideration for an extension of
their concession as far as Si-ca Wei, an addition of 20 square
miles." This raised protests from Great Britain and the United
States, many of whose citizens owned property within the area
thus proposed to be placed under French jurisdiction; and the
distracted Tsung-li Yamên was threatened and pulled about
between the contending parties for months. The final outcome
was an extension of the general Foreign Settlement at Shanghai
(principally British and American) and a limited extension of
that especially controlled by the French. The adjustment of
the question was not reached until near the end of 1899.

_Great Britain, Papers by Command:
China, Number 1, 1899. and Number 1, 1900._

CHINA: A. D. 1898-1899 (June-January).
Anti-missionary insurrection at Shun-ch'ing,
in Central Szechuan.

The following is from a communication addressed by the British
Minister to the Tsung-li Yamên, August 2, 1898:

"At Shun-ch'ing Fu the local officials, with a few of the
gentry, have for years shown themselves determinedly hostile
to foreigners, and have refused to allow houses to be let to
missionaries. British missionaries have in consequence been
forced to quarter themselves in an inn for the last six years,
but even that was apparently objected to; in 1893 there was a
riot, and in 1895 another, in which two missionaries were
treated with brutal violence. In May of this year a house was
finally rented; the District Magistrate was notified, but
neither he nor the Pao-ning Taotai issued proclamations or
gave protection, though requested by the missionaries to do
so. The Shun-ch'ing Prefect, instead of giving protection,
connived at the local opposition, and with the usual results.
On the 15th June three missionaries were attacked and stoned,
and one severely wounded, while passing through the city, and
though protection was asked of the Prefect, he gave none, and
later he and the other officials repeatedly refused to issue a
Proclamation or to take any measures whatever to avert
disturbances. On the 20th the Prefect feigned sickness, and
could not be appealed to, and on the 27th the house leased by
the missionaries was destroyed, with all the property it
contained. The Roman Catholic establishment was also gutted.

"As usual the disturbance did not end at Shun-ch'ing. Later on
a Roman Catholic Chapel at Yung ch'ang Hsien was attacked and
looted, two native Christians killed, 10,000 taels of silver
stolen, and a French priest [Father Fleury] seized and held to
ransom by a band of rioters. I am also informed that other
acts of brigandage have occurred, and that the Protestant
missions at Pao-ning and Shê-Hung are in grave danger. The
Provincial Government appears to absolutely ignore the recent
Imperial Decrees for the prevention of missionary troubles.
All the conditions point to this, or to an utter incapacity on
the part of those officers to exercise satisfactory control. Her
Majesty's Consul, indeed, informs me that there is one band of
brigands, led by an outlaw known as Yü Mau Tzu, which is able
to terrorise two important districts in the centre of Szechuan
and even to overawe the Chêngtu authorities. In connection
with the Shun-ch'ing affair Her Majesty's Consul has made the
following demands:

1. Immediate restoration of their house to the missionaries,
the officers to pay the whole cost of repairs;

2. Punishment of the ring-leaders;

3. The local headmen to give security for future good conduct;

4. Compensation for all property destroyed;

5. Punishment of officials in fault.

I shall look to the Yamên and see that these demands are fully
satisfied and with the least possible delay."

{98}

But urgency from both England and France failed to stimulate
action on the part of the Chinese government, energetic enough
to stop this anti-missionary movement in Central Szechuan. What
seems to have been a riot at first became a formidable revolt.
"The action of the Provincial Government was paralysed by the
fact that Father Fleury was still in Yü's hands, and would be
killed if a move was made against the brigands. On the other
side the Viceroy was informed by M. Haas, the French Consul,
that if anything happened to the Father the consequences to
China would be disagreeable. The Taotai was in consequence
making efforts to secure the release of the prisoners by
paying blackmail." In September it was reported that "Yü's
power was increasing, his emissaries were scattered about in
places beyond his immediate sphere of influence, and were
attempting to stir up Secret Societies, and he had issued a
manifesto. A riot took place at Ho Chou, 60 miles north of
Chungking, on the 14th September, the American mission
hospital being partially looted and a Roman Catholic
establishment destroyed by fire. The Provincial Government was
acting weakly and unprofitably."

Towards the end of September, "Yü marched with about 2,000
uniformed men and took up a position on the Ch'êng-tu road;
thence he moved east to Tung-Liang, pillaging and burning the
houses of Christians, and levying contributions on the rich.
The Viceroy, at the request of the Consuls, was said to have
sent 4,000 troops from Ch'êng-tu, Lu-chou, and Ho-chiang to
converge on Chungking. Twelve of the rebels, who had been
seized at a place only 30 miles south of the port, were
publicly executed with torture in Chungking on the 30th
September." In October the report was that "fresh troops were
arriving, and were taking up positions along the Ch'êng-tu
road, and the passes north of Chungking. Further executions
had taken place. … The Procureur of the French Mission
estimated that up to date the total damage done by Yü Mau-tzu
was twenty persons killed, the houses of 6,000 Christians
burned and their property stolen, and twelve Missions
destroyed."

_Great Britain, Papers by Command: China,
Number 1, 1899, page 249, and Number 1, 1900, page 152._

On the 12th of October the United States Minister, Mr. Conger,
sent to the State Department at Washington the following
translation of a decree issued by the Empress Dowager on the
6th:

"From the opening of ports to foreign trade to the present
time, foreigners and Chinese have been as one family, with
undivided interests, and since missionaries from foreign
countries are living in the interior, we have decreed, not
three or four times, but many times, that the local officials
must protect them; that the gentry and people of all the
provinces must sympathize with our desire for mutual
benevolence; that they must treat them truthfully and
honestly, without dislike or suspicion, with the hope of
lasting peaceful relations.

"Recently, there have been disturbances in the provinces which
it has been impossible to avoid. There have been several cases
of riot in Szechuan, which have not been settled. The stupid
and ignorant people who circulate rumors and stir up strife,
proceeding from light to grave differences, are most truly to
be detested. On the other hand, the officials, who have not
been able at convenient seasons to properly instruct the
people and prevent disturbances, can not be excused from
censure.

"We now especially decree again that all high provincial
officials, wherever there are churches, shall distinctly
instruct the local officials to most respectfully obey our
several decrees, to recognize and protect the foreign
missionaries as they go to and fro, and to treat them with all
courtesy. If lawsuits arise between Chinese and native
Christians, they must be conducted with justice and speedily
concluded. Moreover, they must command and instruct the gentry
and people to fulfill their duties, that there may be no
quarrels or disagreements. Wherever there are foreigners
traveling from place to place, they must surely be protected
and the extreme limit of our hospitality extended. After the
issue of this decree, if there is any lack of preparation and
disturbances should arise, the officials of that locality will
be severely dealt with; whether they be viceroys or governors
or others they shall be punished, and it will not avail to say
we have not informed you."

_United States Consular Reports,
February, 1899, page 299._

On the 1st of November the British Consul at Chungking
announced "an alarming extension of the rebellion. Flourishing
communities of Christians in four districts were destroyed,
and heavy contributions were laid on non-Christians. The
continued inactivity of the Government troops was chiefly
attributable to orders from the Yamên to the effect that the
first and foremost consideration was the rescue of Père
Fleury. Negotiations were being carried on by the Chungking
Taotai and the Chinese Generals for the Father's release; a
ransom of 100,000 taels was offered, presents were sent to Yü
and his mother, and he and his lieutenants were given buttons
of the third rank." The next month, however, brought on the
scene a new Viceroy who really wished to suppress the
insurrection, though he "complained that his hands were tied
by the Yamên's instructions, which urged him to come to terms
with Yü." At last this singularly energetic Viceroy got
permission to fight the rebels. On arriving in front of the
terrible Yü he "found that the troops who had been stationed
there previously were quite untrustworthy, and that the
Generals and local officials were all more or less in league
with the rebels. However, as soon as it was learnt that the
Treasurer meant business, a number of the rebels dispersed.
The main band, under Yü Mau-tzu, about 6,000 in number, was
then surrounded in Ta Tsu Hsien, after a preliminary encounter
in which the rebels lost some 100 men. By the 19th January, a
Maxim was brought to bear on Yü's camp, and the rebels fled
like rabbits. Yü begged Père Fleury to save his life, and next
day released the Father, who found his way to the Treasurer,
after some narrow escapes. Yü then surrendered."

It was said at the time that the French government was
demanding an indemnity in this case to the amount of £150,000.
Later it was understood that the French Minister at Peking
"had taken advantage of the pending missionary ease to revive
an old request for a Mining Concession."

_Great Britain, Papers by Command:
China, Number 1, 1900._

{99}

CHINA: A. D. 1899.
Anti-missionary outbreaks, increasing piracy, and other
signs of growing disorder in the country.

During 1899 there was a notable relaxation of the hard and
ceaseless pressure upon China which governments, capitalists
and speculators had been keeping up of late, in demands more
or less peremptory for harbor leases, settlement grounds,
railway franchises, mining privileges, and naval, military and
commercial advantages of every possible sort. But the irritation
of the country under the bullying and "nagging" of the
treatment it had received from the European nations revealed
itself in increasing outbreaks of popular hostility to
foreigners; and these called out threats and demands, for
indemnity and punishment, which were made, as a rule, in the
truculent tone that had become habitual to western diplomacy
in dealing with the people of the East. It was a tone which
the Chinese provoked, by the childish evasions and treacherous
deceptions with which their officials tried to baffle the
demands made on them; but it gave no less offense, and is no
less plainly to be counted among the causes of what afterwards
occurred.

Throughout most of the year, the British Legation at Peking
and the Consulate at Chungking were busied in obtaining
satisfaction for the murder of Mr. Fleming, a missionary in
the China Inland Mission, stationed at Pang Hai, near
Kwei-Yang. He had been killed and the mission looted in
November, 1898. The Chinese authorities claimed that he had
been killed by a band of rebels. The British Consul
investigated and became convinced that the missionary had been
the victim of a deliberate plot, directed by the headman of the
village of Chung An Chiang, where the murder occurred, and
connived at by the military official Liu. The Chinese
government, yielding to this conviction, caused two of the
murderers to be executed, degraded and exiled all of the local
officials who were involved in the crime, except the headman,
and paid an indemnity of $30,000. But the headman escaped, and
it was claimed by the governor of the province that he could
not be found. The British authorities found evidence that he
was being shielded by the governor, and demanded the dismissal
of the governor, which was persistently refused. Finally, in
October, 1899, the guilty headman was hunted down.