Chapter LXXIV: Preface: TO SECOND EDITION xi (71)

1516.—"Item—our Captain Major, or Captain of Cochim shall give passes to
secure the navigation of the ships and ZANBUQOS of their ports ...
provided they do not carry spices or drugs that we require for our
cargoes, but if such be found, for the first occasion they shall lose all
the spice and drugs so loaded, and on the second they shall lose both
ship and cargo, and all may be taken as prize of war."—_Treaty_ of _Lopo
Soares_ with _Coulão_ (QUILON), in _Botelho, Tombo, Subsidios_, p. 32.

[1516.—"ZAMBUCOS." See under ARECA.]

1518.—"ZAMBUQUO." See under PROW.

1543.—"Item—that the ZANBUQUOS which shall trade in his port in rice or
_nele_ (paddy) and cottons and other matters shall pay the customary
dues."—_Treaty_ of _Martin Affonso de Sousa_ with _Coulam_, in _Botelho,
Tombo_, 37.

[1814.—"SAMBOUK." See under DHOW.]

1855.—"Our pilgrim ship ... was a SAMBUK of about 400 _ardébs_ (50 tons),
with narrow wedge-like bows, a clean water-line, a sharp keel, undecked
except upon the poop, which was high enough to act as a sail in a gale of
wind. We carried 2 masts, imminently raking forward, the main
considerably longer than the mizen, and the former was provided with a
large triangular latine...."—_Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and
Meccah_, i. 276; [Memorial ed. i. 188].

1858.—"The vessels of the Arabs called SEMBUK are small Baggelows of 80
to 100 tons burden. Whilst they run out forward into a sharp prow, the
after part of the vessel is disproportionately broad and elevated above
the water, in order to form a counterpoise to the colossal triangular
sail which is hoisted to the masthead with such a spread that often the
extent of the yard is greater than the whole length of the vessel."—_F.
von Neimans_, in _Zeitschr. der Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch._ xii. 420.

1880.—"The small sailing boat with one sail, which is called by the Arabs
'JÁMBOOK' with which I went from Hodeida to Aden."—Letter in _Athenaeum_,
March 13, p. 346.

[1900.—"We scrambled into a SAMBOUKA crammed and stuffed with the
baggage."—_Bent, Southern Arabia_, 220.]

SAMBRE, SAMBUR, s. Hind. _sābar_, _sāmbar_; Skt. śambara. A kind of stag (_Rusa Aristotelis_, Jerdon; [Blanford, _Mammalia_, 543 _seqq._]) the ELK of S. Indian sportsmen; _ghaus_ of Bengal; jerrow (_jarāo_) of the Himālaya; the largest of Indian stags, and found in all the large forests of India. The word is often applied to the soft leather, somewhat resembling chamois leather, prepared from the hide.

1673.—"... Our usual diet was of spotted deer, SABRE, wild Hogs and
sometimes wild Cows."—_Fryer_, 175.

[1813.—"Here he saw a number of deer, and four large SABIRS or SAMBOOS,
one considerably bigger than an ox...."—_Diary_, in _Forbes, Or. Mem._
2nd ed. ii. 400.]

1823.—"The skin of the SAMBRE, when well prepared, forms an excellent
material for the military accoutrements of the soldiers of the native
Powers."—_Malcolm, Central India_, i. 9.

[1900.—"The SAMBU stags which Lord Powerscourt turned out in his
glens...."—_Spectator_, December 15, p. 883.]

SAMPAN, s. A kind of small boat or skiff. The word appears to be Javanese and Malay. It must have been adopted on the Indian shores, for it was picked up there at an early date by the Portuguese; and it is now current all through the further East. [The French have adopted the Annamite form _tamban_.] The word is often said to be originally Chinese, '_sanpan_,' = 'three boards,' and this is possible. It is certainly one of the most ordinary words for a boat in China. Moreover, we learn, on the authority of Mr. E. C. Baber, that there is another kind of boat on the Yangtse which is called _wu-pan_, 'five boards.' Giles however says: "From the Malay _sam-pan_ = three boards"; but in this there is some confusion. The word has no such meaning in Malay.

1510.—"My companion said, 'What means then might there be for going to
this island?"' They answered: 'That it was necessary to purchase a
CHIAMPANA,' that is a small vessel, of which many are found
there."—_Varthema_, 242.

1516.—"They (the Moors of Quilacare) perform their voyages in small
vessels which they call CHAMPANA."—_Barbosa_, 172.

c. 1540.—"In the other, whereof the captain was slain, there was not one
escaped, for _Quiay Panian_ pursued them in a CHAMPANA, which was the
Boat of his Junk."—_Pinto_ (_Cogan_, p. 79), orig. ch. lix.

1552.-"... CHAMPANAS, which are a kind of small vessels."—_Castanheda_,
ii. 76; [rather, Bk. ii. ch. xxii. p. 76].

1613.—"And on the beach called the Bazar of the _Jaos_ ... they sell
every sort of provision in rice and grain for the Jaos merchants of Java
Major, who daily from the dawn are landing provisions from their junks
and ships in their boats or CHAMPENAS (which are little
skiffs)...."—_Godinho de Eredia_, 6.

[1622.—"Yt was thought fytt ... to trym up a China SAMPAN to goe with the
fleete...."—_Cocks's Diary_, Hak. Soc. ii. 122.]

1648.—In _Van Spilbergen's Voyage_ we have CHAMPANE, and the still more
odd CHAMPAIGNE. [See under TOPAZ.]

1702.—"SAMPANS being not to be got we were forced to send for the Sarah
and Eaton's Long-boats."—_MS. Correspondence in 1. Office from China
Factory_ (at Chusan), Jan. 8.

c. 1788.—"Some made their escape in prows, and some in SAMPANS."—_Mem. of
a Malay Family_, 3.

1868.—"The harbour is crowded with men-of-war and trading vessels ...
from vessels of several hundred tons burthen down to little fishing-boats
and passenger SAMPANS."—_Wallace, Malay Archip._ 21.

SAMSHOO, s. A kind of ardent spirit made in China from rice. Mr. Baber doubts this being Chinese; but according to Wells Williams the name is _san-shao_, 'thrice fired' (_Guide_, 220). 'Distilled liquor' is _shao-siu_, 'fired liquor.' Compare Germ. _Brantwein_, and XXX beer. Strabo says: 'Wine the Indians drink not except when sacrificing, and that is made of rice in lieu of barley" (xv. c. i. § 53).

1684.—"... SAMPSOE, or Chinese Beer."—_Valentijn_, iv. (_China_) 129.

[1687.—"SAMSHU." See under ARRACK.]

1727.—"... SAMSHEW or Rice Arrack."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 222; [ed. 1744,
ii. 224].

c. 1752.—"... the people who make the _Chinese_ brandy called SAMSU, live
likewise in the suburbs."—_Osbeck's Voyage_, i. 235.

[1852.—"... SAMSHOE, a Chinese invention, and which is distilled from
rice, after the rice has been permitted to foment (?) in ... vinegar and
water."—_Neale, Residence in Siam_, 75.

SANDAL, SANDLE, SANDERS, SANDAL-WOOD, s. From Low Latin santalum, in Greek σάνταλον, and in later Greek σάνδανον; coming from the Arab. _ṣandal_, and that from Skt. _chandana_. The name properly belongs to the fragrant wood of the _Santalum album_, L. Three woods bearing the name _santalum_, white, yellow, and red, were in officinal use in the Middle Ages. But the name Red Sandalwood, or Red Sanders, has been long applied, both in English and in the Indian vernaculars, to the wood of _Pterocarpus santalina_, L., a tree of S. India, the wood of which is inodorous, but which is valued for various purposes in India (pillars, turning, &c.), and is exported as a dye-wood. According to Hanbury and Flückiger this last was the _sanders_ so much used in the cookery of the Middle Ages for colouring sauces, &c. In the opinion of those authorities it is doubtful whether the red sandal of the medieval pharmacologists was a kind of the real odorous sandal-wood, or was the wood of _Pteroc. santal._ It is possible that sometimes the one and sometimes the other was meant. For on the one hand, even in modern times, we find Milburn (see below) speaking of the three colours of the real sandal-wood; and on the other hand we find Matthioli in the 16th century speaking of the red sandal as inodorous.

It has been a question how the _Pterocarpus santalina_ came to be called sandal-wood at all. We may suggest, as a possible origin of this, the fact that its powder "mixed with oil is used for bathing and purifying the skin" (_Drury_, s.v.), much as the true sandal-wood powder also is used in the East.

c. 545.—"And from the remoter regions, I speak of Tzinista and other
places of export, the imports to Taprobane are silk, aloeswood, cloves,
SANDALWOOD (τζάνδανη), and so forth...."—_Cosmas_, in _Cathay_, &c.,
clxxvii.

1298.—"Encore sachiez que en ceste ysle a arbres de SANDAL vermoille ausi
grant come sunt les arbres des nostre contrée ... et il en ont bois come
nos avuns d'autres arbres sauvajes."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. cxci.

c. 1390.—"Take powdered rice and boil it in almond milk ... and colour it
with SAUNDERS."—Recipe quoted by _Wright, Domestic Manners_, &c., 350.

1554.—"Le SANTAL donc croist es Indes Orientales et Occidentales: en
grandes Forestz, et fort espesses. Il s'en treuue trois especes: mais le
plus pasle est le meilleur: le blanc apres: le rouge est mis au dernier
ranc, pource qu'il n'a aucune odeur: mais les deux premiers sentent fort
bon."—_Matthioli_ (old Fr. version), liv. i. ch. xix.

1563.—"The SANDAL grows about Timor, which produces the largest quantity,
and it is called CHUNDANA; and by this name it is known in all the
regions about Malaca; and the Arabs, being those who carried on the trade
of those parts, corrupted the word and called it SANDAL. Every Moor,
whatever his nation, calls it thus...."—_Garcia_, f. 185_v_. He proceeds
to speak of the SANDALO _vermelho_ as quite a different product, growing
in Tenasserim and on the Coromandel Coast.

1584.—"... SANDALES wilde from Cochin. SANDALES domestick from
Malacca...."—_Wm. Barrett_, in _Hakl._ ii. 412.

1613.—"... certain renegade Christians of the said island, along with the
Moors, called in the Hollanders, who thinking it was a fine opportunity,
went one time with five vessels, and another time with seven, against the
said fort, at a time when most of the people ... were gone to Solor for
the SANDAL trade, by which they had their living."—_Bocarro, Decada_,
723.

1615.—"Committee to procure the commodities recommended by Capt. Saris
for Japan, viz. ... pictures of wars, steel, skins,
SANDERS-WOOD."—_Sainsbury_, i. 380.

1813.—"When the trees are felled, the bark is taken off; they are then
cut into billets, and buried in a dry place for two months, during which
period the white ants will eat the outer wood without touching the
SANDAL; it is then taken up and ... sorted into three kinds. The deeper
the colour, the higher is the perfume; and hence the merchants sometimes
divide SANDAL into red, yellow, and white; but these are all different
shades of the same colour."—_Milburn_, i. 291.

1825.—"REDWOOD, properly RED SAUNDERS, is produced chiefly on the
Coromandel Coast, whence it has of late years been imported in
considerable quantity to England, where it is employed in dyeing. It ...
comes in round billets of a thickish red colour on the outside, a deep
brighter red within, with a wavy grain; no smell or taste."—_Ibid._ ed.
1825, p. 249.

SANDOWAY, n.p. A town of Arakan, the Burmese name of which is _Thandwé_ (Sand-wé), for which an etymology ('iron-tied'), and a corresponding legend are invented, as usual [see _Burmah Gazetteer_, ii. 606]. It is quite possible that the name is ancient, and represented by the _Sada_ of Ptolemy.

1553.—"In crossing the gulf of Bengal there arose a storm which dispersed
them in such a manner that Martin Affonso found himself alone, with his
ship, at the island called Negamale, opposite the town of SODOE, which is
on the mainland, and there was wrecked upon a reef...."—_Barros_, IV. ii.
1.

In I. ix. 1, it is called SEDOE.

1696.—"Other places along this Coast subjected to this King (of Arracan)
are _Coromoria_, SEDOA, _Zara_, and _Port Magaoni_."—Appendix to
_Ovington_, p. 563.

SANGUICEL, s. This is a term (pl. _sanguiceis_) often used by the Portuguese writers on India for a kind of boat, or small vessel, used in war. We are not able to trace any origin in a vernacular word. It is perhaps taken from the similar proper name which is the subject of the next article. [This supposition is rendered practically certain from the quotation from Albuquerque below, furnished by Mr. Whiteway.] Bluteau gives "SANGUICEL; termo da India. He hum genero de embarcação pequena q̃ serve na costa da India para dar alcanse aos paròs dos Mouros," 'to give chase to the prows of the Moors.'

[1512.—"Here was Nuno Vaz in a ship, the St. John, which was built in
ÇAMGUICAR."—_Albuquerque, Cartas_, p. 99. In a letter of Nov. 30, 1513,
he varies the spelling to ÇAMGICAR. There are many other passages in the
same writer which make it practically certain that SANGUICELS were the
vessels built at Sanguicer.]

1598.—"The Conde (Francisco da Gama) was occupied all the WINTER (q.v.)
in reforming the fleets ... and as the time came on he nominated his
brother D. Luiz da Gama to be Captain-Major of the Indian Seas for the
expedition to Malabar, and wrote to Baçaim to equip six very light
SANGUICELS according to instructions which should be given by Sebastian
Botelho, a man of great experience in that craft.... These orders were
given by the Count Admiral because he perceived that big fleets were not
of use to guard convoys, and that it was light vessels like these alone
which could catch the paraos and vessels of the pirates ... for these
escaped our fleets, and got hold of the merchant vessels at their
pleasure, darting in and out, like light horse, where they
would...."—_Couto_, Dec. XII. liv. i. ch. 18.

1605.—"And seeing that I am informed that ... the incursions of certain
pirates who still infest that coast might be prevented with less
apparatus and expense, if we had light vessels which would be more
effective than the foists and galleys of which the fleets have hitherto
been composed, seeing how the enemy use their SANGUICELS, which our ships
and galleys cannot overtake, I enjoin and order you to build a quantity
of light vessels to be employed in guarding the coast in place of the
fleet of galleys and foists...."—_King's Letter_ to _Dom Affonso de
Castro_, in _Livros das Monções_, i. 26.

[1612.—See under GALLIVAT, B.]

1614.—"The eight Malabaresque SANGUICELS that Francis de Miranda
despatched to the north from the bar of Goa went with three chief
captains, each of them to command a week in turn...."—_Bocarro, Decada_,
262.

SANGUICER, SANGUEÇA, ZINGUIZAR, &c., n.p. This is a place often mentioned in the Portuguese narratives, as very hostile to the Goa Government, and latterly as a great nest of corsairs. This appears to be _Sangameshvar_, lat. 17° 9′, formerly a port of Canara on the River Shāstrī, and standing 20 miles from the mouth of that river. The latter was navigable for large vessels up to Sangameshvar, but within the last 50 years has become impassable. [The name is derived from Skt. _sangama-īśvara_, 'Siva, Lord of the river confluence.']

1516.—"Passing this river of Dabul and going along the coast towards Goa
you find a river called CINGUIÇAR, inside of which there is a place where
there is a traffic in many wares, and where enter many vessels and small
_Zambucos_ (SAMBOOK) of Malabar to sell what they bring, and buy the
products of the country. The place is peopled by Moors, and Gentiles of
the aforesaid Kingdom of Daquem" (DECCAN).—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. p. 286.

1538.—"Thirty-five leagues from Guoa, in the middle of the Gulf of the
Malabars there runs a large river called ZAMGIZARA. This river is well
known and of great renown. The bar is bad and very tortuous, but after
you get within, it makes amends for the difficulties without. It runs
inland for a great distance with great depth and breadth."—_De Castro,
Primeiro Roteiro_, 36.

1553.—De Barros calls it ZINGAÇAR in II. i. 4, and SANGAÇA in IV. i. 14.

1584.—"There is a Haven belonging to those ryvers (rovers), distant from
Goa about 12 miles, and is called SANGUISEO, where many of those Rovers
dwell, and doe so much mischiefe that no man can passe by, but they
receive some wrong by them.... Which the Viceroy understanding, prepared
an armie of 15 Foists, over which he made chiefe Captaine a Gentleman,
his Nephew called Don Iulianes Mascharenhas, giving him expresse
commandement first to goe unto the Haven of SANGUISEU, and utterly to
raze the same downe to the ground."—_Linschoten_, ch. 92; [Hak. Soc. ii.
170].

1602.—"Both these projects he now began to put in execution, sending all
his treasures (which they said exceeded ten millions in gold) to the
river of SANGUICER, which was also within his jurisdiction, being a
seaport, and there embarking it at his pleasure."—_Couto_, ix. 8. See
also Dec. X. iv.:

"_How D. Gileanes Mascarenhas arrived in Malabar, and how he entered the
river of_ SANGUICER _to chastise the Naique of that place; and of the
disaster in which he met his death_." (This is the event of 1584 related
by Linschoten); also Dec. X. vi. 4: "_Of the things that happened to D.
Jeronymo Mascarenhas in Malabar, and how he had a meeting with the
Zamorin, and swore peace with him; and how he brought destruction on the
Naique of_ SANGUICER."

1727.—"There is an excellent Harbour for Shipping 8 Leagues to the
Southward of _Dabul_, called SANGUSEER, but the Country about being
inhabited by _Raparees_, it is not frequented."—_A. Hamilton_, [ed. 1744]
i. 244.

SANSKRIT, s. The name of the classical language of the Brahmans, _Saṃskṛita_, meaning in that language 'purified' or 'perfected.' This was obviously at first only an epithet, and it is not of very ancient use in this specific application. To the Brahmans Sanskrit was the _bhāsha_, or language, and had no particular name. The word Sanskrit is used by the protogrammarian Pāṇini (some centuries before Christ), but not as a denomination of the language. In the latter sense, however, both 'Sanskrit' and 'Prakrit' (PRACRIT) are used in the _Bṛihat Samhitā_ of Varāhamihira, c. A.D. 504, in a chapter on omens (lxxxvi. 3), to which Prof. Kern's translation does not extend. It occurs also in the _Mṛichch'hakaṭikā_, translated by Prof. H. H. Wilson in his _Hindu Theatre_, under the name of the 'Toy-cart'; in the works of Kumārila Bhatta, a writer of the 7th century; and in the _Pāṇinīyā Śīkshā_, a metrical treatise ascribed by the Hindus to Pāṇini, but really of comparatively modern origin.

There is a curiously early mention of Sanskrit by the Mahommedan poet Amīr Khusrū of Delhi, which is quoted below. The first mention (to our knowledge) of the word in any European writing is in an Italian letter of Sassetti's, addressed from Malabar to Bernardo Davanzati in Florence, and dating from 1586. The few words on the subject, of this writer, show much acumen.

In the 17th and 18th centuries such references to this language as occur are found chiefly in the works of travellers to Southern India, and by these it is often called _Grandonic_, or the like, from _grantha_, 'a book' (see GRUNTH, GRUNTHUM) _i.e._ a book of the classical Indian literature. The term _Sanskrit_ came into familiar use after the investigations into this language by the English in Bengal (viz. by Wilkins, Jones, &c.) in the last quarter of the 18th century. [See Macdonell, _Hist. of Sanskrit Lit._ ch. i.]

A.D. _x_?—"_Maitreya._ Now, to me, there are two things at which I cannot
choose but laugh, a woman reading SANSKRIT, and a man singing a song: the
woman snuffles like a young cow when the rope is first passed through her
nostrils; and the man wheezes like an old Pandit repeating his
bead-roll."—_The Toy-Cart_, E.T. in _Wilson's Works_, xi. 60.

A.D. _y_?—"Three-and-sixty or four-and-sixty sounds are there originally
in Prakrit (PRACRIT) even as in SANSKRIT, as taught by the
Svayambhū."—_Pāṇinīyā Śīkshā_, quoted in _Weber's Ind. Studien_ (1858),
iv. 348. But see also _Weber's Akadem. Vorlesungen_ (1876), p. 194.

1318.—"But there is another language, more select than the other, which
all the Brahmans use. Its name from of old is SAHASKRIT, and the common
people know nothing of it."—_Amīr Khusrū_, in _Elliot_, iii. 563.

1586.—"Sono scritte le loro scienze tutte in una lingua che dimandano
SAMSCRUTA, che vuol dire 'bene articolata': della quale non si ha memoria
quando fusse parlata, con avere (com' io dico) memorie antichissime.
Imparanla come noi la greca e la latina, e vi pongono molto maggior
tempo, si che in 6 anni o 7 sene fanno padroni: et ha la lingua d'oggi
molte cose comuni con quella, nella quale sono molti de' nostri nomi, e
particularmente de numeri il 6, 7, 8, e 9, _Dio, serpe_, et altri
assai."—_Sassetti_, extracted in _De Gubernatis, Storia_, &c., Livorno,
1875, p. 221.

c. 1590.—"Although this country (Kashmīr) has a peculiar tongue, the
books of knowledge are SANSKRIT (or Sahanskrit). They also have a written
character of their own, with which they write their books. The substance
which they chiefly write upon is _Tūs_, which is the bark of a tree,[237]
which with a little pains they make into leaves, and it lasts for years.
In this way ancient books have been written thereon, and the ink is such
that it cannot be washed out."—_Āīn_ (orig.), i. p. 563; [ed. _Jarrett_,
ii. 351].

1623.—"The Jesuites conceive that the Bramenes are of the dispersion of
the Israelites, and their Bookes (called SAMESCRETAN) doe somewhat agree
with the Scriptures, but that they understand them not."—_Purchas,
Pilgrimage_, 559.

1651.—"... _Souri_ signifies the Sun in SAMSCORTAM, which is a language
in which all the mysteries of Heathendom are written, and which is held
in esteem by the Bramines just as Latin is among the Learned in
Europe."—_Rogerius_, 4.

In some of the following quotations we have a form which it is difficult to account for:

c. 1666.—"Their first study is in the HANSCRIT, which is a language
entirely different from the common _Indian_, and which is only known by
the _Pendets_. And this is that Tongue, of which Father _Kircher_ hath
published the Alphabet received from Father _Roa_. It is called HANSCRIT,
that is, a pure Language; and because they believe this to be the Tongue
in which God, by means of _Brahma_, gave them the four _Beths_ (see
VEDA), which they esteem _Sacred Books_, they call it a Holy and Divine
Language."—_Bernier_, E.T. 107; [ed. _Constable_, 335].

1673.—"... who founded these, their Annals nor their SANSCRIPT deliver
not."—_Fryer_, 161.

1689.—"... the learned Language among them is called the
SANSCREET."—_Ovington_, 248.

1694.—"Indicus ludus _Tchûpur_, sic nominatus veterum Brachmanorum linguâ
Indicè dictâ SANSCROOT, seu, ut vulgo, exiliori sono elegantiae causâ
SANSCREET, non autem HANSCREET ut minus recte eam nuncupat
Kircherus."—_Hyde, De Ludis Orientt._, in _Syntagma Diss._ ii. 264.

1726.—"Above all it would be a matter of general utility to the Coast
that some more chaplains should be maintained there for the sole purpose
of studying the _Sanskrit_ tongue (_de_ SANSKRITZE _taal_) the
head-and-mother tongue of most of the Eastern languages, and once for all
to make an exact translation of the _Vedam_ or Law book of the
Heathen...."—_Valentijn, Choro._ p. 72.

1760.—"They have a learned language peculiar to themselves, called the
HANSCRIT...."—_Grose_, i. 202.

1774.—"This code they have written in their own language, the SHANSCRIT.
A translation of it is begun under the inspection of one of the body,
into the Persian language, and from that into English."—_W. Hastings_, to
_Lord Mansfield_, in _Gleig_, i. 402.

1778.—"The language as well as the written character of Bengal are
familiar to the Natives ... and both seem to be base derivatives from the
SHANSCRIT."—_Orme_, ed. 1803, ii. 5.

1782.—"La langue SAMSCROUTAM, _Samskret_, HANSCRIT ou _Grandon_, est la
plus étendue: ses caractères multipliés donnent beaucoup de facilité pour
exprimer ses pensées, ce qui l'a fait nommer langue divine par le P.
Pons."—_Sonnerat_, i. 224.

1794.—

"With Jones, a linguist, SANSKRIT, Greek, or Manks."
_Pursuits of Literature_, 6th ed. 286.

1796.—"La madre di tutte le lingue Indiane è la SAMSKRDA, cioè, _lingua
perfetta_, piena, _ben digerita_. _Krda_ opera perfetta o compita, _Sam_,
simul, _insieme_, e vuol dire lingua tutta insieme _ben digerita_,
legata, _perfetta_."—_Fra Paolino_, p. 258.

SAPECA, SAPÈQUE, s. This word is used at Macao for what we call CASH (q.v.) in Chinese currency; and it is the word generally used by French writers for that coin. Giles says: "From _sapek_, a coin found in Tonquin and Cochin-China, and equal to about half a pfennig (1/600 Thaler), or about one-sixth of a German Kreutzer" (_Gloss. of Reference_, 122). We cannot learn much about this coin of Tonquin. Milburn says, under 'Cochin China': "The only currency of the country is a sort of cash, called SAPPICA, composed chiefly of tutenague (see TOOTNAGUE), 600 making a _quan_: this is divided into 10 mace of 60 cash each, the whole strung together, and divided by a knot at each mace" (ed. 1825, pp. 444-445). There is nothing here inconsistent with our proposed derivation, given later on. _Mace_ and _Sappica_ are equally Malay words. We can hardly doubt that the true origin of the term is that communicated by our friend Mr. E. C. Baber: "Very probably from Malay _sa_, 'one,' and _păku_, 'a string or file of the small coin called pichis.' _Pichis_ is explained by Crawfurd as 'Small coin ... money of copper, brass, or tin.... It was the ancient coin of Java, and also the only one of the Malays when first seen by the Portuguese.' _Păku_ is written by Favre _peḳū_ (_Dict. Malais-Français_) and is derived by him from Chinese _pé-ko_, 'cent.' In the dialect of Canton _pak_ is the word for 'a hundred,' and one _pak_ is the colloquial term for a string of one hundred cash." SAPEKU would then be properly a string of 100 cash, but it is not difficult to conceive that it might through some misunderstanding (_e.g._ a confusion of _peku_ and _pichis_) have been transferred to the single coin. There is a passage in Mr. Gerson da Cunha's _Contributions to the Study of Portuguese Numismatics_, which may seem at first sight inconsistent with this derivation. For he seems to imply that the smallest denomination of coin struck by Albuquerque at Goa in 1510 was called CEPAYQUA, _i.e._ in the year before the capture of Malacca, and consequent familiarity with Malay terms. I do not trace his authority for this; the word is not mentioned in the Commentaries of Alboquerque, and it is quite possible that the _dinheiros_, as these small copper coins were also called, only received the name _cepayqua_ at a later date, and some time after the occupation of Malacca (see _Da Cunha_, pp. 11-12, and 22). [But also see the quotation of 1510 from Correa under PARDAO. This word has been discussed by Col. Temple (_Ind. Antiq._, August 1897, pp. 222 _seq._), who gives quotations establishing the derivation from the Malay _sapaku_.

[1639.—"It (_caxa_, cash) hath a four-square hole through it, at which
they string them on a Straw; a String of two hundred _Caxaes_, called
_Sata_, is worth about three farthings sterling, and five _Satas_ tyed
together make a SAPOCON. The Javians, when this money first came amongst
them, were so cheated with the Novelty, that they would give six bags of
Pepper for ten SAPOCONS, thirteen whereof amount to but a
Crown."-_-Mandelslo, Voyages_, E.T. p. 117.

[1703.—"This is the reason why the _Caxas_ are valued so little: they are
punched in the middle, and string'd with little twists of Straw, two
hundred in one Twist, which is called Santa, and is worth nine Deniers.
Five Santas tied together make a thousand _Caxas_, or a SAPOON (?
SAPOCON)."—_Collection of Dutch Voyages_, 199.

[1830.—"The money current in Bali consists solely of Chinese pice with a
hole in the centre.... They however put them up in hundreds and
thousands; two hundred are called _satah_, and are equal to one rupee
copper, and a thousand called SAPAKU, are valued at five
rupees."—_Singapore Chronicle_, June 1830, in _Moor, Indian Archip._ p.
94.

[1892.—"This is a brief history of the SAPEC (more commonly known to us
as the CASH), the only native coin of China, and which is found
everywhere from Malaysia to Japan."—_Ridgeway, Origin of Currency_, 157.]

SAPPAN-WOOD, s. The wood of _Caesalpina sappan_; the _baḳḳam_ of the Arabs, and the BRAZIL-WOOD of medieval commerce. Bishop Caldwell at one time thought the Tamil name, from which this was taken, to have been given because the wood was supposed to come from _Japan_. Rumphius says that Siam and Champa are the original countries of the Sappan, and quotes from Rheede that in Malabar it was called _Tsajampangan_, suggestive apparently of a possible derivation from _Champa_. The mere fact that it does not come from Japan would not disprove this derivation any more than the fact that turkeys and maize did not originally come from Turkey would disprove the fact of the birds and the grain (_gran turco_) having got names from such a belief. But the tree appears to be indigenous in Malabar, the Deccan, and the Malay Peninsula; whilst the Malayāl. _shappaṅṅam_, and the Tamil _shappu_, both signifying 'red (wood),' are apparently derivatives from _shawa_, 'to be red,' and suggest another origin as most probable. [The _Mad. Gloss._ gives Mal. _chappannam_, from _chappu_, 'leaf,' Skt. _anga_, 'body'; Tam. _shappangaṃ_.] The Malay word is also _sapang_, which Crawfurd supposes to have originated the trade-name. If, however, the etymology just suggested be correct, the word must have passed from Continental India to the Archipelago. For curious particulars as to the names of this dye-wood, and its vicissitudes, see BRAZIL; [and Burnell's note on _Linschoten_, Hak. Soc. i. 121].

c. 1570.—

"O rico Sião ja dado ao Bremem,
O Cochim de Calemba que deu mana
De SAPÃO, chumbo, salitre e vitualhas
Lhe apercebem celleiros e muralhas."
_A. de Abreu, Desc. de Malaca._

1598.—"There are likewise some Diamants and also ... the wood SAPON,
whereof also much is brought from _Sian_, it is like Brasill to die
withall."—_Linschoten_, 36; [Hak. Soc. i. 120].

c. 1616.—"There are in this city of Ová (read _Odia_, JUDEA), capital of
the kingdom of Siam, two factories; one of the Hollanders with great
capital, and another of the English with less. The trade which both drive
is in deer-skins, shagreen SAPPAN (_sapão_) and much silk which comes
thither from Chincheo and Cochinchina...."—_Bocarro, Decada_, 530.

[1615.—"Hindering the cutting of BACCAM or brazill wood."—_Foster,
Letters_, iii. 158.]

1616.—"I went to Sapàn Dono to know whether he would lend me any money
upon interest, as he promised me; but ... he drove me afe with wordes,
ofring to deliver me money for all our SAPPON which was com in this junk,
at 22 _mas_ per _pico_."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 208-9.

1617.—Johnson and Pitts at JUDEA in Siam "are glad they can send a junk
well laden with SAPON, because of its scarcity."—_Sainsbury_, ii. 32.

1625.—"... a wood to die withall called SAPAN wood, the same we here call
Brasill."—_Purchas, Pilgrimage_, 1004.

1685.—"Moreover in the whole Island there is a great plenty of Brazill
wood, which in India is called SAPÃO."—_Ribeiro, Fat. Hist._ f. 8.

1727.—"It (the Siam Coast) produces good store of SAPAN and Agala-woods,
with Gumlack and Sticklack, and many Drugs that I know little about."—_A.
Hamilton_, ii. 194; [ed. 1744].

1860.—"The other productions which constituted the exports of the island
were SAPAN wood to Persia...."—_Tennent, Ceylon_, ii. 54.

SARBATANE, SARBACANE, s. This is not Anglo-Indian, but it often occurs in French works on the East, as applied to the blowing-tubes used by various tribes of the Indian Islands for discharging small arrows, often poisoned. The same instrument is used among the tribes of northern South America, and in some parts of Madagascar. The word comes through the Span. _cebratana_, _cerbatana_, _zarbatana_, also Port. _sarabatana_, &c., Ital. _cerbotana_, Mod. Greek ζαροβοτάνα, from the Ar. _zabaṭāna_, 'a tube for blowing pellets' (a pea-shooter in fact!). Dozy says that the _r_ must have been sounded in the Arabic of the Spanish Moors, as Pedro de Alcala translates _zebratana_ by Ar. _zarbatāna_. The resemblance of this to the Malay SUMPITAN (q.v.) is curious, though it is not easy to suggest a transition, if the Arabic word is, as it appears, old enough to have been introduced into Spanish. There is apparently, however, no doubt that in Arabic it is a borrowed word. The Malay word seems to be formed directly from _sumpit_, 'to discharge from the mouth by a forcible expiration' (_Crawfurd, Mal. Dict._).

[1516.—"... the force which had accompanied the King, very well armed,
many of them with bows, others carrying blowing tubes with poisoned
arrows (_Zarvatanas com setas ervadas_)...."—_Comm. of Dalboquerque_,
Hak. Soc. iii. 104.]

SARBOJI, s. This is the name of some weapon used in the extreme south of India; but we have not been able to ascertain its character or etymology. We conjecture, however, that it may be the long lance or pike, 18 or 20 feet long, which was the characteristic and formidable weapon of the Marava COLLERIES (q.v.). See _Bp. Caldwell's H. of Tinnevelly_, p. 103 and _passim_; [_Stuart, Man. of Tinnevelly_, 50. This explanation is probably incorrect. Welsh (_Military Rem._ i. 104) defines SARABOGIES as "a species of park guns, for firing salutes at feasts, &c.; but not used in war." It has been suggested that the word is simply Hind. _sirbojha_, 'a head-load,' and Dr. Grierson writes: "'Laden with a head' may refer to a head carried home on a spear." Dr. Pope writes: "_Sarboji_ is not found in any Dravidian dialect, as far as I know. It is a synonym for Sivaji. _Sarva_ (_sarbo_)-_ji_ is honorific. In the Tanjore Inscription it is _Serfogi_. In mythology Siva's name is 'arrow,' 'spear,' and 'head-burthen,' of course by metonomy." Mr. Brandt suggests Tam. _sĕrŭ_, "war," _bŭgei_, "a tube." No weapon of the name appears in Mr. Egerton's _Hand-book of Indian Arms_.]

1801.—"The Rt. Hon. the Governor in Council ... orders and directs all
persons, whether Polygars (see POLIGAR), COLLERIES, or other inhabitants
possessed of arms in the Provinces of Dindigul, Tinnevelly, Ramnadpuram,
Sivagangai, and Madura, to deliver the said arms, consisting of Muskets,
Matchlocks, Pikes, Gingauls (see GINGALL), and SARABOGOI to Lieut.-Col.
Agnew...."—_Procl. by Madras Govt._, dd. 1st Decr., in _Bp. Caldwell's
Hist._ p. 227.

c. 1814.—"Those who carry spear and sword have land given them producing
5 _kalams_ of rice; those bearing muskets, 7 _kalams_; those bearing the
SARBOJI, 9 _kalams_; those bearing the _sanjali_ (see GINGALL), or gun
for two men, 14 kalams...."—_Account of the Maravas_, from _Mackenzie
MSS._ in _Madras Journal_, iv. 360.

SAREE, s. Hind. _sāṛī_, _sāṛhī_. The cloth which constitutes the main part of a woman's dress in N. India, wrapt round the body and then thrown over the head.

1598.—"... likewise they make whole pieces or webbes of this hearbe,
sometimes mixed and woven with silke.... Those webs are named
SARIJN...."—_Linschoten_, 28; [Hak. Soc. i. 96].

1785.—"... Her clothes were taken off, and a red silk covering (a SAURRY)
put upon her."—_Acct. of a Suttee_, in _Seton-Karr_, i. 90.

SARNAU, SORNAU, n.p. A name often given to Siam in the early part of the 16th century; from _Shahr-i-nao_, Pers. 'New-city'; the name by which Yuthia or Ayodhya (see JUDEA), the capital founded on the Menam about 1350, seems to have become known to the traders of the Persian Gulf. Mr. Braddell (_J. Ind. Arch._ v. 317) has suggested that the name (_Sheher-al-nawi_, as he calls it) refers to the distinction spoken of by La Loubère between the Thai-_Yai_, an older people of the race, and the Thai-_Noi_, the people known to us as Siamese. But this is less probable. We have still a city of Siam called _Lophaburī_, anciently a capital, and the name of which appears to be a Sanskrit or Pali form, _Nava-pura_, meaning the same as _Shahr-i-nao_; and this indeed may have first given rise to the latter name. The _Cernove_ of Nicolo Conti (c. 1430) is generally supposed to refer to a city of Bengal, and one of the present writers has identified it with Lakhnāotī or Gauṛ, an official name of which in the 14th cent. was _Shahr-i-nao_. But it is just possible that Siam was the country spoken of.

1442.—"The inhabitants of the sea-coasts arrive here (at Ormuz) from the
counties of Chín, Java, Bengal, the cities of Zirbád, Tenásiri, Sokotora,
SHAHR-I-NAO...."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _Not. et Exts._, xiv. 429.

1498.—"XARNAUZ is of Christians, and the King is Christian; it is 50 days
voyage with a fair wind from Calicut. The King ... has 400 elephants of
war; in the land is much benzoin ... and there is aloeswood...."—_Roteiro
de Vasco da Gama_, 110.

1510.—"... They said they were from a city called SARNAU, and had brought
for sale silken stuffs, and aloeswood, and benzoin, and
musk."—_Varthema_, 212.

1514.—"... Tannazzari, SARNAU, where is produced all the finest white
benzoin, storax, and lac finer than that of Martaman."—Letter of _Giov.
d'Empoli_, in _Arch. Storico Italiano_, App. 80.

1540.—"... all along the coast of _Malaya_, and within the Land, a great
King commands, who for a more famous and recommendable Title above all
other Kings, causeth himself to be called _Prechau Saleu_, Emperor of all
SORNAU, which is a Country wherein there are thirteen kingdoms, by us
commonly called SIAM" (Sião).—_Pinto_ (orig. cap. xxxvi.), in _Cogan_, p.
43.

c. 1612.—"It is related of Siam, formerly called SHEHER-AL-NAWI, to which
Country all lands under the wind here were tributary, that there was a
King called Bubannia, who when he heard of the greatness of Malacca sent
to demand submission and homage of that kingdom."—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J.
Ind. Arch._ v. 454.

1726.—"About 1340 reigned in the kingdom of SIAM (then called SJAHARNOUW
or SORNAU), a very powerful Prince."—_Valentijn_, v. 319.

SARONG, s. Malay. _sārung_; the body-cloth, or long kilt, tucked or girt at the waist, and generally of coloured silk or cotton, which forms the chief article of dress of the Malays and Javanese. The same article of dress, and the name (_saran_) are used in Ceylon. It is an old Indian form of dress, but is now used only by some of the people of the south; _e.g._ on the coast of Malabar, where it is worn by the Hindus (white), by the Mappilas (MOPLAH) of that coast, and the Labbais (LUBBYE) of Coromandel (coloured), and by the _Banṭs_ of Canara, who wear it of a dark blue. With the Labbais the coloured _sarong_ is a modern adoption from the Malays. Crawfurd seems to explain _sarung_ as Javanese, meaning first 'a case or sheath,' and then a wrapper or garment. But, both in the Malay islands and in Ceylon, the word is no doubt taken from Skt. _sāranga_, meaning 'variegated' and also 'a garment.'

[1830.—"... the cloth or SARONG, which has been described by Mr. Marsden
to be 'not unlike a Scots highlander's plaid in appearance, being a piece
of party-coloured cloth, about 6 or 8 feet long, and 3 or 4 feet wide,
sewed together at the ends, forming, as some writers have described it, a
wide sack without a bottom.' With the _Maláyus_, the SARONG is either
worn slung over the shoulders as a sash, or tucked round the waist and
descending to the ankles, so as to enclose the legs like a
petticoat."—_Raffles, Java_, i. 96.]

1868.—"He wore a SARONG or Malay petticoat, and a green
jacket."—_Wallace, Mal. Arch._ 171.

SATIGAM, n.p. _Sātgāon_, formerly and from remote times a port of much trade on the right bank of the Hoogly R., 30 m. above Calcutta, but for two and a half centuries utterly decayed, and now only the site of a few huts, with a ruined mosque as the only relique of former importance. It is situated at the bifurcation of the Saraswati channel from the Hoogly, and the decay dates from the silting up of the former. It was commonly called by the Portuguese PORTO PEQUENO (q.v.).

c. 1340.—"About this time the rebellion of Fakhrá broke out in Bengal.
Fakhrá and his Bengali forces killed Kádar Khán (Governor of
Lakhnauti).... He then plundered the treasury of Lakhnauti, and secured
possession of that place and of SATGÁNW and Sunárgánw."—_Ziā-ud-dīn
Barnī_, in _Elliot_, iii. 243.

1535.—"In this year Diogo Rabello, finishing his term of service as
Captain and Factor of the Choromandel fishery, with license from the
Governor went to Bengal in a vessel of his ... and he went well armed
along with two foists which equipped with his own money, the Governor
only lending him artillery and nothing more.... So this Diogo Rabello
arrived at the Port of SATIGAON, where he found two great ships of
Cambaya which three days before had arrived with great quantity of
merchandise, selling and buying: and these, without touching them, he
caused to quit the port and go down the river, forbidding them to carry
on any trade, and he also sent one of the foists, with 30 men, to the
other port of CHATIGAON, where they found three ships from the Coast of
Choromandel, which were driven away from the port. And Diogo Rabello sent
word to the Gozil that he was sent by the Governor with choice of peace
or war, and that he should send to ask the King if he chose to liberate
the (Portuguese) prisoners, in which case he also would liberate his
ports and leave them in their former peace...."—_Correa_, iii. 649.

[c. 1590.—"In the Sarkár of SÁTGÁON, there are two ports at a distance of
half a _kos_ from each other; the one is SÁTGÁON, the other Hugli: the
latter the chief; both are in the possession of the Europeans. Fine
pomegranates grow here."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 125.]

SATIN, s. This is of course English, not Anglo-Indian. The common derivation [accepted by Prof. Skeat (_Concise Dict._ 2nd ed. s.v.)] is with Low Lat. _seta_, 'silk,' Lat. _seta_, _saeta_, 'a bristle, a hair,' through the Port. _setim_. Dr. Wells Williams (_Mid. King._, ii. 123) says it is probably derived eventually from the Chinese _sz'-tün_, though intermediately through other languages. It is true that _sz'tün_ or _sz'-twan_ is a common (and ancient) term for this sort of silk texture. But we may remark that trade-words adopted directly from the Chinese are comparatively rare (though no doubt the intermediate transit indicated would meet this objection, more or less). And we can hardly doubt that the true derivation is that given in _Cathay and the Way Thither_, p. 486; viz. from _Zaitun_ or _Zayton_, the name by which Chwan-chau (CHINCHEW), the great medieval port of western trade in Fokien, was known to western traders. We find that certain rich stuffs of damask and satin were called from this place, by the Arabs, _Zaitūnia_; the Span. _aceytuni_ (for 'satin'), the medieval French _zatony_, and the medieval Ital. _zetani_, afford intermediate steps.

c. 1350.—"The first city that I reached after crossing the sea was
_Zaitūn_.... It is a great city, superb indeed; and in it they make
damasks of velvet as well as those of satin (_kimkhā_—see KINCOB, ATLAS),
which are called from the name of the city ZAITŪNIA."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv.
269.

1352.—In an inventory of this year in _Douet d'Arcq_ we have: "ZATONY at
4 _écus_ the ell" (p. 342).

1405.—"And besides, this city (Samarkand) is very rich in many wares
which come to it from other parts. From Russia and Tartary come hides and
linens, and from Cathay silk-stuffs, the best that are made in all that
region, especially the SETUNIS, which are said to be the best in the
world, and the best of all are those that are without pattern."—_Clavijo_
(translated anew—the passage corresponding to Markham's at p. 171). The
word SETUNI occurs repeatedly in Clavijo's original.

1440.—In the _Libro de Gabelli_, &c., of Giov. da Uzzano, we have mention
among silk stuffs, several times, of "ZETANI _vellutati_, and other kinds
of ZETANI."—_Della Decima_, iv. 58, 107, &c.

1441.—"Before the throne (at Bijanagar) was placed a cushion of ZAITŪNĪ
satin, round which three rows of the most exquisite pearls were
sewn."—_Abdurrazzāk_, in _Elliot_, iv. 120. (The original is
"_darpesh-i-takht bālishī az_ AṬLAS-I-ZAITŪNĪ"; see _Not. et Exts._ xiv.
376. Quatremère (_ibid._ 462) translated '_un carreau de satin_ olive,'
taking _zaitūn_ in its usual Arabic sense of 'an olive tree.') Also see
_Elliot_, iv. 113.

SATRAP, s. Anc. Pers. _khshatrapa_, which becomes _satrap_, as _khshāyathiya_ becomes _shāh_. The word comes to us direct from the Greek writers who speak of Persia. But the title occurs not only in the books of Ezra, Esther, and Daniel, but also in the ancient inscriptions, as used by certain lords in Western India, and more precisely in Surāshtra or Peninsular Guzerat. Thus, in a celebrated inscription regarding a dam, near Girnār:

c. A.D. 150.—"... he, the Mahā-KHSHATRAPA Rudradāman ... for the increase
of his merit and fame, has rebuilt the embankment three times
stronger."—In _Indian Antiquary_, vii. 262. The identity of this with
_satrap_ was pointed out by James Prinsep, 1838 (_J. As. Soc. Ben._ vii.
345). [There were two Indian satrap dynasties, viz. the Western Satraps
of Saurāshtra and Gujarāt, from about A.D. 150 to A.D. 388; for which see
_Rapson and Indraji, The Western Kshatrapas_ (_J. R. A. S., N. S._, 1890,
p. 639); and the Northern Kshatrapas of Mathura and the neighbouring
territories in the 1st cent. A.D. See articles by _Rapson and Indraji_ in
_J. R. A. S., N. S._, 1894, pp. 525, 541.]

1883.—"An eminent Greek scholar used to warn his pupils to beware of
false analogies in philology. 'Because,' he used to say, 'σατράπης is the
Greek for SATRAP, it does not follow that ῥατράπης is the Greek for
rat-trap.'"—_Sat. Rev._ July 14, p. 53.

SATSUMA, n.p. Name of a city and formerly of a principality (daimioship) in Japan, the name of which is familiar not only from the deplorable necessity of bombarding its capital Kagosima in 1863 (in consequence of the murder of Mr. Richardson, and other outrages, with the refusal of reparation), but from the peculiar cream-coloured pottery made there and now well known in London shops.

1615.—"I said I had receued suffition at his highnes hands in havinge the
good hap to see the face of soe mightie a King as the King of SHASHMA;
whereat he smiled."—_Cocks's Diary_, i. 4-5.

1617.—"Speeches are given out that the _caboques_ or Japon players (or
whores) going from hence for Tushma to meete the Corean ambassadors, were
set on by the way by a boate of XAXMA theeves, and kild all both men and
women, for the money they had gotten at Firando."—_Ibid._ 256.

SAUGOR, SAUGOR ISLAND, n.p. A famous island at the mouth of the Hoogly R., the site of a great fair and pilgrimage—properly _Ganga Sāgara_ ('Ocean Ganges'). It is said once to have been populous, but in 1688 (the date is clearly wrong) to have been swept by a cyclone-wave. It is now a dense jungle haunted by tigers.

1683.—"We went in our Budgeros to see ye Pagodas at SAGOR, and returned
to ye Oyster River, where we got as many Oysters as we
desired."—_Hedges_, March 12; [Hak. Soc. i. 68].

1684.—"James Price assured me that about 40 years since, when ye Island
called GONGA SAGUR was inhabited, ye Raja of ye Island gathered yearly
Rent out of it, to ye amount of 26 Lacks of Rupees."—_Ibid._ Dec. 15;
[Hak. Soc. i. 172].

1705.—"SAGORE est une Isle où il y a une Pagode très-respectée parmi les
Gentils, où ils vont en pelerinage, et où il y a deux Faquers qui y font
leur residence. Ces Faquers sçavent charmer les bêtes feroces, qu'on y
trouve en quantité, sans quoi ils seroient tous les jours exposés à estre
devorez."—_Luillier_, p. 123.

1727.—"... among the _Pagans_, the Island SAGOR is accounted holy, and
great numbers of _Jougies_ go yearly thither in the Months of _November_
and _December_, to worship and wash in Salt-Water, tho' many of them fall
Sacrifices to the hungry Tigers."—_A. Hamilton_, ii. 3; [ed. 1744].

SAUL-WOOD, s. Hind. _sāl_, from Skt. _śāla_; the timber of the tree _Shorea robusta_, Gaertner, N.O. _Dipterocarpeae_, which is the most valuable building timber of Northern India. Its chief habitat is the forest immediately under the Himālaya, at intervals throughout that region from the Brahmaputra to the Biās; it abounds also in various more southerly tracts between the Ganges and the Godavery. [The botanical name is taken from Sir John Shore. For the peculiar habitat of the Sāl as compared with the Teak, see _Forsyth, Highlands of C.I._ 25 _seqq._] It is strong and durable, but very heavy, so that it cannot be floated without more buoyant aids, and is, on that and other accounts, inferior to teak. It does not appear among eight kinds of timber in general use, mentioned in the _Āīn_. The _saul_ has been introduced into China, perhaps at a remote period, on account of its connection with Buddha's history, and it is known there by the Indian name, _so-lo_ (_Bretschneider_ on _Chinese Botan. Works_, p. 6).

c. 650.—"L'Honorable du siècle, animé d'une grande pitié, et obéissant à
l'ordre des temps, jugea utile de paraitre dans le monde. Quand il eut
fini de convertir les hommes, il se plongea dans les joies du Nirvâna. Se
plaçant entre deux arbres SÂLAS, il tourna sa tête vers le nord et
s'endormit."—_Hiouen Thsang, Mémoires_ (_Voyages des Pèl. Bouddh._ ii.
340).

1765.—"The produce of the country consists of SHAAL timbers (a wood equal
in quality to the best of our oak)."—_Holwell, Hist. Events_, &c., i.
200.

1774.—"This continued five _kos_; towards the end there are SĀL and large
forest trees."—_Bogle_, in _Markham's Tibet_, 19.

1810.—"The SAUL is a very solid wood ... it is likewise heavy, yet by no
means so ponderous as teak; both, like many of our former woods, sink in
fresh water."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 69.

SAYER, SYRE, &c., s. Hind. from Arab. _sā'ir_, a word used technically for many years in the Indian accounts to cover a variety of items of taxation and impost, other than the Land Revenue.

The transitions of meaning in Arabic words are (as we have several times had occasion to remark) very obscure; and until we undertook the investigation of the subject for this article (a task in which we are indebted to the kind help of Sir H. Waterfield, of the India Office, one of the busiest men in the public service, but, as so often happens, one of the readiest to render assistance) the obscurity attaching to the word _sayer_ in this sense was especially great.

Wilson, s.v. says: "In its original purport the word signifies moving, walking, or the whole, the remainder; from the latter it came to denote the remaining, or all other, sources of revenue accruing to the Government in addition to the land-tax." In fact, according to this explanation, the application of the term might be illustrated by the ancient story of a German Professor lecturing on botany in the pre-scientific period. He is reported to have said: 'Every plant, gentlemen, is divided into two parts. _This_ is the _root_,—and _this_ is the _rest of it_!' Land revenue was the root, and all else was 'the rest of it.'

Sir C. Trevelyan again, in a passage quoted below, says that the Arabic word has "the same meaning as 'miscellaneous.'" Neither of these explanations, we conceive, _pace tantorum virorum_, is correct.

The term SAYER in the 18th century was applied to a variety of inland imposts, but especially to local and arbitrary charges levied by zemindars and other individuals, with a show of authority, on all goods passing through their estates by land or water, or sold at markets (BAZAR, HAUT, GUNGE) established by them, charges which formed in the aggregate an enormous burden upon the trade of the country.

Now the fact is that in _sā'ir_ two old Semitic forms have coalesced in sound though coming from different roots, viz. (in Arabic) _sair_, producing _sā'ir_, 'walking, current,' and _sā'r_, producing _sā'ir_, 'remainder,' the latter being a form of the same word that we have in the Biblical _Shear-jashub_, 'the remnant shall remain' (_Isaiah_, vii. 3). And we conceive that the true sense of the Indian term was 'current or customary charges'; an idea that lies at the root of sundry terms of the same kind in various languages, including our own _Customs_, as well as the DUSTOORY which is so familiar in India. This interpretation is aptly illustrated by the quotation below from Mr. Stuart's Minute of Feb. 10, 1790.

At a later period it seems probable that some confusion arose with the other sense of _sā'ir_, leading to its use, more or less, for 'et ceteras,' and accounting for what we have indicated above as erroneous explanations of the word.

I find, however, that the _Index and Glossary to the Regulations_, ed. 1832 (vol. iii.), defines: "SAYER. What moves. Variable imports, distinct from land-rent or revenue, consisting of customs, tolls, licenses, duties on merchandise, and other articles of personal moveable property; as well as mixed duties, and taxes on houses, shops, bazars, &c." This of course throws some doubt on the rationale of the Arabic name as suggested above.

In a despatch of April 10, 1771, to Bengal, the Court of Directors drew attention to the private Bazar charges, as "a great detriment to the public collections, and a burthen and oppression to the inhabitants"; enjoining that no _Buzars_ or _Gunges_ should be kept up but such as particularly belonged to the Government. And in such the duties were to be rated in such manner as the respective positions and prosperity of the different districts would admit.