Chapter LXXXII: Act III: of 1873. Under that system the highest rank of native Judge was (1)

PRINCIPAL SUDDER AMEEN; the 2nd rank, SUDDER AMEEN; the 3rd, MOONSIFF. In the new classification there are in Bengal Subordinate Judges of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade, and Munsiffs (see MOONSIFF) of 4 grades; in Bombay, Subordinate Judges of the 1st class in 3 grades, and 2nd class in 4 grades; and in Madras Subordinate Judges in 3 grades, and Munsiffs in 4 grades.

D. SUDDER STATION. The chief station of a district, viz. that where the Collector, Judge, and other chief civil officials reside, and where their Courts are.

c. 1340.—"The ṢADR-_Jihān_ ('Chief of the Word') _i.e._ the
ḲAḌĪ-_al-Kuḍāt_ ('Judge of Judges') (CAZEE) ... possesses ten townships,
producing a revenue of about 60,000 TANKAS. He is also called
ṢADR-AL-_Islām_."—_Shihābuddīn Dimishkī_, in _Notes et Exts._ xiii. 185.

SUFEENA, s. Hind. _safīna_. This is the native corr. of _subpoena_. It is shaped, but not much distorted, by the existence in Hind. of the Ar. word _safīna_ for 'a blank-book, a note-book.'

SUGAR, s. This familiar word is of Skt. origin. _Sarkara_ originally signifies 'grit or gravel,' thence crystallised sugar, and through a Prakrit form _sakkara_ gave the Pers. _shakkar_, the Greek σάκχαρ and σάκχαρον, and the late Latin _saccharum_. The Ar. is _sukkar_, or with the article _as-sukkar_, and it is probable that our modern forms, It. _zucchero_ and _succhero_, Fr. _sucre_, Germ. _Zucker_, Eng. _sugar_, came as well as the Sp. _azucar_, and Port. _assucar_, from the Arabic direct, and not through Latin or Greek. The Russian is _sakhar_; Polish _zukier_; Hung. _zukur_. In fact the ancient knowledge of the product was slight and vague, and it was by the Arabs that the cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced into Egypt, Sicily, and Andalusia. It is possible indeed, and not improbable, that palm-sugar (see JAGGERY) is a much older product than that of the cane. [This is disputed by Watt (_Econ. Dict._ vi. pt. i. p. 31), who is inclined to fix the home of the cane in E. India.] The original habitat of the cane is not known; there is only a slight and doubtful statement of Loureiro, who, in speaking of Cochin-China, uses the words "habitat et colitur," which may imply its existence in a wild state, as well as under cultivation, in that country. De Candolle assigns its earliest production to the country extending from Cochin-China to Bengal.

Though, as we have said, the knowledge which the ancients had of sugar was very dim, we are disposed greatly to question the thesis, which has been so confidently maintained by Salmasius and later writers, that the original _saccharon_ of Greek and Roman writers was not sugar but the siliceous concretion sometimes deposited in bamboos, and used in medieval medicine under the name TABASHEER (q.v.) (where see a quotation from Royle, taking the same view). It is just possible that Pliny in the passage quoted below may have jumbled up two different things, but we see no sufficient evidence even of this. In White's Latin Dict. we read that by the word _saccharon_ is meant (not sugar but) "a sweet juice distilling from the joints of the bamboo." This is nonsense. There is no such sweet juice distilled from the joints of the bamboo; nor is the substance _tabashīr_ at all sweet. On the contrary it is slightly bitter and physicky in taste, with no approach to sweetness. It is a hydrate of silica. It could never have been called "honey" (see Dioscorides and Pliny below); and the name of _bamboo-sugar_ appears to have been given it by the Arabs merely because of some resemblance of its concretions to lumps of sugar. [The same view is taken in the _Encycl. Brit._ 9th ed. xxii. 625, quoting _Not. et Extr._, xxv. 267.] All the erroneous notices of σάκχαρον seem to be easily accounted for by lack of knowledge; and they are exactly paralleled by the loose and inaccurate stories about the origin of camphor, of lac, and what-not, that may be found within the boards of this book.

In the absence or scarcity of sugar, honey was the type of sweetness, and hence the name of _honey_ applied to sugar in several of these early extracts. This phraseology continued down to the Middle Ages, at least in its application to uncrystallised products of the sugar-cane, and analogous substances. In the quotation from Pegolotti we apprehend that his three kinds of honey indicate honey, treacle, and a syrup or treacle made from the sweet pods of the carob-tree.

Sugar does not seem to have been in early Chinese use. The old Chinese books often mention _shi-mi_ or 'stone-honey' as a product of India and Persia. In the reign of Taitsung (627-650) a man was sent to Gangetic India to learn the art of sugar-making; and Marco Polo below mentions the introduction from Egypt of the further art of refining it. In India now, _Chīnī_ (CHEENY) (Chinese) is applied to the whiter kinds of common sugar; _Miṣrī_ (MISREE) or Egyptian, to sugar-candy; loaf-sugar is called _ḳand_.

c. A.D. 60.—

"Quâque ferens rapidum diviso gurgite fontem
Vastis Indus aquis mixtum non sentit Hydaspen:
Quique bibunt tenerâ dulcis ab arundine succos...."
_Lucan_, iii. 235.

" "Aiunt inveniri apud Indos mel in arundinum foliis, quod aut nos
illius cœli, aut ipsius arundinis humor dulcis et pinguis
gignat."—_Seneca, Epist._ lxxxiv.

c. A.D. 65.—"It is called σάκχαρον, and is a kind of honey which
solidifies in India, and in Arabia Felix; and is found upon canes, in its
substance resembling salt, and crunched by the teeth as salt is. Mixed
with water and drunk, it is good for the belly and stomach, and for
affections of the bladder and kidneys."—_Dioscorides, Mat. Med._ ii. c.
104.

c. A.D. 70.—"SACCHARON et Arabia fert, sed laudatius India. Est autem mel
in harundinibus collectum, cummium modo candidum, dentibus fragile,
amplissimum nucis abellanae magnitudine, ad medicinae tantum
usum."—_Plin. Hist. Nat._ xii. 8.

c. 170.—"But all these articles are hotter than is desirable, and so they
aggravate fevers, much as wine would. But _oxymeli_ alone does not
aggravate fever, whilst it is an active purgative.... Not undeservedly, I
think, that SACCHARUM may also be counted among things of this
quality...."—_Galen, Methodus Medendi_, viii.

c. 636.—"In Indicis stagnis nasci arundines calamique dicuntur, ex quorum
radicibus expressum suavissimum succum bibunt. Vnde et Varro ait:

Indica non magno in arbore crescit arundo;
Illius et lentis premitur radicibus humor,
Dulcia qui nequeant succo concedere mella."
_Isidori Hispalensis Originum_, Lib. xvii. cap. vii.

c. 1220.—"Sunt insuper in Terra (Sancta) _canamellae_ de quibus ZUCCHARA
ex compressione eliquatur."—_Jacobi Vitriaci, Hist. Jherosolym_, cap.
lxxxv.

1298.—"Bangala est une provence vers midi.... Il font grant merchandie,
car il ont espi e galanga e gingiber e SUCCARE et de maintes autres
chieres espices."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. cxxvi.

1298.—"Je voz di que en ceste provences" (Quinsai or Chekiang) "naist et
se fait plus SUCAR que ne fait en tout le autre monde, et ce est encore
grandissime vente."—_Ibid._ ch. cliii.

1298.—"And before this city" (a place near Fu-chau) "came under the Great
Can these people knew not how to make fine SUGAR (_zucchero_); they only
used to boil and skim the juice, which, when cold, left a black paste.
But after they came under the Great Can some men of Babylonia" (_i.e._ of
Cairo) "who happened to be at the Court proceeded to this city and taught
the people to refine SUGAR with the ashes of certain trees."—_Idem,_ in
_Ramusio_, ii. 49.

c. 1343.—"In Cyprus the following articles are sold by the hundred-weight
(_cantara di peso_) and at a price in besants: Round pepper, sugar in
powder (_polvere di_ ZUCCHERO) ... sugars in loaves (ZUCCHERI _in pani_),
bees' honey, sugar-cane honey, and carob-honey (_mele d'ape_, _mele di
cannameli_, _mele di carrube_)...."—_Pegolotti_, 64.

" "Loaf sugars are of several sorts, viz. ZUCCHERO _muchhera_,
_caffettino_, and _bambillonia_; and _musciatto_, and _dommaschino_; and
the _mucchera_ is the best sugar there is; for it is more thoroughly
boiled, and its paste is whiter, and more solid, than any other sugar; it
is in the form of the _bambillonia_ sugar like this Δ; and of this
_mucchara_ kind but little comes to the west, because nearly the whole is
kept for the mouth and for the use of the Soldan himself.

"ZUCCHERO _caffettino_ is the next best after the _muccara_ ...

"ZUCCHERO _Bambillonia_ is the best next after the best _caffettino_.

"ZUCCHERO _musciatto_ is the best after that of _Bambillonia_.

* * * * *

"ZUCCHERO _chandi_, the bigger the pieces are, and the whiter, and the
brighter, so much is it the better and finer, and there should not be too
much small stuff.

"Powdered sugars are of many kinds, as of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of the
Cranco of Monreale, and of Alexandria; and they are all made originally
in entire loaves; but as they are not so thoroughly done, as the other
sugars that keep their loaf shape ... the loaves tumble to pieces, and
return to powder, and so it is called powdered sugar ..." (and a great
deal more).—_Ibid._ 362-365. We cannot interpret most of the names in the
preceding extract. _Bambillonia_ is 'Sugar of Babylon,' _i.e._ of Cairo,
and _Dommaschino_ of Damascus. _Mucchera_ (see CANDY (SUGAR), the second
quotation), _Caffettino_, and _Musciatto_, no doubt all represent Arabic
terms used in the trade at Alexandria, but we cannot identify them.

c. 1345.—"J'ai vu vendre dans le Bengale ... un _rithl_ (ROTTLE) de sucre
(AL-SUKKAR), poids de Dihly, pour quatre drachmes."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv.
211.

1516.—"Moreover they make in this city (Bengala, _i.e._ probably
Chittagong) much and good white cane SUGAR (AÇUQUERE _branco de canas_),
but they do not know how to consolidate it and make loaves of it, so they
wrap up the powder in certain wrappers of raw hide, very well stitched
up; and make great loads of it, which are despatched for sale to many
parts, for it is a great traffic."—_Barbosa_, Lisbon ed. 362.

[1630.—"Let us have a word or two of the prices of SUGER and SUGER
CANDY."—_Forrest, Bombay Letters_, i. 5.]

1807.—"Chacun sait que par effet des regards de Farid, des monceaux de
terre se changeaient en sucre. Tel est le motif du surnom de SCHAKAR
_ganj_, 'tresor de sucre' qui lui a été donné."—_Arāish-i-Maḥfil_, quoted
by _Garcin de Tassy, Rel. Mus._ 95. (This is the saint, Farīd-uddīn
Shakarganj (d. A.D. 1268) whose shrine is at _Pāk Pattan_ in the Punjab.)
[See _Crooke, Popular Religion_, &c. i. 214 _seqq._]

1810.—"Although the sugar cane is supposed by many to be indigenous in
India, yet it has only been within the last 50 years that it has been
cultivated to any great extent.... Strange to say, the only sugar-candy
used until that time" (20 years before the date of the book) "was
received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen have speculated
deeply in the manufacture. We now see sugar-candy of the first quality
manufactured in various places of Bengal, and I believe that it is at
least admitted that the raw sugars from that quarter are eminently
good."—_Williamson, V.M._ ii. 133.

SULTAN, s. Ar. _sulṭān_, 'a Prince, a Monarch.' But this concrete sense is, in Arabic, post-classical only. The classical sense is abstract 'dominion.' The corresponding words in Hebrew and Aramaic have, as usual, _sh_ or _s_. Thus _sholṭān_ in Daniel (_e.g._ vi. 26—"in the whole dominion of my kingdom") is exactly the same word. The concrete word, corresponding to _sulṭān_ in its post-classical sense, is _shallīṭ_, which is applied to Joseph in Gen. xlii. 6—"governor." So Saladin (Yūsuf Salāh-ad-dīn) was not the first Joseph who was _sultan_ of Egypt. ["In Arabia it is a not uncommon proper name; and as a title it is taken by a host of petty kinglets. The Abbaside Caliphs (as Al-Wásik ...) formerly created these Sultans as their regents. Al Tá'i bi'llah (A.D. 974) invested the famous Sabuktagin with the office ... Sabuktagin's son, the famous Mahmúd of the Ghaznavite dynasty in 1002, was the first to adopt 'Sultán' as an independent title some 200 years after the death of Harún-al-Rashíd" (_Burton, Arab. Nights_, i. 188.)]

c. 950.—"Ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς Βασιλείας Μιχαὴλ τοῦ ὑιοῦ Θεοφίλου ἀνῆλθεν ἀπὸ
Ἀφρικῆς στόλος λϛʹ κομπαρίων, ἔχων κεφαλὴν τὸν τε Σολδανὸν καὶ τὸν Σάμαν
καὶ τὸν Καλφοῦς, καὶ ἐχειρώσαντο διαφόρους πόλεις τῆς
Δαλματίας."—_Constant. Porphyrog., De Thematibus_, ii. Thēma xi.

c. 1075 (written c. 1130).—"... οἳ καὶ καθελόντες Πέρσας τε καὶ
Σαρακηνοὺς αὐτοὶ κύριοι τῆς Περσίδος γεγόνασι σουλτάνον τὸν
Στραγγολίπιδα[249] ὀνομάσαντες, ὅπερ σημαίνει παρ' αὐτοῖς Βασιλεὺς καὶ
παντοκράτωρ."—_Nicephorus Bryennius, Comment._ i. 9.

c. 1124.—"De divitiis SOLDANI mira referunt, et de incognitis speciebus
quas in oriente viderunt. SOLDANUS dicitur quasi _solus dominus_, quia
cunctis praeest Orientis principibus."—_Ordericus Vitalis, Hist. Eccles._
Lib. xi. In Paris ed. of _Le Prevost_, 1852, iv. 256-7.

1165.—"Both parties faithfully adhered to this arrangement, until it was
interrupted by the interference of Sanjar-Shah ben Shah, who governs all
Persia, and holds supreme power over 45 of its Kings. This prince is
called in Arabic SULTAN ul-Fars-al-Khabir (supreme commander of
Persia)."—_R. Benjamin_, in _Wright_, 105-106.

c. 1200.—"Endementres que ces choses coroient einsi en Antioche, li
message qui par Aussiens estoient alé au SOUDAN de Perse por demander
aide s'en retournoient."—_Guillaume de Tyr_, Old Fr. Tr. i. 174.

1298.—"Et quaint il furent là venus, adonc Bondocdaire qe SOLDAN estoit
de Babelonie vent en Armenie con grande host, et fait grand domajes por
la contrée."—_Marco Polo_, Geog. Text, ch. xiii.

1307.—"Post quam vero Turchi occupaverunt terrã illã et habitaverũt
ibidem, elegerũt dominũ super eos, et illum vocaverunt SOLDÃ quod idem
est quod rex in idiomate Latinorũ."—_Haitoni Armeni de Tartaris Liber_,
cap. xiii. in _Novus Orbis_.

1309.—"En icelle grant paour de mort où nous estiens, vindrent à nous
jusques à treize ou quatorze dou consoil dou SOUDAN, trop richement
appareillé de dras d'or et de soie, et nous firent demander (par un frere
de l'Ospital qui savoit sarrazinois), de par le SOUDAN, se nous vorriens
estre delivre, et nous deimes que oil, et ce pooient il bien
savoir."—_Joinville, Credo_. Joinville often has SOUDANC, and sometimes
SAUDANC.

1498.—"Em este lugar e ilha a que chamão Moncobiquy estava hum senhor a
que elles chamavam COLYYTAM que era como visorrey."—_Roteiro de V. da
Gama_, 26.

c. 1586.—

"Now Tamburlaine the mighty SOLDAN comes,
And leads with him the great Arabian King."
_Marlowe, Tamb. the Great_, iv. 3.

[1596.—

"... this scimitar
That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince
That won three fields of SULTAN Solyman."
_Merchant of Venice_, II. i. 26.]

SUMATRA.

A. n.p. This name has been applied to the great island since about A.D. 1400. There can be no reasonable doubt that it was taken from the very similar name of one of the maritime principalities upon the north coast of the island, which seems to have originated in the 13th century. The seat of this principality, a town called _Samudra_, was certainly not far from PASEI, the _Pacem_ of the early Portuguese writers, the _Passir_ of some modern charts, and probably lay near the inner end of the Bay of Telo Samawe (see notes to _Marco Polo_, 2nd ed. ii. 276 _seqq._). This view is corroborated by a letter from C. W. J. Wenniker (_Bijdragen tot de Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, ser. iv. vol. 6. (1882), p. 298) from which we learn that in 1881 an official of Netherlands India, who was visiting Pasei, not far from that place, and on the left bank of the river (we presume the river which is shown in maps as entering the Bay of Telo Samawe near Pasei) came upon a _kampong_, or village, called Samudra. We cannot doubt that this is an indication of the site of the old capital.

The first mention of the name is probably to be recognised in SAMARA, the name given in the text of Marco Polo to one of the kingdoms of this coast, intervening between _Basma_, or Pacem, and Dagroian or Dragoian, which last seems to correspond with Pedir. This must have been the position of Samudra, and it is probable that _d_ has disappeared accidentally from Polo's _Samara_. Malay legends give trivial stories to account for the etymology of the name, and others have been suggested; but in all probability it was the Skt. _Samudra_, the 'sea.' [See _Miscellaneous Papers relating to Indo-China_, 2nd ser. ii. 50; Leyden, _Malay Annals_, 65.] At the very time of the alleged foundation of the town a kingdom was flourishing at Dwāra Samudra in S. India (see DOOR SUMMUND).

The first authentic occurrence of the name is probably in the Chinese annals, which mention, among the Indian kingdoms which were prevailed on to send tribute to Kublai Khan, that of _Sumutala_. The chief of this State is called in the Chinese record _Tu-han-pa-ti_ (_Pauthier, Marc Pol_, 605), which seems to exactly represent the Malay words TUAN-_Pati_, 'Lord Ruler.'

We learn next from Ibn Batuta that at the time of his visit (about the middle of the 14th century) the State of _Sumuṭra_, as he calls it, had become important and powerful in the Archipelago; and no doubt it was about that time or soon after, that the name began to be applied by foreigners to the whole of the great island, just as _Lamori_ had been applied to the same island some centuries earlier, from _Lāmbrī_, which was then the State and port habitually visited by ships from India. We see that the name was so applied early in the following century by Nicolo Conti, who was in those seas apparently c. 1420-30, and who calls the island _Shamuthera_. Fra Mauro, who derived much information from Conti, in his famous World-Map, calls the island _Isola Siamotra_ or _Taprobane_. The confusion with _Taprobane_ lasted long.

When the Portuguese first reached those regions Pedir was the leading State upon the coast, and certainly no State _known_ as Samudra or Sumatra then continued to exist. Whether the _city_ continued to exist, even in decay, is obscure. The _Āīn_, quoted below, refers to the "port of Sumatra," but this may have been based on old information. Valentijn seems to recognise the existence of a place called _Samudra_ or _Samotdara_, though it is not entered in his map. A famous mystic theologian who flourished under the great King of Achīn, Iskandar Muda, and died in 1630, bore the name of Shamsuddīn Shamatrānī, which seems to point to a place called Shamatra as his birthplace. And a distinct mention of "the island of Samatra" as named from "a city of this northern part" occurs in the _soi-disant_ "Voyage which Juan Serano made when he fled from Malacca" in 1512, published by Lord Stanley of Alderley at the end of his translation of Barbosa. This man, on leaving Pedir and going down the coast, says: "I drew towards the south and south-east direction, and reached to another country and city which is called Samatra," and so on. Now this indicates the position in which the city of Sumatra must really have been, if it continued to exist. But, though this passage is not, all the rest of the narrative seems to be mere plunder from Varthema. Unless, indeed, the plunder was the other way; for there is reason to believe that Varthema never went east of Malabar.

There is, however, a like intimation in a curious letter respecting the Portuguese discoveries, written from Lisbon in 1515, by a German, Valentino Moravia (the same probably who published a Portuguese version of Marco Polo, at Lisbon, in 1502) and who shows an extremely accurate conception of Indian geography. He says: "The greatest island is that called by Marco Polo the Venetian Java Minor, and at present it is called SUMOTRA from a port of the said island" (see in _De Gubernatis, Viagg. Ital._ 391).

It is probable that before the Portuguese epoch the adjoining States of Pasei and Sumatra had become united. Mr. G. Phillips, of the Consular Service in China, was good enough to send to one of the present writers, when engaged on Marco Polo, a copy of an old Chinese chart showing the northern coast of the island, and this showed the town of Sumatra (_Sumantala_). It seemed to be placed in the Gulf of Pasei, and very near where Pasei itself still exists. An extract of a Chinese account "of about A.D. 1413" accompanied the map. This was fundamentally the same as that quoted below from Groeneveldt. There was a village at the mouth of the river called _Talu-mangkin_ (qu. Telu-Samawe?). A curious passage also will be found below, extracted by the late M. Pauthier from the great Chinese _Imperial Geography_, which alludes to the disappearance of Sumatra from knowledge.

We are quite unable to understand the doubts that have been thrown upon the derivation of the name, given to the island by foreigners, from that of the kingdom of which we have been speaking (see the letter quoted above from the _Bijdragen_).

1298.—"So you must know that when you leave the Kingdom of Basma
(_Pacem_) you come to another Kingdom called SAMARA on the same
Island."—_Marco Polo_, Bk. iii. ch. 10.

c. 1300.—"Beyond it (_Lāmūrī_, or _Lāmbrī_, near Achīn) lies the country
of SŪMŪTRA, and beyond that Darband Niās, which is a dependency of
Java."—_Rashīduddīn_, in _Elliot_, i. 71.

c. 1323.—"In this same island, towards the south, is another Kingdom by
name SUMOLTRA, in which is a singular generation of people."—_Odoric_, in
_Cathay_, &c., i. 277.

c. 1346.—"... after a voyage of 25 days we arrived at the island of Jāwa"
(_i.e._ the Java Minor of Marco Polo, or Sumatra). "... We thus made our
entrance into the capital, that is to say into the city of SUMUTHRA. It
is large and handsome, and is encompassed with a wall and towers of
timber."—_Ibn Batuta_, iv. 228-230.

1416.—"SUMATRA [Su-men-ta-la]. This country is situated on the great road
of western trade. When a ship leaves Malacca for the west, and goes with
a fair eastern wind for five days and nights, it first comes to a village
on the sea-coast called _Ta-lu-man_; and anchoring here and going
south-east for about 10 _li_ (3 miles) one arrives at the said place.

"This country has no walled city. There is a large brook running out into
the sea, with two tides every day; the waves at the mouth of it are very
high, and ships continually founder there...."—Chinese work, quoted by
_Groeneveldt_, p. 85.

c. 1430.—"He afterwards went to a fine city of the island Taprobana,
which island is called by the natives SCIAMUTHERA."—_Conti_, in _India in
XVth. Cent._, 9.

1459.—"Isola SIAMOTRA."—_Fra Mauro._

1498.—"... CAMATARRA is of the Christians; it is distant from Calicut a
voyage of 30 days with a good wind."—_Roteiro_, 109.

1510.—"Wherefore we took a junk and went towards SUMATRA to a city called
Pider."—_Varthema_, 228.

1522.—"... We left the island of Timor, and entered upon the great sea
called Lant Chidol, and taking a west-south-west course, we left to the
right and the north, for fear of the Portuguese, the island of ZUMATRA,
anciently called Taprobana; also Pegu, Bengala, Urizza, Chelim (see
KLING) where are the Malabars, subjects of the King of
NARSINGA."—_Pigafetta_, Hak. Soc. 159.

1572.—

"Dizem, que desta terra, co' as possantes
Ondas o mar intrando, dividio
A nobre ilha SAMATRA, que já d'antes
Juntas ambas a gente antigua vio:
Chersoneso foi dita, e das prestantes
Veas d'ouro, que a terra produzio,
Aurea por epithéto lhe ajuntaram
Alguns que fosse Ophir imaginarám."
_Camões_, x. 124.

By Burton:

"From this Peninsula, they say, the sea
parted with puissant waves, and entering tore
SAMATRA'S noble island, wont to be
joined to the Main as seen by men of yore.
'Twas callèd Chersonese, and such degree
it gained by earth that yielded golden ore,
they gave a golden epithet to the ground:
Some be who fancy Ophir here was found."

c. 1590.—"The _zabád_ (_i.e._ civet) which is brought from the harbour
town of _Sumatra_, from the territory of Áchín, goes by the name of
_Sumatra zabád_ (chūn az bandar-i SĀMATRĀĪ az muẓāfat-i Achīn awurdand,
SĀMATRĀĪ goyand)."—_Āīn, Blochmann_, i. 79, (orig. i. 93). [And see a
reference to Lámri in _Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 48.]

1612.—"It is related that Raja _Shaher-ul-Nawi_ (see SARNAU) was a
sovereign of great power, and on hearing that SAMADRA was a fine and
flourishing land he said to his warriors—which of you will take the Rajah
of Samadra?"—_Sijara Malayu_, in _J. Ind. Archip._ v. 316.

c. **.—"SOU-MEN-T'ALA est située au sud-ouest de _Tchen-tching_ (la
Cochin _Chine_) ... jusqu'à la fin du règne de _Tching-tsou_ (in 1425),
ce roi ne cessa d'envoyer son tribut à la cour. Pendant les années
_wen-hi_ (1573-1615) ce royaume se partagea en deux, dont le nouveau se
nomma _A-tchí_.... Par la suite on n'en entendit plus parler."—_Grande
Geog. Impériale_, quoted by _Pauthier_, _Marc Pol_, 567.

B.—

SUMATRA, s. Sudden squalls, precisely such as are described by Lockyer and the others below, and which are common in the narrow sea between the Malay Peninsula and the island of Sumatra, are called by this name.

1616.—"... it befel that the galliot of Miguel de Macedo was lost on the
Ilha Grande of Malaca (?), where he had come to anchor, when a SAMATRA
arose that drove him on the island, the vessel going to pieces, though
the crew and most part of what she carried were saved."—_Bocarro,
Decada_, 626.

1711.—"Frequent squalls ... these are often accompanied with Thunder and
Lightning, and continue very fierce for Half an Hour, more or less. Our
English Sailors call them SUMATRAS, because they always meet with them on
the Coasts of this Island."—_Lockyer_, 56.

1726.—"At Malacca the streights are not above 4 Leagues broad; for though
the opposite shore on SUMATRA is very low, yet it may easily be seen on a
clear Day, which is the Reason that the Sea is always as smooth as a
Mill-pond, except it is ruffled with Squalls of Wind, which seldom come
without Lightning, Thunder, and Rain, and though they come with great
Violence, yet they are soon over, not often exceeding an Hour."—_A.
Hamilton_, ii. 79, [ed. 1744].

1843.—"SUMATRAS, or squalls from the S. Westward, are often experienced
in the S.W. Monsoon.... SUMATRAS generally come off the land during the
first part of the night, and are sometimes sudden and severe, accompanied
with loud thunder, lightning, and rain."—_Horsburgh_, ed. 1843, ii. 215.

[SUMJAO, v. This is properly the imp. of the H. verb _samjhānā_, 'to cause to know, warn, correct,' usually with the implication of physical coercion. Other examples of a similar formation will be found under PUCKEROW.

[1826.—"... in this case they apply themselves to SUMJAO, the
defendant."—_Pandurang Hari_, ed. 1873, ii. 170.]

[SUMPITAN, s. The Malay blowing-tube, by means of which arrows, often poisoned, are discharged. The weapon is discussed under SARBATANE. The word is Malay _sumpītan_, properly 'a narrow thing,' from _sumpit_, 'narrow, strait.' There is an elaborate account of it, with illustrations, in _Ling Roth, Natives of Sarawak and Br. N. Borneo_, ii. 184 _seqq._ Also see _Scott, Malayan Words_, 104 _seqq._

[c. 1630.—"SEMPITANS." See under UPAS.

[1841.—"In advancing, the SUMPITAN is carried at the mouth and elevated,
and they will discharge at least five arrows to one compared with a
musket."—_Brooke_, in _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_, i.
261.

[1883.—"Their (the Samangs') weapon is the SUMPITAN, a blow-gun, from
which poisoned arrows are expelled."—_Miss Bird, The Golden Chersonese_,
16.]

SUNDA, n.p. The western and most mountainous part of the island of Java, in which a language different from the proper Javanese is spoken, and the people have many differences of manners, indicating distinction of race. In the 16th century, Java and Sunda being often distinguished, a common impression grew up that they were separate islands; and they are so represented in some maps of the 16th century, just as some medieval maps, including that of Fra Mauro (1459), show a like separation between England and Scotland. The name Sunda is more properly indeed that of the people than of their country. The Dutch call them _Sundanese_ (Soendanezen). The Sunda country is considered to extend from the extreme western point of the island to Cheribon, _i.e._ embracing about one-third of the whole island of Java. Hinduism appears to have prevailed in the Sunda country, and held its ground longer than in "Java," a name which the proper Javanese restrict to their own part of the island. From this country the sea between Sumatra and Java got from Europeans the name of the Straits of Sunda. Geographers have also called the great chain of islands from Sumatra to Timor "the Sunda Islands."

[Mr. Whiteway adds: "There was another Sunda near Goa, but above the Ghāts, where an offspring of the Vijāyanagara family ruled. It was founded at the end of the 16th century, and in the 18th the Portuguese had much to do with it, till Tippoo Sultān absorbed it, and the ruler became a Portuguese pensioner."]

1516.—"And having passed Samatara towards Java there is the island of
SUNDA, in which there is much good pepper, and it has a king over it, who
they say desires to serve the King of Portugal. They ship thence many
slaves to China."—_Barbosa_, 196.

1526.—"Duarte Coelho in a ship, along with the galeot and a foist, went
into the port of ÇUNDA, which is at the end of the island of Çamatra, on
a separate large island, in which grows a great quantity of excellent
pepper, and of which there is a great traffic from this port to China,
this being in fact the most important merchandize exported thence. The
country is very abundant in provisions, and rich in groves of trees, and
has excellent water, and is peopled with Moors who have a Moorish king
over them."—_Correa_, iii. 92.

1553.—"Of the land of Jaüa we make two islands, one before the other,
lying west and east as if both on one parallel.... But the Jaos
themselves do not reckon two islands of Jaoa, but one only, of the length
that has been stated ... about a third in length of this island towards
the west constitutes SUNDA, of which we have now to speak. The natives of
that part consider their country to be an island divided from Jaüa by a
river, little known to our navigators, called by them Chiamo or Chenano,
which cuts off right from the sea,[250] all that third part of the land
in such a way that when these natives define the limits of Jaüa they say
that on the west it is bounded by the Island of SUNDA, and separated from
it by this river Chiamo, and on the east by the island of Bale, and that
on the north they have the island of Madura, and on the south the
unexplored sea ..." &c.—_Barros_, IV. i. 12.

1554.—"The information we have of this port of Calapa, which is the same
as ÇUMDA, and of another port called _Bocaa_, these two being 15 leagues
one from the other, and both under one King, is to the effect that the
supply of pepper one year with another will be xxx thousand
quintals,[251] that is to say, xx thousand in one year, and x thousand
the next year; also that it is very good pepper, as good as that of
Malauar, and it is purchased with cloths of Cambaya, Bengalla, and
Choromandel."—_A. Nunez_, in _Subsidios_, 42.

1566.—"SONDA, vn Isola de' Mori appresso la costa della Giava."—_Ces.
Federici_, in _Ramusio_, iii. 391_v_.

c. 1570.—

"Os SUNDAS e Malaios con pimenta,
Con massa, e noz ricos Bandanezes,
Com roupa e droga Cambaia a opulenta,
E com cravo os longinquos Maluguezes."
_Ant. de Abreu, Desc. de Malaca._

1598.—Linschoten does not recognize the two islands. To him Sunda is only
a place in Java:—

"... there is a straight or narrow passage betweene _Sumatra_ and _Iaua_,
called the straight of SUNDA, of a place so called, lying not far from
thence within the Ile of _Iaua_.... The principall hauen in the Iland is
SUNDA Calapa,[252] whereof the straight beareth the name; in this place
of SŨDA there is much Pepper."—p. 34.

SUNDERBUNDS, n.p. The well-known name of the tract of intersecting creeks and channels, swampy islands, and jungles, which constitutes that part of the Ganges Delta nearest the sea. The limits of the region so-called are the mouth of the Hoogly on the west, and that of the Megna (_i.e._ of the combined great Ganges and Brahmaputra) on the east, a width of about 220 miles. The name appears not to have been traced in old native documents of any kind, and hence its real form and etymology remain uncertain. _Sundara-vana_, 'beautiful forest'; _Sundarī-vana_, or _-ban_, 'forest of the _Sundarī_ tree'; _Chandra-ban_, and _Chandra-band_, 'moon-forest' or 'moon-embankment'; _Chanda-bhanda_, the name of an old tribe of salt-makers;[253] _Chandra dīp-ban_ from a large zemindary called Chandra-dīp in the Bakerganj district at the eastern extremity of the Sunderbunds; these are all suggestions that have been made. Whatever be the true etymology, we doubt if it is to be sought in _sundara_ or _sundarī_. [As to the derivation from the _Sundarī_ tree which is perhaps most usually accepted, Mr. Beveridge (_Man. of Bakarganj_, 24, 167, 32) remarks that this tree is by no means common in many parts of the Bakarganj Sunderbunds; he suggests that the word means 'beautiful wood' and was possibly given by the Brahmans.] The name has never (except in one quotation below) been in English mouths, or in English popular orthography, _Soonderbunds_, but _Sunderbunds_, which implies (in correct transliteration) an original _sandra_ or _chandra_, not _sundara_. And going back to what we conjecture may be an early occurrence of the name in two Dutch writers, we find this confirmed. These two writers, it will be seen, both speak of a famous SANDERY, or _Santry_, Forest in Lower Bengal, and we should be more positive in our identification were it not that in Van der Broucke's map (1660) which was published in Valentijn's _East Indies_ (1726) this Sandery Forest is shown on the _west_ side of the Hoogly R., in fact about due west of the site of Calcutta, and a little above a place marked as _Basanderi_, located near the exit into the Hoogly of what represents the old Saraswati R., which enters the former at Sānkrāl, not far below the Botanical Gardens, and 5 or 6 miles below Fort William. This has led Mr. Blochmann to identify the _Sanderi Bosch_ with the old Mahall _Basandhari_ which appears in the _Āīn_ as belonging to the Sirkār of Sulīmānābād (_Gladwin's Ayeen_, ii. 207, _orig._ i. 407; _Jarrett_, ii. 140; _Blochm._ in _J.A.S.B._ xlii. pt. i. p. 232), and which formed one of the original "xxiv. Pergunnas."[254] Undoubtedly this is the _Basanderi_ of V. den Broucke's map; but it seems possible that some confusion between _Basanderi_ and Bosch Sandery (which would be _Sandarban_ in the vernacular) may have led the map-maker to misplace the latter. We should gather from Schulz[255] that he passed the Forest of Sandry about a Dutch mile below Sankral, which he mentions. But his statement is so nearly identical with that in Valentijn that we apprehend they have no _separate_ value. Valentijn, in an earlier page, like Bernier, describes the Sunderbunds as the resort of the Arakan pirates, but does not give a name (p. 169).

1661.—"We got under sail again" (just after meeting the Arakan pirates)
"in the morning early, and went past the FOREST OF SANTRY, so styled
because (as has been credibly related) Alexander the Great with his
mighty army was hindered by the strong rush of the ebb and flood at this
place, from advancing further, and therefore had to turn back to
Macedonia."—_Walter Schulz_, 155.

c. 1666.—"And thence it is" (from piratical raids of the Mugs, &c.) "that
at present there are seen in the mouth of the _Ganges_, so many fine
Isles quite deserted, which were formerly well peopled, and where no
other Inhabitants are found but wild Beasts, and especially
Tygers."—_Bernier_, E.T. 54; [ed. _Constable_, 442].

1726.—"This (Bengal) is the land wherein they will have it that Alexander
the Great, called by the Moors, whether Hindostanders or Persians,
_Sulthaan Iskender_, and in their historians _Iskender Doulcarnain_, was
... they can show you the exact place where King Porus held his court.
The natives will prate much of this matter; for example, that in front of
the SANDERIE-WOOD (_Sanderie Bosch_, which we show in the map, and which
they call properly after him _Iskenderie_) he was stopped by the great
and rushing streams."—_Valentijn_, v. 179.

1728.—"But your petitioners did not arrive off SUNDERBUND WOOD till four
in the evening, where they rowed backward and forward for six days; with
which labour and want of provisions three of the people died."—_Petition
of Sheik Mahmud Ameen and others_, to Govr. of Ft. St. Geo., in
_Wheeler_, iii. 41.

1764.—"On the 11th Bhaudan, whilst the Boats were at Kerma in
SOONDERBUND, a little before daybreak, Captain Ross arose and ordered the
MANJEE to put off with the BUDGEROW...."—_Native Letter regarding Murder
of Captain John Ross by a Native Crew._ In _Long_, 383. This instance is
an exception to the general remark made above that the English popular
orthography has always been _Sunder_, and not _Soonder-bunds_.

1786.—"If the Jelinghy be navigable we shall soon be in Calcutta; if not,
we must pass a second time through the SUNDARBANS."—Letter of _Sir W.
Jones_, in _Life_, ii. 83.

" "A portion of the SUNDERBUNDS ... for the most part overflowed by
the tide, as indicated by the original Hindoo name of CHUNDERBUND,
signifying mounds, or offspring of the moon."—_James Grant_, in App. to
_Fifth Report_, p. 260. In a note Mr. Grant notices the derivation from
"Soondery wood," and "Soonder-ban," 'beautiful wood,' and proceeds: "But
we adhere to our own etymology rather ... above all, because the richest
and greatest part of the SUNDERBUNDS is still comprized in the ancient
Zemindarry pergunnah of _Chunder deep_, or lunar territory."

1792.—"Many of these lands, what is called the SUNDRA BUNDS, and others
at the mouth of the Ganges, if we may believe the history of Bengal, was
formerly well inhabited."—_Forrest, V. to Mergui_, Pref. p. 5.

1793.—"That part of the delta bordering on the sea, is composed of a
labyrinth of rivers and creeks, ... this tract known by the name of the
Woods, or SUNDERBUNDS, is in extent equal to the principality of
Wales."—_Rennell, Mem. of Map of Hind._, 3rd ed., p. 359.

1853.—"The scenery, too, exceeded his expectations; the terrible forest
solitude of the SUNDERBUNDS was full of interest to an European
imagination."—_Oakfield_, i. 38.

[SUNGAR, s. Pers. _sanga_, _sang_, 'a stone.' A rude stone breastwork, such as is commonly erected for defence by the Afrīdīs and other tribes on the Indian N.W. frontier. The word has now come into general military use, and has been adopted in the S. African war.

[1857.—"... breastworks of wood and stone (_murcha_ and SANGA
respectively)...."—_Bellew, Journal of Mission_, 127.

[1900.—"Conspicuous SUNGARS are constructed to draw the enemy's
fire."—_Pioneer Mail_, March 16.]

The same word seems to be used in the Hills in the sense of a rude wooden bridge supported by stone piers, used for crossing a torrent.

[1833.—"Across a deep ravine ... his Lordship erected a neat SANGAH, or
mountain bridge of pines."—_Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches_, ed. 1858, p.
117.

[1871.—"A SUNGHA bridge is formed as follows: on either side the river
piers of rubble masonry, laced with cross-beams of timber, are built up;
and into these are inserted stout poles, one above the other in
successively projecting tiers, the interstices between the latter being
filled up with cross-beams," &c.—_Harcourt, Himalayan Districts of
Kooloo_, p. 67 _seq._]

SUNGTARA, s. Pers. _sangtara_. The name of a kind of orange, probably from _Cintra_. See under ORANGE a quotation regarding the fruit of Cintra, from Abulfeda.

c. 1526.—"The SENGTEREH ... is another fruit.... In colour and appearance
it is like the citron (_Tāranj_), but the skin of the fruit is
smooth."—_Baber_, 328.

c. 1590.—"Sirkar Silhet is very mountainous.... Here grows a delicious
fruit called SOONTARA (_sūntara_) in colour like an orange, but of an
oblong form."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 10; [_Jarrett_ (ii. 124) writes
SÚNTARAH].

1793.—"The people of this country have infinitely more reason to be proud
of their oranges, which appear to me to be very superior to those of
Silhet, and probably indeed are not surpassed by any in the world. They
are here called _Santôla_, which I take to be a corruption of SENGTERRAH,
the name by which a similar species of orange is known in the Upper
Provinces of India."—_Kirkpatrick's Nepaul_, 129.

1835.—"The most delicious oranges have been procured here. The rind is
fine and thin, the flavour excellent; the natives call them
'CINTRA.'"—_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 99.

SUNN, s. Beng. and Hind. _san_, from Skt. _śaṇa_; the fibre of the _Crotalaria juncea_, L. (N.O. _Leguminosae_); often called Bengal, or Country, hemp. It is of course in no way kindred to true hemp, except in its economic use. In the following passage from the _Āīn_ the reference is to the _Hibiscus canabinus_ (see _Watt, Econ. Dict._ ii. 597).

[c. 1590.—"Hemp grows in clusters like a nosegay.... One species bears a
flower like the cotton-shrub, and this is called in Hindostan,
SUN-_paut_. It makes a very soft rope."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 89; in
_Blochmann_ (i. 87) _Pat_SAN.]

1838.—"SUNN ... a plant the bark of which is used as hemp, and is usually
sown around cotton fields."—_Playfair, Taleef-i-Shereef_, 96.

[SUNNEE, SOONNEE, s. Ar. _sunnī_, which is really a Pers. form and stands for that which is expressed by the Ar. _Ahlu's-Sunnah_, 'the people of the Path,' a 'Traditionist.' The term applied to the large Mahommedan sect who acknowledge the first four Khalīfahs to have been the rightful descendants of the Prophet, and are thus opposed to the SHEEAHS. The latter are much less numerous than the former, the proportion being, according to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's estimate, 15 millions Shiahs to 145 millions of Sunnis.

[c. 1590.—"The Mahommedans (of Kashmīr) are partly SUNNIES, and others of
the sects of Aly and Noorbukhshy; and they are frequently engaged in wars
with each other."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, ii. 125; ed. _Jarrett_, ii. 352.

[1623.—"The other two ... are SONNI, as the Turks and Moghol."—_P. della
Valle_, Hak. Soc. i. 152.

[1812.—"A fellow told me with the gravest face, that a lion of their own
country would never hurt a SHEYAH ... but would always devour a
SUNNI."—_Morier, Journey through Persia_, 62.]

SUNNUD, s. Hind. from Ar. _sanad_. A diploma, patent, or deed of grant by the government of office, privilege, or right. The corresponding Skt.—H. is _śāsana_.

[c. 1590.—"A paper authenticated by proper signatures is called a
SUNNUD...."—_Ayeen_, by _Gladwin_, i. 214; ed. _Blochmann_, i. 259.]

1758.—"They likewise brought SUNNUDS, or the commission for the
nabobship."—_Orme_, _Hist._, ed. 1803, ii. 284.

1759.—"That your Petitioners, being the Bramins, &c. ... were permitted
by SUNNUD from the President and Council to collect daily alms from each
shop or doocan (DOOCAUN) of this place, at 5 cowries per diem."—In
_Long_, 184.

1776.—"If the path to and from a House ... be in the Territories of
another Person, that Person, who always hath passed to and fro, shall
continue to do so, the other Person aforesaid, though he hath a Right of
Property in the Ground, and hath an attested SUNNUD thereof, shall not
have Authority to cause him any Let or Molestation."—_Halhed, Code_,
100-101.

1799.—"I enclose you SUNNUDS for pension for the KILLADAR of
Chittledroog."—_Wellington_, i. 45.

1800.—"I wished to have traced the nature of landed property in Soondah
... by a chain of SUNNUDS up to the 8th century."—_Sir T. Munro_, in
_Life_, i. 249.

1809.—"This SUNNUD is the foundation of all the rights and privileges
annexed to a Jageer (JAGHEER)."—_Harrington's Analysis_, ii. 410.

SUNYÁSEE, s. Skt. _sannyāsī_, lit. 'one who resigns, or abandons,' _scil._ 'wordly affairs'; a Hindu religious mendicant. The name of Sunnyásee was applied familiarly in Bengal, c. 1760-75, to a body of banditti claiming to belong to a religious fraternity, who, in the interval between the decay of the imperial authority and the regular establishment of our own, had their head-quarters in the forest-tracts at the foot of the Himālaya. From these they used to issue periodically in large bodies, plundering and levying exactions far and wide, and returning to their asylum in the jungle when threatened with pursuit. In the days of Nawāb Mīr Kāsim 'Ali (1760-64) they were bold enough to plunder the city of Dacca; and in 1766 the great geographer James Rennell, in an encounter with a large body of them in the territory of Koch (see COOCH) Bihār, was nearly cut to pieces. Rennell himself, five years later, was employed to carry out a project which he had formed for the suppression of these bands, and did so apparently with what was considered at the time to be success, though we find the depredators still spoken of by W. Hastings as active, two or three years later.

[c. 200 A.D.—"Having thus performed religious acts in a forest during the
third portion of his life, let him become a SANNYASI for the fourth
portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection."—_Manu_, vi. 33.

[c. 1590.—"The fourth period is SANNYÁSA, which is an extraordinary state
of austerity that nothing can surpass.... Such a person His Majesty calls
SANNYÁSÍ."—_Āīn_, ed. _Jarrett_, iii. 278.]

1616.—"Sunt autem SANASSES apud illos Brachmanes quidam, sanctimoniae
opinione habentes, ab hominum scilicet consortio semoti in solitudine
degentes et nonnunquã totũ nudi corpus in publicũ prodeuntes."—_Jarric,
Thes._ i. 663.

1626.—"Some (an vnlearned kind) are called SANNASES."—_Purchas,
Pilgrimage_, 549.

1651.—"The SANYASYS are people who set the world and worldly joys, as
they say, on one side. These are indeed more precise and strict in their
lives than the foregoing."—_Rogerius_, 21.

1674.—"SANIADE, or SANIASI, is a dignity greater than that of
Kings."—_Faria y Sousa, Asia Port._ ii. 711.

1726.—"The SAN-YASÉS are men who, forsaking the world and all its fruits,
betake themselves to a very strict and retired manner of
life."—_Valentijn, Choro._ 75.

1766.—"The SANASHY Faquirs (part of the same Tribe which plundered Dacca
in Cossim Ally's Time[256]) were in arms to the number of 7 or 800 at the
Time I was surveying Báár (a small Province near Boutan), and had taken
and plundered the Capital of that name within a few Coss of my route....
I came up with Morrison immediately after he had defeated the SANASHYS in
a pitched Battle.... Our Escorte, which were a few Horse, rode off, and
the Enemy with drawn Sabres immediately surrounded us. Morrison escaped
unhurt, Richards, my Brother officer, received only a slight Wound, and
fought his Way off; my Armenian Assistant was killed, and the Sepoy
Adjutant much wounded.... I was put in a Palankeen, and Morrison made an
attack on the Enemy and cut most of them to Pieces. I was now in a most
shocking Condition indeed, being deprived of the Use of both my Arms, ...
a cut of a Sable (_sic_) had cut through my right Shoulder Bone, and laid
me open for nearly a Foot down the Back, cutting thro' and wounding some
of my Ribs. I had besides a Cut on the left Elbow wh^{ch} took off the
Muscular part of the breadth of a Hand, a Stab in the Arm, and a large
Cut on the head...."—MS. Letter from _James Rennell_, dd. August 30, in
possession of his grandson _Major Rodd_.

1767.—"A body of 5000 SINNASSES have lately entered the Sircar Sarong
country; the Phousdar sent two companies of Sepoys after them, under the
command of a serjeant ... the SINNASSES stood their ground, and after the
Sepoys had fired away their ammunition, fell on them, killed and wounded
near 80, and put the rest to flight...."—Letter to _President at Ft.
William_, from _Thomas Rumbold, Chief at Patna_, dd. April 20, in _Long_,
p. 526.

1773.—"You will hear of great disturbances committed by the SINASSIES, or
wandering Fackeers, who annually infest the provinces about this time of
the year, in pilgrimage to Juggernaut, going in bodies of 1000 and
sometimes even 10,000 men."—Letter of _Warren Hastings_, dd. February 2,
in _Gleig_, i. 282.

" "At this time we have five battalions of Sepoys in pursuit of
them."—Do. do., March 31, in _Gleig_, i. 294.

1774.—"The history of these people is curious.... They ... rove
continually from place to place, recruiting their numbers with the
healthiest children they can steal.... Thus they are the stoutest and
most active men in India.... Such are the SENASSIES, the gypsies of
Hindostan."—Do. do., dd. August 25, in _Gleig_, 303-4. See the same vol.,
also pp. 284, 296-7-8, 395.

1826.—"Being looked upon with an evil eye by many persons in society, I
pretended to bewail my brother's loss, and gave out my intention of
becoming a SUNYASSE, and retiring from the world."—_Pandurang Hari_, 394;
[ed. 1873, ii. 267; also i. 189].

SUPÁRA, n.p. The name of a very ancient port and city of Western India; in Skt. _Sūrpāraka_,[257] popularly Supāra. It was near Wasāi (_Baçaim_ of the Portuguese—see (1) BASSEIN)—which was for many centuries the chief city of the Konkan, where the name still survives as that of a well-to-do town of 1700 inhabitants, the channel by which vessels in former days reached it from the sea being now dry. The city is mentioned in the _Mahābhārata_ as a very holy place, and in other old Sanskrit works, as well as in cave inscriptions at Kārlī and Nāsik, going back to the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Christian era. Excavations affording interesting Buddhist relics, were made in 1882 by Mr. (now Sir) J. M. Campbell (see his interesting notice in _Bombay Gazetteer_, xiv. 314-342; xvi. 125) and Pundit Indrajī Bhagwānlāl. The name of Supāra is one of those which have been plausibly connected, through _Sophir_, the Coptic name of India, with the _Ophir_ of Scripture. Some Arab writers call it the Sofāla of India.

c. A.D. 80-90.—"Τοπικὰ δὲ ἐμπόρια κατὰ τὸ ἐξῆς κείμενα ἀπὸ Βαρυγάζων,
Σούππαρα, καὶ Καλλιένα πόλις ..."—_Periplus_, § 52, ed. _Fabricii_.

c. 150.—

"Ἀριακῆς Σαδινῶν
Σουπάρα ...
Γοάριος ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαι ...
Δοῦγγα ...
Βήνδα ποταμοῦ ἐκβολαί ...
Σίμυλλα ἐμπόριον καὶ ἄκρα...."
_Ptolemy_, VII. i. f. § 6.

c. 460.—"The King compelling Wijayo and his retinue, 700 in number, to
have the half of their heads shaved, and having embarked them in a
vessel, sent them adrift on the ocean.... Wijayo himself landed at the
port of SUPPÂRAKA...."—_The Mahawanso_, by _Turnour_, p. 46.

c. 500.—"Σουφείρ, χώρα, ἐν ᾗ οἱ πολύτιμοι λίθοι, καὶ ὁ χρυσός, ἐν
Ἰνδίᾳ."—_Hesychius_, s.v.

c. 951.—"Cities of Hind ... Kambáya, SUBÁRÁ, Sindán."—_Istakhri_, in
_Elliot_, i. 27.

A.D. 1095.—"The Mahâmândalîka, the illustrious Anantadêva, the Emperor of
the Koṅkan (CONCAN), has released the toll mentioned in this copper-grant
given by the Sîlâras, in respect of every cart belonging to two persons
... which may come into any of the ports, Sri Sthânaka (TANA), as well as
Nâgapur, SURPÂRAKA, Chemuli (CHAUL) and others, included within the
Koṅkan Fourteen Hundred...."—_Copper-Plate Grant_, in _Ind. Antiq._ ix.
38.

c. 1150.—"SÚBÁRA is situated 1½ mile from the sea. It is a populous busy
town, and is considered one of the entrepôts of India."—_Edrisi_, in
_Elliot_, i. 85.

1321.—"There are three places where the Friars might reap a great
harvest, and where they could live in common. One of these is SUPERA,
where two friars might be stationed; and a second is in the district of
Parocco (BROACH), where two or three might abide; and the third is
Columbus (QUILON)."—Letter of _Fr. Jordanus_, in _Cathay_, &c., 227.

c. 1330.—"SUFÂLAH Indica. Birunio nominatur SÛFÂRAH.... De eo nihil
commemorandum inveni."—_Abulfeda_, in _Gildemeister_, 189.

1538.—"Rent of the _caçabe_ (CUSBAH), of ÇUPARA ... 14,122 _fedeas_."—_S.
Bothelho, Tombo_, 175.

1803.—Extract from a letter dated Camp SOOPARA, March 26, 1803.

"We have just been paying a formal visit to his highness the peishwa,"
&c.—In _Asiatic Annual Reg._ for 1803, _Chron._ p. 99.

1846.—"SOPARA is a large place in the Agasee mahal, and contains a
considerable Mussulman population, as well as Christian and Hindoo ...
there is a good deal of trade; and grain, salt, and garden produce are
exported to Guzerat and Bombay."—_Desultory Notes_, by _John Vaupell,
Esq._, in _Trans. Bo. Geog. Soc._ vii. 140.

SUPREME COURT. The designation of the English Court established at Fort William by the Regulation Act of 1773 (13 Geo. III. c. 63), and afterwards at the other two Presidencies. Its extent of jurisdiction was the subject of acrimonious controversies in the early years of its existence; controversies which were closed by 21 Geo. III. c. 70, which explained and defined the jurisdiction of the Court. The use of the name came to an end in 1862 with the establishment of the 'High Court,' the bench of which is occupied by barrister judges, judges from the Civil Service, and judges promoted from the native bar.

The Charter of Charles II., of 1661, gave the Company certain powers to administer the laws of England, and that of 1683 to establish Courts of Judicature. That of Geo. I. (1726) gave power to establish at each Presidency Mayor's Courts for civil suits, with appeal to the Governor and Council, and from these, in cases involving more than 1000 PAGODAS, to the King in Council. The same charter constituted the Governor and Council of each Presidency a Court for trial of all offences except high treason. Courts of Requests were established by charter of Geo. II., 1753. The Mayor's Court at Madras and Bombay survived till 1797, when (by 37 Geo. III. ch. 142) a Recorder's Court was instituted at each. This was superseded at Madras by a Supreme Court in 1801, and at Bombay in 1823.